DOI: https://doi.org/10.11144/Javeriana.upsy18-3.wvwe Workplace Violence in Work Environments against Gender Violence* Violencia laboral en contextos donde se trabaja contra la violencia de género Received: 01 August 2018 | Accepted: 25 July 2019 Alicia Pérez-Tarrés a Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain ORCID: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3686-1430 Joilson Pereira da Silva Universidade Federal de Sergipe, Brazil ORCID: http://orcid.org/0000-0001-9149-3020 Leonor María Cantera Espinosa Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain ORCID: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4541-5993 ABSTRACT We aimed to describe and analyze the subjective experiences concerning workplace violence in a group of 20 workers. The scenario chosen shows a paradoxical situation: violence in environments where people work against gender violence. A qualitative method was used and the instrument chosen was the semi-structured interview. The results indicate a reproduction of violence within these work contexts, which manifests itself mainly in a psychological way and whose causes are subject to social, institutional and personal variables. From this research, several notable theoretical and methodological phenomena emerge, as well as the need for profound reflections based on the academic approaches to workplace violence. a Correspondence author. Email: ptt.alicia@gmail.com Keywords Workplace violence; gender violence; reproduction of violence; personal factors. How to cite: Pérez-Tarrés, A., Pereira da Silva, J., & Cantera-Espinosa, L. M. (2019). Workplace Violence RESUMEN in Work Environments against Gender Violence, El objetivo del presente trabajo fue describir y analizar las experiencias Universitas Psychologica, 18(3), 1-15. https:// subjetivas relacionadas con la violencia en el lugar de trabajo, en un grupo doi.org/ 10.11144/Javeriana.upsy18-3.wvwe de 20 trabajadores. El escenario elegido muestra una situación paradójica: ambientes violentos donde las personas trabajan contra la violencia de género. Se utilizó un método cualitativo y el instrumento elegido fue una entrevista semiestructurada. Los resultados indican una reproducción de la violencia en este ámbito laboral, que se manifiesta psicológicamente, y cuyas causas están sujetas a variables sociales, institucionales y personales. A partir de esta investigación, emergen varios fenómenos teóricos y metodológicos notables, así como una necesidad de reflexión profunda basada en aproximaciones académicas a la violencia en el lugar de trabajo. Palabras clave violencia en el lugar de trabajo; violencia de género; reproducción de la violencia; factores personales. | Universitas Psychologica | Colombia | V. 18 | No. 3 | 2019 | ISSN 1657-9267 | Alicia Pérez-Tarrés, Joilson Pereira da Silva, Leonor María Cantera Espinosa. are the work environments. According to Topa, Talking about violence means referring to a Depolo, and Morales (2007) there is still no multifaceted concept that is strongly present consensus definition of workplace mobbing or in the history of humanity. Many conflicts, harassment, but it can be understood as a transcending themselves, have turned into process of systematic and repeated aggression violence and have led people to absolute by a particular group or individual towards a dehumanization (Ansoleaga, Díaz, Mauro, & subordinate, a superior or a co-worker of the Toro, 2017). Violence, socially understood as a same rank in a work environment. Granting problem and solution in very diverse cases, is used a broader sense to the concept of mobbing, at many levels as a strategy to maintain power workplace violence can be defined as "any or achieve a proposed goal. It accommodates action, incident or behavior that departs from such a broad spectrum of behaviors and actions reasonable conduct in which a person is that the boundary between what is acceptable assaulted, threatened, harmed, injured in the and what is not is often very vague, so the course of, or as a direct result of, his or her perception of what constitutes violence varies work" (ILO, 2003, p.4). This definition catalyzes across different contexts and cultures (Ansoleaga the inclusion of different violent actions, ranging et al., 2017). Knowing this scenario, it is not from physical or psychological violence to subtle obvious to ask: What is violence? What causes forms such as psychological or sexual harassment it? What motivates it? In what contexts does it or incivility (Toro & Gómez-Rubio, 2016). occur? Who executes it? According to the California Division of Violence is understood as "any action or Occupational Health and Safety (Cal/OSHA), intentional conduct that causes or may cause workplace violence could be classified according harm" (Sanmartín, 2007, p. 3). It is defined to the following types: Type I, caused by external as a harmful action (or inaction, i.e. omission) agents without a legitimate link with the victim; (Sanmartín, 2012), which can be both physical Type II, caused by users, customers, patients, and symbolic and is of a hostile nature (Cantera, consumers; Type III, caused by colleagues, 2004). Violence occurs not only at the micro, subordinates or heads (1995). personal, intimate, but also at the macro, Considering the range of the definition, the structural, global level. variety of behaviors or conducts that can be Some authors have proposed models to manifested and the number of agents involved, explain the causes and cycles of violence. estimating the magnitude of this problem is not For example, in 2013, Cantera, Pallarès, and easy. In their investigations, most studies delimit Selva affirm that violence takes place within a their work by the definition of moral harassment fundamentally patriarchal context. According to or mobbing, sexual harassment or physical Cantera (1999, 2004), "patriarchy, like any other violence. Thus, other violent behaviors that type of sociocultural system, sets the rules of the occur in work settings and the socioeconomic game of conceivable, permissible and enforceable context itself are not fully contemplated violence" (p. 32). Likewise, this author proposes a according to Toro and Gómez-Rubio (2016, p. model to discern the context where the violence 115). is located, assuming in the first instance that it Violence should be considered as a systemic is a permitted and legitimized resource and a problem, involving micro and macro social control tool; which guarantees whoever exercises aspects, daily relationships, but also the it the perpetuation of his/her superior position; structure of the job market and resulting and, finally, which reinforces the feeling of power, forms of work organization, which impose an control, domination and status. increasingly precarious system of job conditions One of the contexts where violence and its and relationships. manifestations have been widely studied, among In addition, some investigations provide many others (school, gender, youth, wars, etc.), information on the scope of this problem. 2 | Universitas Psychologica | V. 18 | No. 3 | 2019 | Workplace Violence in Work Environments against Gender Violence The prevalence of psychological harassment by started with inefficiency to face frustrations economic sectors reported in the third survey (tensions) in an active or passive way. on working conditions in Europe in 2000 was: For the second model (contextual and finance (5%), health and education (12%) organizational characteristics) presented in the and transport and telecommunications (12%). meta-analysis by Topa et al. (2007), the The percentage of sexual harassment would variables would relate to an aggressive economic be superior to one (2%), as well as physical environment, technological development and violence (2%). In the Spanish context, the VI a new valuation of human capital (Pando et National Survey of Working Conditions in Spain al., 2016). The climate of goals, organizational (Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs, 2007) change, labor inequity, the type of hiring, role affirms prevalence rates ranging between 1.4% conflict and task burden have been presented and 2.9%, depending on the use of a more or less as organizational factors that give rise to restrictive measuring criterion. workplace harassment (Parra & Acosta, 2010). In a meta-analysis on workplace violence by Some studies support the hypothesis that very Topa et al. (2007), several causal models are hierarchical, undemocratic organizations with exposed that can serve as reliable predictors values of competitiveness would be antecedents of harassment at work. The first of these of harassment at work (Topa et al., 2007). The models is related to the personal (demographic climate of support, norms, the level of self- and personality) characteristics of the harassed. esteem at work or satisfaction in relationships The second is related to the contextual and with superiors are also factors that could organizational characteristics of these work predict workplace violence (Parra & Acosta, environments. 2010). Finally, in a qualitative study carried Numerous studies raise conclusions that could out through semi-structured interviews (López be framed within these two models. Next, some of & Seco, 2016), it was argued that workplace them are presented. In relation to the personality harassment could also occur as a result of and characteristics of the harassed workers, the a conflict of interest regarding labor rights intensity of the violence is related to belonging (health in the workplace, motherhood or union to the female gender; being widowed, divorced participation). or separated, working accumulated workdays, Therefore, the practice of violence in a work rotating shifts and being exposed to negative environment (intended context for this study) psychosocial factors in the job (Pando, Aranda, has particularities that can behave as facilitators Salazar, & Torres, 2016). Also, characteristics of these behaviors, which interact with the such as low self-esteem, obsessive-compulsive personal characteristics of those who exercise behaviors and a significant demand for attention or receive violence and with characteristics have been highlighted in a systematic review of the socio-occupational environment they by Parra and Acosta in 2010 as personal are located in. This violence threatens the characteristics of the people harassed. Regarding physical and psychological integrity of the these workers' attitudes and coping strategies, workers, causing severe consequences for their according to Toro and Gómez-Rubio (2016), physical and mental health. These consequences in a study conducted in Brazil by Acosta, include stress, mild and moderate forms of Aguilera, and Pozos (2009), it is affirmed that anxiety, depression, sleep disorders (Román, personal styles that combine domination (of 2017), difficulties in interpersonal relationships the victimizer) and avoidance (by the victim) with family, peers and friends (Parra & Acosta, constitute a risk factor for workplace harassment. 2010), headaches, neck pain, back pain, stomach According to Baillien et al. (2009), in their ache, hypertension, memory alterations based on qualitative study on the development of bullying attention deficit and insomnia (Pastrana, 2002). in the workplace, it was affirmed that bullying Occasionally, the characteristics of the work will significantly affect the problems and | Universitas Psychologica | V. 18 | No. 3 | 2019 | 3 Alicia Pérez-Tarrés, Joilson Pereira da Silva, Leonor María Cantera Espinosa. repercussions suffered by professionals. This is taken and despite a further understanding of the case of those who work with situations the phenomenon, violence continues to emerge of violence in all of its manifestations. The without being able to control the variables that discomfort the workers and teams involved in the make it possible. Most studies analyzed in this treatment of violence situations experience has field intend to describe, quantify and measure been conceptualized based on different terms: the phenomenon, leaving aside the meaning burnout, vicarious traumatization or compassion the people involved attribute to it. Likewise, a fatigue (Arón & Llanos, 2004; Acinas, 2012). large number of published studies emphasize the According to a study by Arón and Llanos individual characteristics of bullies and victims (2004), being exposed to a high degree of in their relationship, but few take interest in professional burnout can be the cause of severe the contextual or organizational characteristics psychological disorders, abandonment of the that make it possible for violence to emerge. The profession or the field of work. In addition aforementioned situations evidence the need to to the physical, psychological and behavioral move into the research field, aiming to discover repercussions these professionals are victims the underlying concepts, so as to gain an in-depth of, it is worth mentioning the destructive understanding of the meaning people assign to dynamics that are generated within these teams, the violence they practice or receive in the as a consequence of the lack of models to environments they participate in. explain the difficulties they experience (Bernad, The general objective of this research is to Pérez, Díaz, García, & Villagrasa, 2013).As a identify and analyze the subjective, relational result of these dynamics, not only can the and organizational components involved in the violence that is combated be reproduced in the production of workplace violence, as well as its work centers with the co-workers. In addition, characteristics in environments where work is relations of submission and subordination with being done to eradicate gender violence. the service users (that is, people attended) can be This general objective translates into two reproduced (Cantera & Cantera, 2014). specific objectives: Due to the multifaceted, macro and structural Identify, describe and analyze the contextual, nature that defines gender violence, actions to social, personal and institutional variables that prevent and investigate it have been produced affect the emergence and maintenance of in different disciplines (justice, education, social violence in environments where work is being work, psychology) and in a planned and done to eradicate gender violence. coordinated manner. Particularly in Spain, the Identify, describe and analyze the intervention has been organized and designed for characteristics of the violence suffered in interdisciplinary work teams from public entities, environments where work is being done to but also from associations and private entities. eradicate it. There are many needs and advantages that justify This investigation will consider workplace this approach of the problem, although some violence in its broadest definition, assuming that professionals alert on the difficulties involved it goes beyond workplace or sexual harassment in working with emotionally stressful workfrom or the physical violence that may occur in different theoretical frameworks. a work environment. We want to clarify this In recent decades, the scientific and academic theoretical starting point, as it seems important community and a wide range of national (Spanish to investigate what López and Seco have already context) and international organizations have pointed out in 2016 when they affirm in their tried to study and visualize the violence study that the concept of mobbing needs to be that occurs in the workplace. These studies, deconstructed, detached from the interpersonal with different approaches and designs, show emphasis that leads to the obscurity of the different scenarios in which violence remains corporate responsibility. To the latter, we also constant. Therefore, despite all the actions 4 | Universitas Psychologica | V. 18 | No. 3 | 2019 | Workplace Violence in Work Environments against Gender Violence want to add political and social responsibility for cases, in order to highlight what is normal or these practices. average for the chosen group (Morrow & Smith, 2000). The selection of the participants was Method carried out by means of snowball sampling, which consists of finding a case belonging to the group that is to be investigated and this one leads to the Design next and so on, until reaching a sufficient level of information to close off the participant selection It is a qualitative, descriptive and exploratory phase (Quintana, 2006). study. This type of research promotes observation Thus, the sample consisted of 18 women and and interpretation through the inductive 2 men from the province of Barcelona-Spain. method, aiming to discover new concepts from As mentioned, to select the participants, the a holistic perspective (Quintana, 2006). The snowball sampling technique was used with the study was developed based on information following inclusion criteria: obtained in in-depth semistructured interviews with professionals and paraprofessionals working a) Possessing training in violence in public and private associations against b) Working currently against gender gender violence. The in-depth interview is the violence most appropriate technique to respond to our c) Having worked in the past against gender research objectives as it allows us to access violence each participant's subjective universe, trying The elected workers correspond to a social / to discover in each case the uniqueness of welfare area in the province of Barcelona- these experiences without being influenced in Spain (it is noteworthy that these sectors have advance by the generic and established theories been deeply punished by the economic crisis in (Quintana, 2006). recent years in the European-Spanish context, The research design had flexible and emerging leading to great insecurity in the job market). characteristics, aiming for an objective and They are professionally engaged in actions systematized study, but following the logic of related to research, prevention, intervention and a qualitative design that, as Quintana pointed eradication, direct or indirectly, in the field out in 2006, consists of working around of gender violence. These workers come from four basic characteristics: openness, flexibility, different fields or disciplines: Advocacy, social strategic sensitivity and referentiality or non- education, psychology and social work. They prescriptiveness. Finally, to guarantee the quality work at public institutions (town councils) or in of the study, the recommendations of the private entities / associations. These variables, Consolidated Criteria for Reporting Qualitative together with the inclusion criteria, provided the Research (COREQ) were followed. ideal worker profile for the research phenomena. Table 1 shows a summary of the Sample and context study participants' main socio-demographic characteristics. The names that appear in the An intentional sample was selected in this table are pseudonyms. Fictitious names were research. This means choosing selectively granted for the sake of research ethics, as well as those participants who guarantee the quantity to safeguard the participants' identity. (saturation or state in which there is no new information on a topic) and the quality (wealth) of the information (Relinque, Moral, & González, 2013). In addition, the intentional selection strategy also helps us to ensure typical | Universitas Psychologica | V. 18 | No. 3 | 2019 | 5 Alicia Pérez-Tarrés, Joilson Pereira da Silva, Leonor María Cantera Espinosa. Table 1 Spanish, face to face and lasted between 40 and Sociodemographic data 60 minutes. Data collection and analysis strategies Once the contacts with the participants had been established, following the aforementioned methods, the interviews were held. These were carried out over a five-month period, at the participant's convenience. The interviews were carried out in different spaces, requiring only a calm and quiet place for the researcher to avoid interference in the interviews and recordings, but always at the participant's request, with a view to ensuring their access to the study. All interviews were audio-recorded using a simple recorder. Instrument Likewise, the interviewer orally collected the The instrument used in this investigation was sociodemographic information, filling out a the in-depth interview. This technique aims to short questionnaire in situ. All participants know the perspective a subject has on his own were informed about the confidentiality and life, the situations he lives or his experiences other ethical aspects of the research, and also (Campoy & Gomes, 2015). The researchers about the return of the results obtained. At designed the interview to respond to the research the beginning and during the interviews, the objectives. Its design was carried out after an interviewer tried to establish a climate of trust exhaustive literature search for concepts relevant with the interviewee, increasing the intensity for this study, including a review, reflection and and intimacy of the questions as appropriate consensus on the topics among the different relational rapport was established. Participants researchers. These concepts were chosen taking were recruited until the theoretical saturation into account the current scientific evidence on of the data was reached (i.e. when admitting the research phenomena. new participants did not add anything new to The interviews were semi-structured and the concept of study (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). organized according to three main areas: a) Work The interviews were fully transcribed using the trajectory b) Violence and work c) Assertions software InqScribe. about violence. These areas were explored The transcripts of the interviews were through 29 open questions, introducing clarifying examined according to the Grounded Theory. questions when appropriate. In addition, Among the theoretical bases of this theory, using a small questionnaire created ad hoc, we point out symbolic interactionism, which information was collected on the following socio- tries to develop interpretations of the subjects' demographic characteristics: name, sex, age, world in function of their own interpretations, marital status, circle of coexistence and children. with human action as an object of investigation Finally, field notes were collected during all the (San Martín, 2014). Likewise, and following interviews with related information (description the procedures of the Grounded Theory, and non-verbal language of the participants), the information reported in the interviews and recording of key information and incidents was subject to open, axial and selective during the interview. The interviews were held in coding. Finally, the information was organized 6 | Universitas Psychologica | V. 18 | No. 3 | 2019 | Workplace Violence in Work Environments against Gender Violence into dimensions, categories, subcategories and This classification permitted the systematic elements of analysis. and rigorous identification, ordering and analysis To enhance the reliability of the of the information extracted. Likewise and to analysis, an intra-methodological methodological respond to the objectives, the experience of triangulation was used, which supposes the use of violence was analyzed through the categories a methodological strategy the researcher applies detailed below: a) Difficulties related to working at different moments in time (Aguilar & Barroso, against gender violence, this category refers to 2015). The transcriptions were reread several the problems the participants encounter in their times in order to understand and capture the professional practice and is related with the social participants' experience through their discourse. or contextual characteristics of the work in this area or with the personality and personal history Ethical considerations concerning the professional work. b) Job conflicts, this category is defined as the problems that arise between the worker and other actors or In all cases, informed consent was requested agents whom he relates with in his work practice. from the participants for inclusion in the study. c) Characteristics of the violence, refers to the They were informed of the method used, as well attributes the participants have been able to as the objectives set out in the investigation. assign to the type of violence they have seen or The informed consent included the following suffered in their jobs. information: method, objectives, dissemination and phases. Information was also provided on a) Difficulties related to working against their anonymity and the confidentiality of the gender violence information they could report. Their right to drop out of the study when they considered it For the first category mentioned, participants appropriate was specified. Finally, it was specified mainly highlight social or contextual, personal that there are no conflicts of interest in this and institutional factors as descriptors of the research. difficulties they experience. The social or contextual factors mentioned are the lack of social recognition, the worker's lack of legal Results protection and the female gender. In addition, the interviewed workers highlight struggles for After the development of the fieldwork and power or struggles for resources available in the the qualitative data analysis detailed earlier, job market. The words of Aida (all names are the dimension workplace violence was obtained, fictitious) are an example of these elements, which consisted of three categories and eleven when she says that she is not sure that the subcategories (see Table 2). violence has to do with a personal issue and rather relates it to the work teams: Table 2 Dimension, categories and subcategories coded in I am not sure that the subject is what people the study are like, there is a theme related to the teams ... within the teams ... what I have seen are very human things ... the struggle for power, for recognition, for having a better position ... ( p.4) The female gender element is included in this category given the job difficulties women encounter in belonging to a fundamentally patriarchal society. Paradoxically, these workers who struggle to change these frameworks suffer their consequences. In this fragment, Raquel | Universitas Psychologica | V. 18 | No. 3 | 2019 | 7 Alicia Pérez-Tarrés, Joilson Pereira da Silva, Leonor María Cantera Espinosa. shares her view on the incorporation of women work context: "There are low salaries with in the job market: "What we have done is to add emotionally very stressful jobs ... the teams tasks because the structure has not adapted to have a lot of mobility because there is no this change, women suffer the double workday, recognition part, there is no part of good working the double presence ..." (p.10.) conditions ... "(Aida, pg.7) or Malena:"Many The second subcategory, personal factors, times the cake is small and you have to distribute is related to the personal characteristics of it among several ... " (p. 10). More specifically, the those who work to eradicate gender violence. scarcity of resources refers to the lack of material Participants highlight the type of personality and human resources to do the work well. of those who practice violence (narcissistic Precarious work involves low salaries, unpaid and perverse), a personal history of violence overtime and temporary contracts. Finally, not assumed or treated, lack of training for institutional authoritarianism is related to a work to eradicate gender violence, negative strict and much hierarchized attitude of the feelings transferred to others and inappropriate organization. emotional management. Raquel explains how, according to her point b) Job conflicts of view, professionalization is not enough not to This category is composed of four reproduce violent attitudes: "A person gets more subcategories. For the first, conflicts with professional, but if he does not do a powerful co-workers, the participants highlighted the personal job and does not have a powerful following elements: discussions, triangulation, education, he reproduces violence because it competitiveness and difference in theoretical is what he has known…" (p.5). Or Ines, who frameworks. For example, Inés recounts the explained the importance of having a personal feelings that arose in a discussion with a partner, position towards the violence, beyond the theory: "That aroused discussion that, they hurt, they "That you have training does not guarantee hurt because it's like ... host ... you do not give me anything ... because, fuck, you have learned in any technical argument from violence to justify a context, and unlearning according to which this approach ..." (p. 7), or Helena who also strategies requires a personal review and surely, refers to conflicts with peers due to differences in even if you are involved personally and have the criteria: "If there are inequalities of criteria, training, sometimes something escapes you ... this could lead to conflicts with peers" (p. 3). " (p. 4) A more severe case would constitute the report The professionals who work in this sector by Raquel, in which she affirms that, as a result have training and information about how of the competitiveness between her and her co- violence behaves (specifically gender violence) workers, she ended up losing her job: "Then there and, in addition, they work and are committed is the competition among us ... they took my to eradicating it. Precisely for this reason, place directly" (p. 9). the interviewees attribute great value to this In the following subcategory, conflicts with subcategory, which was cited by all the users, the demand or over-accountability of the interviewees in some of its dimensions. professional as generators of problems has been Finally comes the third subcategory, highlighted. Conflicts with heads would be the institutional factors. The participants affirm that third subcategory, which the interviewees defined the shortage of resources, the job insecurity through variables such as authoritarianism, and institutional authoritarianism make their invasion of intimacy in the workplace or abuse of professional practice difficult. The comments power. Jordi, in the following fragment, narrates presented below are a sample of their impressions the attitude of his superior as authoritarian and when they comment on the difficulties they relates it to countless conflicts: "The director, encounter in relation to the institution or the who exercised a very aggressive, very punitive, very old mandate, in the sense that I am in charge 8 | Universitas Psychologica | V. 18 | No. 3 | 2019 | Workplace Violence in Work Environments against Gender Violence here and you are to obey, this generated a lot of discomfort and problems" (p. 5) or about the Figure 1 abuse of power: "The director felt beyond good Relation between the categories difficulties related to and evil "(p.7). working with gender violence and job conflicts. The last category is related to the conflicts between the worker and the institution, which contains the following elements: political changes, lack of economic transparency, dismissal and changes in working conditions. In this respect, Jordi comments: "One thing that has to do with service to others and turns into a company that wants more, more power and more ... this ambition is sometimes difficult to fit" (p.4), or Raquel: "I haven't stuck out my neck politically and they asked me to do so, that is also heavy, and from that moment on they did pim, pam ... you do not stick your neck out, we do not stick our neck out" (p. 6). We found a strong relationship between these two categories, their subcategories and the workplace violence that is generated in this care setting. Figure 1 shows a conceptual map the authors created, in which these categories, The analysis of the information reported by subcategories and their elements of analysis are the interviewees shows the relationship between related. the violence that occurs and the conflicts that are generated within the organization. Likewise, the participants also highlight a type of violence that is not related to the conflict, but to personal characteristics of the people who generate violence. Therefore, our results indicate that the beginning of a violent action or attitude does always involve a conflict between two sides. Another very significant aspect to note is that the participants in better job conditions (good salary, open-ended contract, fixed conditions, etc.) report less violent experiences in their workplace. c) Characteristics of the violence This category consists of four subcategories: physical abuse, psychological abuse, cycle of violence and role with respect to violence. The participants' comments in these subcategories are displayed in Table 3. The participants claimed to have suffered mainly psychological violence in their workplace. This type of violence would be framed in | Universitas Psychologica | V. 18 | No. 3 | 2019 | 9 Alicia Pérez-Tarrés, Joilson Pereira da Silva, Leonor María Cantera Espinosa. the subcategory of psychological abuse. The us, among others, to get closer to their elements the participants commonly cited were: experiences without background theories or Insulting, ignoring, questioning, not recognizing, other previous research experiences preventing blackmailing, controlling, threatening, distorting us from understanding what the participants and misusing. It should be noted that there intended to transmit to us in order to answer the was also physical violence, which two of the questions that we asked them. participants manifested. This violent action These research results indicate that the would fit into the subcategory physical abuse. perception of the violence the interviewees' These two subcategories (physical abuse and discourse reveals is strongly determined by psychological abuse) would correspond to personal, contextual, social and organizational the manifestations the interviewees recognize factors. Regarding the latter, it is important to concerning the violence they are victims of. Two underline the characteristics of the economic of the interviewees in this study do not recognize context and the job market that accepts having suffered any type of violence in their the organizational practices the interviewed workplace. employees recognize as violent practices. Participants also characterize violence by According to Caravaca, González-Romero and manifesting the patterns it follows or who López (2017), it is important to pay attention to commits it. The interviewees can recognize the the reduction and precariousness of employment so-called "cycle of violence" in the situations they in many countries of the European Union. have seen or experienced in their jobs. Likewise, These authors highlight the deregulation of they acknowledge that they have been victims of the job market and the privatization of public violence and have exercised or have been afraid services as a result of European austerity policies. of exercising violence at certain moments in These conditions largely coincide with the their professional practice. Regarding the fact of job characteristics the interviewed employees issuing violence, the interviewees' perception is described in the context of this research. In not only limited to specific moments or conflicts, addition, in a study by López and Seco (2016), but also to the reproduction of violence in an alert is already raised concerning how the care relationship (that is, with the people transformations in the economic field can trigger attended). The comments related to this category corporate mobbing strategies. The norms, the are displayed in Table 3. policies and the evaluative or organizational framework would be influential factors in the Table 3 workplace violence studied. Comments related to the category characteristics of Proceeding with this analysis on the the violence organizational factors involved in the perception of violence, the workers interviewed in this study relate the scarcity of resources and the job insecurity with the conflicts that occur among co-workers and with the institution. Based on their discourse, we can infer that these conditions foster a working climate of competitiveness and struggles for resources and power, a situation that translates into the perception of living in an uncomfortable work environment. These phenomena could be considered as antecedents Discussion or behave as a base for the emergence of violence, and not only because they incite it - The exploration of the participants' perceptions according to the results obtained -, but because through semistructured interviews has allowed they suppose a macro-economic climate that 10 | Universitas Psychologica | V. 18 | No. 3 | 2019 | Workplace Violence in Work Environments against Gender Violence is violent for the female and male employees having seen or suffered physical violence (when who participated. Background research, such as throwing an object at someone for example). The Cebey and Ferrari (2016), suggests that some of interviewees' explanation for this fact is related the meanings attributed to workplace violence to two phenomena: the first is the personal would be linked to the socio-emotional and learning of violence in the social context we cultural environment the work is carried out live in, i.e. the personal history of violence in. The results of our study tend to corroborate and its learning. This would mean that, in those found in the latter research, as well the participants' own words, the reproduction as those reported in other studies, such as of violence is generated at the individual level Ansoleaga et al. (2017) in which 70 workers were because people learn to solve conflicts or interviewed, concluding that the work burden, achieve goals through violence and theoretical variable remuneration systems, vertical working knowledge is not enough to contain it. On this relations and the prevalence of authoritarian subject, in a study by Cantera (2004), the alert leadership styles would be determining factors is already raised that "care centers and teams of workplace violence. Thus, we reaffirm the are social organizations that receive, generate, importance of what Quiñones, Cantera, and transmit and reproduce social violence" (p. Ojeda already pointed out in 2013, about the 396). These researchresults point in the same existence of a context in which acts of violence direction. The second aspect the interviewees are made invisible, a context in which it is not highlighted are the personality characteristics possible to generate actions that permit violence of the people working in these environments, or in which it is not so easy to reveal the beyond the history of violence or the questioning aggressions that occur. of violence by each of them. Most studies Another aspect to highlight are the roles highlight the characteristics of bullies as being the participants take regarding the violence envious or insecure (Parra & Acosta, 2010) or they perceive in the environment; some of having academic education problems (Pastrana, the interviewees only recognize themselves as 2002). The results reported in this study, victims, others as spectators and, finally, some however, suggest that interviewees perceive of them also recognize themselves as issuers bullies as narcissistic and perverse, characteristics and receivers of workplace violence. Basically, less cited in the literature reviewed. In a it refers to the lack of control of negative study by Cantera and Cantera (2014), some feelings and problems in emotional management difficulties in the care tasks are proposed because as the triggers of this role ambivalence. Previous it is not identified how social constructions studies carried out through interviews and other are framed. In addition, it is stated that this qualitative methods, such as Baillien et al. can translate into the inappropriate handling (2009) already point out that frustrations can of emotions, self-questioning and pejorative result in fights and disputes in the workplace. judgments about one's own professionalism or the Furthermore, the results of our study add other environment one interacts with. To overcome variables, such as interpersonal conflicts or these difficulties, these authors suggest that personality characteristics. it is important to include active self-care in On the other hand, the context of this professional training. research shows a paradox regarding the Another of the most relevant findings in production of violence: we can affirm that, this study is the participants' manifestation of according to the interviewees' experience, patterns of violence similar to those suffered psychological violence is manifested in by the women treated at the services. The so- various ways (ignoring, blackmailing, blaming, called "cycle of violence", which describes the demanding, etc.) in environments where work violent dynamics within the partner relationships is being done to eradicate gender violence. A in which there is gender violence could be small minority of the interviewees also reports reproduced in those environments in which work | Universitas Psychologica | V. 18 | No. 3 | 2019 | 11 Alicia Pérez-Tarrés, Joilson Pereira da Silva, Leonor María Cantera Espinosa. is done to combat this social evil. This model occur. Likewise, according to the information the has been widely studied in affective relationships interviewed workers reported, the variable female (Walker, 1979), and there is practically no gender aggravates the insecurity of professional literature that relates it to other environments in performance in this sector. which violence occurs. - According to the results of this study, the aforementioned situation leads to worse CONCLUSIONS mental and physical health for the workers involved. Other consequences also include the deterioration of the quality of care the users of This research was carried out to respond to the these services receive. study objectives; the first is to identify, describe - Finally, the results of this study involve and analyze the contextual, social, personal and the visualization of the reproduction of violence institutional variables that affect the emergence in environments where work is being done and maintenance of violence in environments to eradicate it. It is essential to point out where work is being done to eradicate gender this phenomenon and its relationship with the violence; the second is to identify, describe poor working conditions under which some and analyze the characteristics of the violence professionals perform their work. suffered in environments where work is being done to eradicate it. Finally, this research allowed us to answer the proposed objectives, revealing IMPLICATIONS AND LIMITATIONS the following conclusions: With this study, we intended to deepen people's - The interviewees state that they have seen, experiences and perceptions concerning the suffered or issued violence, mainly psychological, violence they have been able to see, suffer expressed through actions such as insulting, or issue in their jobs. Basically, because the ignoring, questioning or making invisible the jobs purpose of this study was neither to quantify in which they perform their professional work nor measure violence, but to discover new (mainly prevention and intervention in gender approaches, foci or points of departure to proceed violence). with scientific research, this study has revaled - The analysis of the information the interesting phenomena that emerge from the interviewees reported indicates that workplace participants' experiences. These findings reveal violence in this environment occurs as a result the main implications of this study, which are of mainly personal and organizational factors, detailed below. which generate serious conflicts among co- First, this research suggests the importance of workers, superiors and the institution. This continuing to investigate the social learning of research suggests that the phenomenon of violent behavior and its relationship with conflict workplace violence has a clearly multi-causal resolution and the management of personal nature. discomfort (as a way to cope with the problem). - Professionals who work against gender With increased knowledge of these processes, violence in the Spanish context sometimes do we can discover the causes that make people so under precarious working conditions that set in motion mechanisms and violent strategies can lead to the generation of violence or to cope with various situations. In addition, the interpersonal conflicts. In addition, our data information extracted in this study can help indicate that these conditions occur in a social to question the approaches towards prevention and employment scenario perceived as violent and intervention in violence. As observed, in itself. We can conclude that, in an organized, theoretical training in violence is very relevant, controlled and permitted manner, the current but insufficient to prevent its emergence. The economic and legislative framework creates the research participants point out the importance background against which these aggressions 12 | Universitas Psychologica | V. 18 | No. 3 | 2019 | Workplace Violence in Work Environments against Gender Violence of going through a process of experience-based y el estilo interpersonal en el manejo de personal questioning to stop the occurrence of conflictos. Ciencia y Trabajo, 21, 14-17. this phenomenon. Retrieved from https://dialnet.unirioja.es/s The conclusions of this study also reveal the ervlet/articulo?codigo=3219068 need to emphasize not only people in particular, Aguilar, S., & Barroso, O. (2015). La but also the institutional and social practices triangulación de datos como estrategia en that allow violence to occur, so that future investigación educativa. Pixel-Bit Revista de research could continue to investigate the impact Medio de Educación, 47, 73-88. Retrieved these practices have on the institutions and the from http://www.redalyc.org/pdf/368/3684 workers. 1180005.pdf To obtain exhaustive knowledge on this Ansoleaga, E., Díaz, X., Mauro, A., & Toro, subject, and considering that the approaches in J. P. (2017). Dimensiones organizacionales this research are subject to the interviewees’ de la violencia en el trabajo en Chile. personal perceptions, in future research, Considerando diferencias ocupacionales y de this theme could be addressed through género. Estudio en tres sectores económicos other approaches, methods or by formulating (Final report). Santiago de Chile: Fondo hypotheses based on other theoretical Nacional de Desarrollo Científico y frameworks. Tecnológico. Retrieved from http://www.ce The results and conclusions should be taken m.cl/publica/dovt.pdf with due caution, due to the descriptive Arón, A. M., & Llanos, M. T. (2004). Cuidar los and exploratory design of the research and que cuidan: desgaste profesional y cuidado the specific characteristics of the environment de los equipos que trabajan con violencia. it was developed in. Although this scenario Sistemas Familiares, 1(2), 5-15. Retrieved considerably enriched this investigation, it is from http://localhost:80/jspui/handle/1072 nevertheless a very particular context, which is 0/259 why the conclusions should be considered in due Baillien, E., Neyens, I., De Witte, H., & De proportion. Cuyper, N. (2009). A qualitative study on the development of workplace bullying: Acknowledgements Towards a three way model. Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology, 19(1), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1002/casp.9 The authors want to thank to the participants 77 of this study. 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