ORIGINAL RESEARCH published: 06 August 2019 doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01819 Endorsement and Constructive Criticism of an Innovative Online Reflexive Self-Talk Intervention Alexander T. Latinjak 1,2 , Cristina Hernando-Gimeno 1,3* , Luz Lorido-Méndez 3 and James Hardy 4 1 School of Psychology and Education, University of Suffolk, Ipswich, United Kingdom, 2 School of Health and Sport Sciences (EUSES), Universitat de Girona, Catalonia, Spain, 3 Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Spain, 4 Institute for Psychology of Elite Performance, Bangor University, Bangor, United Kingdom This study prospectively followed the experiences of skilled athletes who were involved in an innovative reflexive self-talk online intervention targeting goal-directed self-talk. Four experienced female athletes between the ages of 20 and 40 years were invited to an initial interview, a 4-week intervention, and two post-intervention interviews. Two applied sport psychologists used an online Socratic questioning approach to encourage their athletes to describe challenging scenarios, think about their use of Edited by: self-talk and its effectiveness, and explore alternative self-statements that could be Thomas M. Brinthaupt, Middle Tennessee State University, used in future situations. Data were multi-sourced stemming from the psychologists, United States athletes, and third parties (e.g., coach). Three athletes completed the intervention, Reviewed by: whereas one athlete withdrew prematurely, mainly because the Socratic questioning Csilla Horvath, approach and the online mode of delivery did not meet her preferences. From the three Radboud University Nijmegen, Netherlands athlete who had completed the intervention, there was endorsement and constructive Véronique Boudreault, criticism of the intervention and its online delivery mode. The intervention, largely due Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières, Canada to the accompanying raised awareness of self-talk use and refined content, seemingly *Correspondence: benefited a range of variables including emotions, motivation, and confidence, both Cristina Hernando-Gimeno inside and outside of the athletes’ sports life domain. Accordingly, this new type of c.hernandogimeno@gmail.com online intervention warrants further consideration in the literature. Specialty section: Keywords: self-esteem, anxiety, thoughts, self-regulation, inner speech, sports This article was submitted to Personality and Social Psychology, a section of the journal INTRODUCTION Frontiers in Psychology Received: 27 March 2019 This study reports on a cognitive intervention that aims to change and strengthen athletes’ goal- Accepted: 22 July 2019 directed self-talk in sports. This approach is aligned with interventions framed within cognitive Published: 06 August 2019 therapy (Beck, 1976). Cognitive therapy emphasizes the role of internal dialog in influencing Citation: an individual’s subsequent feelings and behavior. According to Beck (1976), individuals are not Latinjak AT, Hernando-Gimeno C, always aware of their internal dialog, but they can learn to identify it, and, therefore, become Lorido-Méndez L and Hardy J (2019) able to monitor and, if necessary, replace automatic, emotion-filled thoughts. Cognitive-behavioral Endorsement and Constructive Criticism of an Innovative Online therapy (Meichenbaum, 1977) and rational emotive behavior therapy (Ellis, 1976) are two classical Reflexive Self-Talk Intervention. examples of cognitive therapy, which have successfully been applied to sport contexts (e.g., Neil Front. Psychol. 10:1819. et al., 2013; Turner and Barker, 2014) and in which self-talk plays a key role to cognitive change doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01819 (Michie et al., 2013). Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 1 August 2019 | Volume 10 | Article 1819 Latinjak et al. Online Reflexive Self-Talk Intervention The terms inner dialog and self-talk were used by Beck (1976) setting (Neil et al., 2013; Turner and Barker, 2014) serve as and Meichenbaum (1977) mainly to refer to the critical inner indirect support for the efficacy of reflexive self-talk interventions voice that tends to encourage caution and self-doubt and can over in sport. This is because, our reflexive self-talk intervention time negatively impact upon self-esteem and self-worth (Palmer is similar to these psychotherapeutic approaches because it and Williams, 2013). In sport, the term self-talk is applied to a shares several core features. For instance, both cognitive- variety of processes that can occur simultaneously (Boudreault behavior approaches and reflexive self-talk interventions aim at et al., 2018). To provide a conceptualization of self-talk that making athletes conscious about their internal dialog, identifying summarizes these processes, we describe it as follows: Self-talk automatic, emotion-filled thoughts, and when dysfunctional, takes form in verbalizations addressed to the self, overtly or replacing them with functional self-instructions (Beck, 1976; covertly, characterized by interpretative elements associated to Latinjak et al., 2016). To this end, Socratic questioning (McArdle their content; and it either (a) reflects dynamic interplays between and Moore, 2012) is used to develop metacognitive skills that organic, spontaneous, and goal-directed, cognitive processes enable athletes to non-judgmentally observe their own thoughts, or (b) conveys messages to activate responses through the and subsequently think logically and empirically in order to use of predetermined cues developed strategically, to achieve challenge, correct, and replace them. In cognitive-behavioral performance-related outcomes (Latinjak et al., 2019a). therapy, Socratic questioning, which consists of asking a person In sport, self-talk interventions are usually beneficial for a series of open-ended questions to help promote reflection, is learning and performance and performance-related variables considered useful for raising awareness and improving problem- such as confidence or anxiety (Tod et al., 2011; Hatzigeorgiadis solving thinking (Neenan, 2009). et al., 2014). However, in studies on the effects of self-talk, A unique and contemporary aspect of the reflexive self-talk intervention protocols may be remarkably different (Latinjak intervention presented in this study was the use of an online et al., 2019a). Whereas traditional interventions focus on text-messenger service for the intervention. With an estimated the effects of repetition of predetermined cue words (e.g., 3 billion Internet users worldwide, the development of online Hardy et al., 2015), some recent interventions aim to improve interventions could be of considerable utility (Lane et al., 2016). athletes’ rational self-regulatory skills by creating metacognitive To the best of the authors’ knowledge, only a single experiment knowledge (Brick et al., 2016). Changes in metacognition in has examined the effects of an online self-talk intervention in these recent interventions result from repeated reflections on the performance context. Lane et al. (2016) examined the effects past organic self-talk (both spontaneous and goal-directed) and of strategic self-talk directed to outcome goals, process goals, future use of self-instructions (Latinjak et al., 2016). This reflexive instruction, and arousal-control, in a brief online intervention, self-talk intervention aims to enhance the use of goal-directed on a competitive (non-sport) computer task. In their study, self-talk, which is a controlled mental process deliberately only self-talk directed to outcome and process goals helped employed toward solving a problem or making progress on a task participants’ performance. That said, at a more general level, (Latinjak et al., 2014). their findings support the utility of the online modality to teach According to a recent review on self-talk interventions psychological skills. (Latinjak et al., 2019a), there are three main differences between Despite the lack of online interventions within the sport the traditional, strategic self-talk interventions, and the newly psychology literature, meta-data from other disciplines provide proposed reflexive intervention. First, the content of strategic useful guidance. Specifically, research has emphasized the self-talk interventions is typically pre-determined (Hardy, 2006), potential of online interventions in different areas of application while the self-talk discussed in the reflexive interventions emerges including behavioral change, health, and clinical practice (e.g., from sport situations and is thus always self-determined. Second, Webb et al., 2010). An important matter in online interventions the moment when the self-instructions are verbalized in strategic is related to the mode of delivery. Webb et al. (2010) self-talk interventions is usually fixed to before or during performed a meta-analysis of online interventions, indicating the execution of the task. In reflexive self-talk interventions, that interventions that allowed for scheduled contact with an participants must decide in situ when they want to use self- advisor showed significant effects, whereas interventions that instructions. Third, while verbalizing self-instruction is essential provided automatic follow-up messages tended not to show in strategic self-talk interventions, the actual use of goal- significant effects. In addition, interventions using smart phones directed self-talk is optional in the context of reflexive self-talk showed the biggest size effects among online interventions. interventions. The result of a reflexive self-talk intervention could Therefore, in our study, the use of automatized feedback was therefore even be to use less goal-directed self-talk, for example, discarded and scheduled contact with an advisor via an online to prevent ironic processes of mental control (Wegner, 1994). text-messenger service was preferred. Compared with the existing self-talk literature that deals The present study included an innovative and longitudinal intensively with research on interventions using predetermined (4 weeks) self-talk intervention aimed at improving goal- cue words (Tod et al., 2011), the research with reflexive self- directed self-talk using an online delivery format. The aim talk interventions (aka., goal-directed self-talk interventions) is was to give a clear idea of what a successful reflexive self- still in its infancy (Latinjak et al., 2016, 2018). Nonetheless, talk intervention might look like and what variables should be diverse psychotherapeutic approaches [e.g., Rational Emotive considered to increase the likelihood of a satisfactory application. Therapy (Ellis, 1976) and Cognitive-Behavior Modification Aimed at applied practitioners, this study sought to provide (Meichenbaum, 1977)] previously applied effectively to the sports the most detailed presentation of reflexive self-talk intervention Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 2 August 2019 | Volume 10 | Article 1819 Latinjak et al. Online Reflexive Self-Talk Intervention procedures to date, as well as offer relevant and innovative participated in recreational and professional competitions. They guidance on adapting the standard procedures to the needs and all had over 7 years of experience and practiced over 10 h a preferences of individual athletes. In addition to investigating week at the time of the intervention. Please note that for ethical a novel form of self-talk intervention, the highly unusual but reasons, we have changed the names of the participants and did contemporary online format of the intervention is noteworthy. not specify their exact sport and age. Our online delivery format has obvious scope and potential beyond just sport related self-talk; yet we are aware of very The Psychologists few published examples of online interventions in the sports For this study, two novice sport psychologists with different psychology literature. of different ages (early 20s and early 40s) were selected. Both Overall, a 4-week reflexive self-talk online intervention had <1-year experience in working as sport psychologists. The was delivered and qualitative reports on implementation Psychologist 1 and the younger Psychologist 2 were graduated and perceived effects were collected. In order to gain a psychologists and specialists in sport and exercise psychology. comprehensive understanding of the intervention, data from In addition, Psychologist 1 had special training in Rational different sources (Tracy, 2010) were collected to compare Emotive Behavior Therapy. Both participated in the design of different experiences of athletes, applied practitioners, and the intervention and only after completion of the data collection, researchers. The experiences of athletes and psychologists were in the discussion of the results. Both worked at an elite sports expected to reveal meaningful information for refining the academy with talented junior basketball players. They were intervention and highlight moderating factors that practitioners selected for their interest in researching the use of online should consider when adjusting the intervention to their interventions and in providing self-talk interventions for athletes. client’s specific needs. Two athletes were randomly assigned to each psychologist. Psychologist 1 worked with Maria and Julia, while Psychologist 2 worked with Anna and Sandra. MATERIALS AND METHODS Participants Procedures Philosophical Orientation Intervention Design Due to the investigation’s subjective focus, emphasizing the The main thrust of our intervention was based on Latinjak experiences of the participants, we adopted a constructivist et al. (2016) reflexive self-talk intervention. Nonetheless, some epistemology enabling us to develop an appreciation of the experiences collected in that study and the decision to deliver lived experience and the identification of themes across our the intervention via online text-messenger required further stakeholders. We assumed that there is no one knowledgeable deliberation. To create the intervention protocol, the first author truth and that knowledge involves a process of interpretation prepared a script that was discussed with the practitioners and the construction of individual knowledge representations performing the intervention. After adapting and modifying the (Jonassen, 1991). To this end, we collected data from a variety script, the intervention design was sent to the fourth author, of sources – athletes, practitioners, and coaches – to provide a who acted as critical friend in this study. Taking into account multifaceted understanding of a 4-week reflexive self-talk online his comments, the first author elaborated the final protocol of intervention. Since our intervention was tailored to the individual the intervention. circumstances of each athlete, it was expected that the experiences of our participants would be complex and dynamic. Therefore, Ethics and Athlete Sampling a multiple single-case study approach was chosen as the most After obtaining all necessary institutional permissions, athletes appropriate method. This approach is particularly useful for were selected, following recommendations about purposeful allowing analysis within and across individual cases that allow sampling in qualitative studies (Robinson, 2014). Accordingly, us to examine in detail the subjective experiences of individuals we defined a sample universe, we decided upon a sample who are part of the intervention and to highlight similarities size, through the conjoint consideration of epistemological and and differences between them. Accordingly, an interpretative practical concerns, we selected convenience sampling as our phenomenological analysis was chosen to analyze the data, since sampling strategy, and we decided on contacting partner clubs it is relatively sensitive to exploring differences in experiences and high-performance centers for sample sourcing. Suitable between participants (Sparkes and Smith, 2014). candidates were identified and contacted for an initial evaluation, via Skype, 1 week prior to the intervention. At the beginning of The Athletes this interview, the athletes were informed about the procedures To enhance the scope of our case study approach, four athletes of the study and signed an informed consent form. Regarding were purposefully recruited for the study. We looked for athletes confidentiality, athletes were informed that their names would be from different sports with different ages, different performance changed in the final report and none of their actual intervention levels, but relatively large experience in their sports. All athletes discussions (i.e., text messages) would be published. In addition, participated in official competitions while the intervention took the athletes were told that they would receive a copy of the place. The four athletes between the ages of 20 and 40 years summary of each interview to highlight sections that we should were involved in contact, choreographic and team sports, and not quote in the article. Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 3 August 2019 | Volume 10 | Article 1819 Latinjak et al. Online Reflexive Self-Talk Intervention Initial Interview training or competition; (b) what did you say to yourself in One week before the intervention, the athletes participated in that situation to cope with your problems; (c) why did this a brief interview conducted by a researcher independent of the statement help you to cope with the problems in that situation, intervention. The interview consisted of three parts. In Part 1, or why did it not; (d) think of any alternative self-statement the athletes were asked personal descriptive questions (e.g., age, you could have used instead to self-regulate more effectively; hours of practice, and best results in competitions). In Part 2, the and (e) why would this alternative statement be better compared athletes commented on their emotions, confidence, motivation, with the original one to cope with the problems in the situation. and thoughts in sport, and their corresponding self-regulation Nonetheless, variations to this typical flow of the sessions were skills. In Part 3, the athletes were asked about their self-talk, in also foreseen (Figure 1). terms of frequency, typical things they say to themselves, and the effects of their self-talk on their sport participation. Post-intervention Interview Less than 48 h after the completion of the interview, In the week following the intervention, the athletes were each athlete was sent a transcript of her interview and a contacted again via Skype by the same researcher who conducted short summary, so that she could undertake modifications by the initial evaluation for a second interview. The post- rephrasing, eliminating, or adding ideas (if necessary). Once intervention interview consisted of three parts. In Part 1, the each athlete reflected on the interview transcriptions and the athlete was asked to evaluate the general procedures of the summary, the latter was sent to the psychologist who conducted intervention. Specific attention was paid to (a) the WhatsApp the intervention. conversations and (b) the Socratic questioning approach. Both endorsement and constructive criticism were encouraged. In Part Introductory Video 2, the athletes were asked to reflect on changes they noted, or On day 1 of the intervention, the psychologists contacted each of failed to notice (“have you hoped for some changes to take place, the athletes sending them an introductory video via WhatsApp that haven’t taken place?”), with regard to the experience of and messenger. In this video, the leading researchers were introduced, coping with emotions, confidence, motivation, and thoughts and and the general goals of the study were described. Specifically, the attention. Finally, in Part 3, the athletes were asked to reflect athletes were informed that this study aimed to test the effects on changes they noted, or failed to notice, regarding their use of an online intervention on goal-directed thoughts in sport. of self-talk as a self-regulation strategy. Again, less than 48 h Furthermore, the athletes were introduced to the idea of goal- after the interview, each athlete received a transcript of her directed self-talk, described as self-talk used intentionally to solve interview and a short summary, so that modifications could be a problem or make progress on a task (Latinjak et al., 2019a). made, if necessary. Several non-sport-related examples were offered in the video so Third-Party Interviews as to inform but not bias participants. During the post-intervention interview, permission was After defining goal-directed self-talk, the general procedures requested to contact a significant person related to their sport of the intervention were outlined. That is, (a) all communications (e.g., coach). The choice of that person was left to the athlete. between you and the psychologist will take place in WhatsApp; Interviews with the third persons were conducted, within (b) a typical session consists of you describing a problematic 2 weeks post-intervention, via Skype, by the same researcher situation in your sport, reflect on your goal-directed self- who conducted the previous interviews with that athlete. talk in that situation, and evaluating potential alternative self- During this interview, generic open-ended questions inquired statements; (c) the aim of the intervention is to encourage you into any changes in the athlete the coaches had observed to reflect on your goal-directed self-talk, and so, the psychologist during the past month. solely formulates questions and hardly ever provides answers; and (d) because research protocols have to be followed, other Follow-Up Interview issues besides goal-directed self-talk cannot be discussed over the Three months post-intervention, the athletes were contacted course of this intervention. Each of these points was accompanied via Skype by the same researcher who conducted the previous by non-sport-related examples. After seeing the introductory evaluations, for a third interview. During the follow-up interview, video, the athletes were invited to formulate questions and they the athletes were asked to reflect on changes in their sport, or even were informed that a psychologist would contact them within the outside sport, that might (partly) be explained by the intervention next 3 days to start the intervention. conducted 3 months earlier. Some questions were also directed at exploring habits of self-reflection about self-talk participants Intervention Sessions might have acquired. Identical member checking procedures to During the intervention period, athletes were contacted every those used previously were employed. 3–4 days by their psychologist via WhatsApp, as scheduled by the athlete at the end of the previous session. Two days after Psychologist’s Reflections the introductory video, the athletes were contacted for the first During the intervention, the psychologists followed a structured scheduled session. The psychologist opened the conversation diary, enabling several intervention-control variables to be asking the athlete “is it a good time to talk?” A typical session assessed: number of sessions per athlete (excluding the initial consisted of five consecutive main questions: (a) report a video), number of athlete messages, and a word count of athlete problematic situation that has occurred to you recently during messages. Additionally, after the intervention had terminated, Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 4 August 2019 | Volume 10 | Article 1819 Latinjak et al. Online Reflexive Self-Talk Intervention FIGURE 1 | Flow chart representing the protocol in the reflexive self-talk online intervention for a single session. they were asked several questions regarding each athlete. In correcting any mistakes, reformulating ideas, and adding particular, they reflected on (a) the general functioning of missing information. the sessions, (b) any progresses they have noted, and (c) shortcomings or limitations of the interventions. Once this Data Analysis information was compiled and structured, the psychologists An interpretative phenomenological analysis was chosen to were given a copy and asked to reflect on the information evaluate the data in this study. This approach enabled us Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 5 August 2019 | Volume 10 | Article 1819 Latinjak et al. Online Reflexive Self-Talk Intervention to focus in depth on the interpretations and experiences RESULTS of the athletes and psychologists. Furthermore, interpretative phenomenological analysis has recurrently been used in previous In this section, the implementation and perceived effects studies with small numbers of participants (Robinson, 2014). of the intervention are described. First, we present the In this study, the interpretative phenomenological analysis psychologists’ reports on the intervention and on the progress consisted of four steps that were consecutively performed and limitations of their athletes. Subsequently, we summarize on the transcripts of each athlete and psychologist. On the evaluations athletes made during the post-intervention an individual level, the analysis included (a) searching for interviews. Furthermore, a third section outlines the specific themes by reading and re-reading all interviews and text- outcomes of the intervention as interpreted by the researchers messages of the intervention and (b) identifying and labeling from the athletes’ interviews. Lastly, some testimony is offered, themes that characterize the experience and perceived effects from third persons who were close to the participants during of the intervention. On a group level, the two remaining the intervention. steps consisted of (c) connecting the themes to make global sense of the athletes’ and psychologists’ reports and The Psychologist’s Evaluation (d) producing a table for each participant (Tables 1–3) Intervention Sessions and two tables to summarize the reports of the athletes Two athletes, Maria and Anna, responded well to the established (Table 4) and psychologists (Table 5). For Sandra, no timetable (Table 5). Julia frequently changed the schedule and individual table was prepared, as she withdrew prematurely Sandra stopped the intervention after 2 weeks. Before canceling, after 2 weeks of intervention. She just completed the Sandra had skipped several sessions and delayed others for initial interview and agreed after quitting to answer only several hours. Most sessions lasted between 20 and 45 min. With a few questions regarding her withdrawal instead of the Anna, the sessions lasted much longer, up to 90 min. During post-intervention interview. the first sessions, she required up to 30 min to find a situation to discuss. After the third session, however, the sessions got Establishing Confidence noticeably shorter. Regarding the list of universal criteria for rigor in qualitative A total of 49 sessions were planned (12–13 per participant) and research (Tracy, 2010), in the present study a relativist approach a total of 39 sessions were completed (6–12 per participant). All was adopted (Sparkes and Smith, 2014). In the present study, athletes but Sandra completed most of their scheduled sessions. the following criteria were included: the worthiness of the topic; Sandra only completed 6 out of 13 planned sessions. With regard the significant contribution of the work; rich rigor, that is, to messages, 522 messages were sent from the psychologists sampling diverse athletes, and psychologists to gather a variety of to the athletes (83–169 per participant) and 499 messages data from different sources that allow to understand a complex were sent back from the athletes to the psychologists (78–156 phenomenon; and the meaningful coherence of the research, per participant). See Table 5 for more detailed information indicating how well the study interlinks in terms of the aim, concerning the sessions. method, and results. Furthermore, the authors practiced self- reflexivity to consider how their perspectives influenced upon Content of Sessions data collection and analysis. For example, having identified the The athletes discussed a wide variety of idiosyncratic situations, first author’s potential bias in favor of the intervention’s effects, including sport-specific situations, such as difficulties with a it was decided to have independent psychologists perform the choreography (Maria), negative self-talk during competitions intervention, to collect data from multiple sources, and to use (Anna), problems concentrating (Julia), and situations in which multiple voices in the data analysis. things do not work out the way they were supposed to (Sandra). Regarding multiple sources of data and multiple voices in Furthermore, almost a third of the situations were not directly the analysis, these allow for different facets of problems to be related to sport practice and performance. For instance, athletes explored to deepen our understanding. Besides the first author, talked about balancing free time and sports (Maria), and diet the psychologists and the athletes, the fourth author of this and injuries (Anna). Social conflicts, related to peers and coaches study had served as a critical friend reviewing the intervention (Sandra), were also discussed. In all situations, athletes used self- procedures and commenting critically on the final draft of the talk to cope with, exclusively negative experiences such as anxiety, manuscript. In agreement with Cowan and Taylor (2016), the fear, stress, anger, shame, guilt, sadness, frustration, and pressure. role of the critical friend was to encourage reflections upon, The thoughts related to the situations were also negative; “I can’t and exploration of, multiple and alternative explanations and stand the fatigue,” “I am not helping the team,” or, simply, “I can’t” interpretations of the data sampled in this study. For example, the are typical examples. Both negative experiences and thoughts critical friend was very important when we discussed the reasons occurred in competition, training, and outside of sport practice. why one of the athletes stopped the intervention prematurely. The absence of positive emotions can be explained by the Based on his comments, we considered the relative lack of difficulties that athletes have in identifying positive experiences experience of the younger psychologist as a contributing factor. as detrimental for performance (Latinjak et al., 2016). Furthermore, in order to facilitate a balanced perspective, efforts With a particular emphasis on athletes’ self-talk, two athletes, were made during in all interviews to capture and interpret both Maria and Julia, were able to discuss their self-talk in detail. endorsements and constructive criticisms of the intervention. Maria reported using instructions such as “Come on, concentrate, Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 6 August 2019 | Volume 10 | Article 1819 Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org Latinjak et al. TABLE 1 | A summary of Maria’s initial, post-intervention, and follow-up interview. Initial interview Post-intervention interview Follow-up interview Regarding emotions . . . Maria experienced frustration (if you Maria gained consciousness over her self-talk (. . . at some The current use of self-talk: I am talking to myself in several don’t progress and things go wrong, moments I was more conscious, and I tried to talk to myself, use occasions, but much more positive (. . .); I have to say that I am you get very frustrated) and alternative self-talk) and improved her emotional coping (I was much more conscient about my self-talk while [practicing my nervousness (when I’m nervous my able to cope with situations, especially when the situations were sport], but it is much more positive (.); no more “I can’t,” “you mind can’t calm down; I keep thinking similar to those we had worked on). However, see needed more are doing it wrong” or “people are watching you”; instead, while I perform the choreography). time (maybe I hadn’t enough time to assimilate it all; I think that in much more “come on, go!.” Generally, she feels a bit excessively time I will cope better, but I hadn’t enough time yet and I still don’t emotional (I might also get overly know how to use it) because there still remains a lack of emotional, I can start crying or suffer so awareness of some negative situations (sometimes you are not Thoughts about the intervention: As I said, it was a very much that it affects my performance). conscious of the problematic situation and that you have to cope innovative experience, mainly because that is something no one with it). is conscious about and within 1 month I became aware that I Regarding motivation . . . She reported about problems when She detected a better motivational self-regulation (sometimes I have an inner psychologist, an “inner I”, that I believe a lot in this training technique (if I go to class [. . .] am tired or nervous, and when I am tired my motivation lessens, inner I; she can talk to me, help me, but also haunt me (. . .); I to improve technique, then it is true, and it [the intervention] helped me to motivate myself better in all think that it is great to discover the connection between your that I might have more difficulties to these short moments when I decay). However, again, there remains inner and outer I. motivate myself). a lack of awareness of negative situations (sometimes I am not motivated, I am tired, and I complain a lot and then I become aware; [. . .] but not before I start complaining; I react a bit late). Why did the intervention work: I think it worked for me Regarding confidence . . . She lacked confidence during social She might care just a bit less about the opinion of others (I think because I became more aware and able to redirect the inner comparisons (it’s difficult because you yes [there were changes], but we could not really test them yet. . . it conversation (. . .) to be more positive so that I can benefit, and constantly compare yourself to others helped me to care a bit less on what others might think, I have to not suffer, it. or get turned down based on your CV be confident with my work) what helps her to cope with 7 or an audition) and after being rejected sensations of being unprepared (with regard to the auditions, (it’s a no, no, no. . . all these rejections when I thought I was not prepared I told myself ‘trust yourself’ [. . .], The intervention had an effect outside sports: I think in any affect your confidence and constantly in a different moment I would have thought no, you can’t, don’t go). aspect of life, work, love, life, family, sport . . . it can be applied you ask yourself “am I good enough to everywhere. do this).” Regarding cognitions . . . She had problems while being She had perceived great improvement (I think here I have nervous (when I am on the stage and I improved very much) partly because she managed to reduce am nervous; my mind does not stop, intrusive thoughts (I had these intrusive thoughts on stage [. . .] it and that goes against me). didn’t happen to me again, and I am enjoying myself a lot because I can let go of myself and give 100% and if any thought appears I say “Maria, 100%” and it’s a good thought and I am very happy). Self-talk She remembered using self-talk She gained awareness (I thought self-talk was something very “during the warm-up, when you do conscious [. . .], and then I realized that I might have thought things routines and you have not to think (. . .); more unconsciously) and changed self-talk to be more positive (I August 2019 | Volume 10 | Article 1819 when I do push-ups or sit-ups.” tried to be more positive than before, when I had more negative Online Reflexive Self-Talk Intervention However, she had experienced a lack self-talk; to psych up and not to drag me down). However, she of control over self-talk (I can’t [stop knows it isn’t perfect, yet (I think I still can’t cope [with self-talk] self-talk], it’s very hard for me). She 100%, to think always positive things), partly because not all remembered positive effects of negative thoughts are conscious (sometimes self-talk is self-talk when “you psych-up or you unconscious, and I don’t realize I can cope with things using give strength to yourself; first I think ‘I self-talk). am tired’ and then I think ‘come on, you can do it, you have to finish’.” Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org Latinjak et al. TABLE 2 | A summary of Anna’s initial, post-intervention, and follow-up interview. Initial evaluation Final evaluation Follow-up interview Emotions Anna mainly complained about stress Anna feels that she can cope better with fear and, hence, she Changes in awareness: I am much more conscious, (. . .) (during some periods with more stress, stopped avoiding competitions (before fear stopped because I also use it in other areas of my life, such as in sometimes I don’t eat correctly or when me . . . before, competition? – no way; I wouldn’t even try to academics or now that I am looking for a new job; Whenever I I am without a job . . . it’s harder to go compete in my gym; when I got invited, I would say “how could I go am more pessimistic I tell myself “it’s to train; I have to make an effort, it’s to compete?” that decision was based on fear, thinking you are not just something I am telling myself, and it does not help me at all.” easy to get distracted). worth anything . . . Now I go!). However, she knows that there is work to do, still (the intervention showed me the basics, I gained consciousness, but there still is a long way to go). A remaining lack of belief in self-talk: Sometimes I still need some confirmation (. . .) I tell myself again and again, but I need to see it become reality. Self-talk affects concentration: I still have a tendency for Motivation She had problems with motivation She noticed changes in motivation as a correlate of competing mind wandering, but now I tell myself “it’s time to focus on the when she didn’t see progress (I have (my focus has changed; now it is no longer only [combat] practice, now.” I wander off many times, but I also return many times. It’s been practicing [one sport] for 7 years, starting to compete was a change; it’s not about the trophies, it’s not like before, when circumstances made me return, now I and still sometimes I ask myself how about the feeling I have after the competition, . . . despite the fear, I make myself return. things can be that hard for me . . . did it!). techniques that do not work; so, where Interviewer’s comment: Once I turned off the microphone, I do I get my motivation from?. From my found Ruth incredibly thankful to the psychologist and the colleagues?). research team. She was looking forward to contacting the psychologist again, once the research had terminated. Confidence For her, confidence was related to With the intervention, she got aware of her lack of confidence 8 visual aspects of the tasks (it’s like approaching the abyss, like a bird. It’s time to fly (. . .) you (confidence depends a lot on visual can’t stay in your comfort zone) and used self-talk to start dealing components in both [my sports]. . . to with her lack of confidence (I opened timidly my wings, the think if I can or I cannot, depends on sensation is that I have hardly opened them but, I jumped; and I still the size of the weights, or the size of am dwelling in satisfaction because I dared). the opponent, or her facial traits). Cognition She had difficulties paying attention to She noticed that she gained awareness of her self-talk (it’s a technical instructions (I have some path you have opened to me, I start now, and I still have to keep on difficulties to maintain attention when working; and, well, now I am much more conscious). receiving technical instructions; when I fight I focus almost automatically). Self-talk She reported using self-talk “mainly in She claims to understand better the importance of self-talk (I see [combats] when I am in advantage its very important what I was telling myself before; if I tell myself “you during a delicate moment, or when I am are so bad,” then when I fight I have to cope with that) and how August 2019 | Volume 10 | Article 1819 in a difficult situation, like being self-talk had influenced her decisions (it was fantastic getting Online Reflexive Self-Talk Intervention strangled.” She acknowledged a aware of unconscious decisions I had taken based on my negative complete lack of control over self-talk self-talk). Now, she transfers positive experiences to future (no, I am not in control) and despair challenges (in situation in which I got conscious that my self-talk effects (sometimes it works, it helps was positive, I kept these statements, as a tool, for other moments). me to build upon my achievements; other times I can’t believe in my positive self-talk, and I can’t change the situation). Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org Latinjak et al. TABLE 3 | A summary of Julia’s initial, post-intervention, and follow-up interview. TE Initial evaluation Final evaluation Follow-up interview Emotions Julia found it hard to control her Julia has managed to adopt a more flexible point of view (I can Changes in emotions: “Before I was ‘very nervous, like so emotions when she experienced look at things differently . . . I think I should approach things scared’ and now it’s like ‘no, we can win and calm down, and if external problems (if I have external differently, from another point of view). we don’t, nothing happens; it’s the way I talk to myself that problems, they distract me, and I worry helps me a lot; when I play I’m more courageous, and if I miss, I too much, it’s hard). One specific just continue.” emotion, that affects her performance, is sadness (when I am sad I have to Thoughts about the intervention: “It went really well, all the concentrate). program; for example the WhatsApp, it was key because in person I sometimes just think ‘I don’t know’; but, because I could write I had a moment to think and answer about thinks I Motivation She recognized that her motivation She noticed improvements in her motivation as a consequence of couldn’t imagine to be potentially interesting; you asked can lead to nervousness (sometimes changes in confidence (it’s easier to motivate myself, because I questions that helped me to see things from a different point of motivation lead to nervousness, you am more confident now . . . it’s like a loop). view, and I often thought ‘I hadn’t realize that.”’ know . . . when you motivate yourself so much; when you enter the pitch it’s like The intervention had an effect outside sports: “The whole “I’m nervous” and sometimes I need to program, the ‘what do you say to yourself’ and ‘what could you calm down and relax). have said differently to yourself,’ can help you in all your life; maybe right now not, because I am doing really fine; or yes, Confidence She noticed a lack of confidence (I For her, confidence was the most important change (it’s where 9 also now; it can always help you, it’s so fantastic!” lack a lot of confidence and that’s a I’ve see most changes, for the best, of course; I approach things problem), specially in comparison differently, and that was like a door that opened to me). However, with others (it makes me be worse she still has to test her confidence in competition (I still have to than other just because they have more put these things into action, so we’ll see), but she already feels confidence). Moreover, she perceived encouraged (it psych’s you up, you know, to think “why haven’t I that her coach lacks confidence in thought of it differently before,” it encourages you). her (if the coach does not believe in me, it’s even harder for me). Cognition She experienced difficulties She perceived that the intervention helped her to stay focused (I concentrating with nervousness and concentrate much better; my mind does not disconnect), beginning fatigue (when you are nervous you get with the warm up (I already start to focus during warm up, that tired really quickly, and then I lose helps later on). concentration). Self-talk She remembered using self-talk She gained awareness of her self-talk (now I have seen that all I August 2019 | Volume 10 | Article 1819 “before the game, to concentrate and say to myself are many things; I see how important these things Online Reflexive Self-Talk Intervention avoid anxiety, and after the game to are – what you say to yourself – to act one way or another), and her analyze what happened. Her control self-talk has helped her to cope with her lack of confidence (the over self-talk “depends on my confidence self-talk hadn’t work well before; now I know I need to physical state, when I am tired I can’t take a different approach; I have seen that I shouldn’t tell myself think properly.” “you can” and eliminate all the negative thoughts). Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org Latinjak et al. TABLE 4 | Athletes’ reflections about the online goal-directed self-talk intervention during the final interview. Evaluate Maria Anna Julia Sandra . . . the use of It fits into my daily routines: It fits into my daily routines: . . . It’s It is easier to write: . . . good, I am unreliable when it gets to WhatsApp . . .its good because, you can comfortable, you can answer from the it’s always hard for me to mobile phones: . . . some days I forgot messenger: go on with your routine, you train . . . I thought on my own: To explain things . . . it’s better to my phone at home and I didn’t get don’t have to go understand myself (. . .) it’s easier when write . . . I had more time: it back until night . . . it happened 2 days somewhere . . . its very I am alone . . . It was easier to write: was great because when you we had to meet . . . Skype would have contemporary . . . It was a writing does not restrict me like being made a question I had time to been better: . . . you should do it on little impersonal: . . . it is very pressured by someone else . . . I read, think about it . . . I could add skype . . . at least you see the others important how you say things, then I think, it’s easier. I missed things to my answer, and delete face, you see if it goes well or if she is and only writing is a bit cold . . . gestures: However, you need to find others . . . Better than talking lying, or if she had a terrible training . . . when talking via Skype, it is words, you can’t use gestures . . . directly: if we had talked, you easier for me to express know, I had just said “ok, myself . . . yes . . .” . . . the use of I depended on my own I had to find my own solutions: Frustrating: it’s a bit Repeated questions: There was questions instead solutions and criteria: . . . we . . . since there were no answers I had to frustrating, . . . I would like to one day I told her (the psychologist) of instructions: are used, when being asked, to come up with them myself . . . answers know what she thinks, from her that I had trained very well, either way if get feedback on your can, unconsciously, bias me . . . I didn’t point of view . . . but it’s like I had told her that the training was 10 response . . . but then I thought feel evaluated: I didn’t feel judged, I that, not too bad though. terrible, she had asked me the exactly maybe that is not necessary . . . felt listened to, and, in my case, that same question. things are neither good nor worked very well . . . I needed more bad . . . it was really good feedback: “I felt sometimes lost, in because when asked (. . .) you need for orientation or assessment . . .” come up with solutions you had previously not thought of . . . you see that you find solutions . . . . . . the intervention Interesting: it’s a very Positive experience: Honestly, I had Positive experience: Good, It felt like talking to a Robot: She generally: interesting project . . . Helps no idea how it would go, and still my very good. I didn’t expect (the psychologist) says something the getting aware of self-talk: expectancies were surpassed . . . anything . . . but it went very first day, the second day the same, and . . . I gained much more Noticeable changes: I expected more well. Ran out of things to say: the third, the fourth day I got tired . . . I consciousness than before . . . I questions and answers, and it was like I feel sorry that the last sessions am just another message: . . . you August 2019 | Volume 10 | Article 1819 was never aware of how some that but the I noticed spectacular I didn’t know any more what to see that everyday it’s the same, I am Online Reflexive Self-Talk Intervention thoughts can affect you . . . they changes. talk about, but very good. just another WhatsApp. . . can change things in some situations. Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org Latinjak et al. TABLE 5 | Overview of the length of the intervention, and basic reflections of the psychologists on their athletes’ intervention, progress, and limitations. Athlete: Maria; Psychologist Athlete: Anna; Psychologist 2 Athlete: Julia; Psychologist 1 Athlete: Sandra; Psychologist 2 1 Number of sessions Planned: 12; completed: 10; Planned: 12; completed: 12; canceled: Planned: 12; completed: 11; canceled: 1. Planned: 13; completed: 6; canceled: canceled: 2. 0. 7. Messages in completed 115 sent to the participant 169 sent to the participant (14.08 per 155 sent to the participant (14.09 per session) 83 sent to the participant (13.83 per sessions (11.50 per session) and 110 session) and 156 received from the and 155 received from the participant (14.09 session) and 78 received from the received from the participant participant (13.00 per session). per session). participant (13.00 per session) (11.00 per session). General functioning of the Generally, the participant Some sessions were long, up to The participant frequently changed the From the first session, the athlete did interventions responded well to the 90 min. It took us between 15 and convened time schedule; yet, once the session not meet at the convened hours. After established time tables and 30 min just to find the first situation to had begun, she was answering without 2 weeks, she stopped answering the was actively involved in the work with. interruptions. messages I sent. intervention. Progress made by the athlete Initially, she gained awareness We started talking about hypothetical The participant had few problems identifying There was no noticeable progress. as perceived by the of her negative self-talk . . . later, situations in the beginning. After the situations, emotions, thoughts, and self-talk psychologist she was able to reflect on it and sixth session, we discovered Pandora’s and reflecting on the effects of the latter . . . I 11 turn it into positive box, and we got to a more profound believe there was progress insofar as she still thoughts . . . toward the end of level after that. It took some time, but improved her ability to identify situations, the the intervention, she was she got aware of her shame and fear emotions and thoughts in that situation, and the perfectly capable of identifying while competing, and from there on she effects of her self-talk. what she says and why it works found ways to overcome them. or not . . . and she was able to look for alternatives in her self-talk . . . Shortcomings and limitations in . . . she recognized that She had a hard time to identify what to . . . she has some difficulties believing in her She never wanted to discuss any the work with the athlete as sometimes it’s hard to believe in talk about, and to connect with the self-talk, hence it often does not work . . . She problematic situation that was really perceived by the psychologist what she says, that the positive feelings and thoughts in that situation. often asked to talk about situations beyond the significant to her. things she says are not always At the beginning, she had problems to bounds of the intervention. The participant was working, despite the search of reflect upon the situation, but after not actively participating in the matches played alternative through thorough some session she was able to get to a during the intervention . . . hence, no situations reflection . . . . . . specially when August 2019 | Volume 10 | Article 1819 conclusion faster. around competitions emerged. Online Reflexive Self-Talk Intervention self-talk was used during strength and endurance tasks . . . Latinjak et al. Online Reflexive Self-Talk Intervention do it with energy” or “You can’t do everything 100%.” In her with resistance. However, it was mainly the intervention protocol case, these instructions worked well, for example, when they that failed to include evidence-based techniques to deal with helped her to accept the situation and not to see work as a loss resistance (Hatcher, 2015). Because resistance is to be expected of time. She also developed some new instructions during the in cognitive-behavioral interventions, future studies on reflexive intervention, such as, “Trust more in yourself and take your self-talk interventions should include strategic responses to decisions” or “Think about the fun you will have tomorrow and optimize client experience and outcomes. that it was worth the effort.” With regard to Julia, she reported to have had used instructions such as “You can do better, proof Advice for Practitioners it” or “Calm down.” These instructions helped if she managed to Based on their personal experiences, both psychologists calm down. Nonetheless, often they ceased to work because she formulated a series of proposals for applied practitioners. First, lost concentration or because some negative thoughts came back it is paramount to take your time to explore to some depth the to debilitate her. situations that the athletes want to solve. It is those aspects they Skill-execution-related instructions, often studied in have not considered before that provide the best innovative predetermined instructional self-talk interventions (Hardy solutions. Questions such as why anxiety is making you perform et al., 2015), were not discussed by the athletes. Neither did worse or why others do not have the same problem can help the the psychologists feel the need to direct the athletes through athletes take an alternative perspective that leads to alternative questions toward instructional statements. According to goal-directed self-talk. Second, both psychologists agreed that a conscious processing hypothesis (Masters, 1992), modes of combination of text messages, voice recordings, and video-calls conscious control should mostly be used in early stages of could be beneficial in applied practice. learning, as they contrast with the typical automatic functioning of experts like the athletes in this study. Athletes’ Reflections Evaluation of the Intervention Format Evaluation of Athletes’ Progress The use of WhatsApp messenger received generally positive The psychologists noted a positive development in three of the evaluations from Maria, Anna, and Julia, and negative athletes (Table 5). For example, according to the perceptions evaluations from Sandra (Table 4). Generally, Maria and of Psychologist 1, Maria “gained awareness of her negative self- Anna acknowledged that the intervention fit very well into their talk.” Once awareness was raised, “she was able to reflect on it daily routines. Nonetheless, this positive fit can be mediated and turn it into positive thoughts.” Finally, at the end of the by the tendency of athletes to use their mobile phones during intervention “she was able to look for alternatives in her self-talk.” the day. Sandra, on the contrary, frequently forgot her phone at The importance of awareness and motivation to change negative home, where she did not return until very late every day. self-talk has received support in earlier studies in sports (Hardy The written messenger service format was rated positively et al., 2009b). In comparison, Julia even from the beginning, because the athletes had time to think (Anna) and to write “had few problems identifying situations, emotions, thoughts, their answer, to change their answers, or to complete their and self-talk, and reflecting on the effects of the latter.” For answer before sending it (Julia). The disadvantages of the written athletes with less awareness, it might be valuable to complete messenger service were a lack of personal contact (Maria) and a self-talk diary ahead of their first session, to help them raise the absence of gestures (Anna). Although Maria and Sandra awareness and make the sessions run more efficiently. Another suggested that video chats might be an alternative to the written characteristic, related to awareness, is the athletes’ belief in their messenger service, for Julia it was the written format that had self-talk. While working with Maria, Psychologist 1 noticed that advantages over the video chat. “she recognized that sometimes it’s hard for her to believe in what The Socratic questioning approach (McArdle and Moore, she says . . . .” Similarly, Julia “had some difficulties believing in 2012) elicited disparate opinions among the athletes. Generally, her self-talk and, hence, it often does not work.” Previous studies Maria rated the questioning approach positively, Anna, both have already focused on athletes’ belief in their self-talk (Hardy positive and negative, and Julia and Sandra rather negative. Both et al., 2009a). It therefore seems important to strengthen athletes’ Maria and Anna acknowledged that the Socratic questioning beliefs in their inner voice, so that a change in self-talk content approach required finding solutions on their own. For instance, can be effective. Maria told us that “we are used to get feedback on our In the case of Sandra, who abandoned the intervention after responses, but then I thought maybe that is not necessary; only a few sessions, Psychologist 2 had not noted any progress. things are neither good nor bad . . . .” Additionally, Anna Sandra’s considerations indicate that it was the use of the online appreciated that she did not feel judged by the psychologist. text-messenger service rather than the potential relative lack of Regarding the criticism of the Socratic questioning approach, experience of Psychologist 2, what may explain her withdrawal. both Anna and Julia found it frustrating not to receive any Based on Sandra’s discontent with the intervention format, feedback from the psychologist. For instance, Anna explained Psychologist 2 felt she “never wanted to discuss any problematic that she “felt sometimes lost, in need for orientation or situation that was really significant to her.” Psychologist 2 also assessment.” For Sandra the problem was that the questions were noted Sandra’s resistance to talk sincerely and to change her repetitive. She reported that “one day I told her [Psychologist current self-regulation strategies (Zaltman and Duncan, 1977). 2] that I had trained very well; either way if I had told Surely, Psychologist 2 lacked a bit of experience to better deal her that the training was terrible, she would have asked me Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 12 August 2019 | Volume 10 | Article 1819 Latinjak et al. Online Reflexive Self-Talk Intervention the exactly same question.” For context, please keep in mind For Maria, it was important to discover “that I have a psychologist the earlier argument on resistance in the relationship between inside, an ‘inner I,’ that I believe a lot in this inner I, that Psychologist 2 and Sandra. she can talk to you, help you, or, on the contrary, haunt you.” More specifically, Julia remembered that “the WhatsApp (. . .) Overall Impression of the Intervention was a key point because in person I sometimes just think ‘I When asked to critically evaluate the intervention, Maria, Anna, don’t know,’ but because I could write, you get your moment and Julia had a generally positive opinion (Table 4). For example, to think and answer . . . about things I couldn’t imagine to be Julia told us that “I didn’t expect anything . . . but it went potentially interesting.” On the basis of her experience with the very well.” Anna specified that she “expected many questions intervention, Anna had even expressed her wish to continue and answers, and it was like that,” and then she “noticed working with her psychologist beyond the reflexive self-talk spectacular changes.” Maria based her positive opinion on her intervention. This suggests that online interventions for athletes increased awareness of self-talk. She reported that she “gained can be a simple first step to commence working on psychological much more consciousness than before” when she “was never aspects, with positive experiences, leading to engagement in aware of how some thoughts can affect you . . . they can change broader collaborations with sport psychologists. things in some situations.” Sandra had a negative experience with the intervention. Specifically, the structured nature of the intervention did not meet her expectancies and preferences. She Interpreting Changes Across Athletes’ declared that “she [Psychologist 2] says something the first day, Pre- and Post-intervention Interviews the same on the second and on the third day, and the fourth day In this section, we present our interpretation of the pre- and I got tired.” post-intervention interviews (Table 4). This was possible only for Maria (Table 1), Julia (Table 2), and Anna (Table 3), as Follow-Up Interviews Sandra withdrew from the intervention. Sandra agreed to the In follow-up interviews, Maria, Anna, and Julia reported final interview, but only to evaluate the intervention and briefly that some of the intervention effects on their self-talk were explain, from her point of view, what went wrong. Overall, still noticeable (see Tables 1–3 for Maria, Anna, and Julia, our interpretation of the interviews suggests that the potential respectively). Consistent with their post-intervention interviews, benefits of the intervention on performance is likely to result they kept noticing an enhanced awareness of self-talk. Maria told from the following sequence: the reflexive self-talk intervention us that she “was much more aware of self-talk while [practicing (a) raises awareness of previous self-talk, (b) changes self-talk my sport].” Moreover, she also detected that her self-talk was content, and (c) helps with performance-related variables like much more positive, insofar as “no more ‘I can’t’ or ‘you are doing emotions, motivation, or confidence. it wrong’ or ‘people are watching you’.” Instead she used much Generally, Maria, Julia, and Anna justified the positive effects more constructive statement, such as “come on, go!” of the intervention with an increase in metacognitive knowledge. Furthermore, the three athletes acknowledged that for Both Maria and Julia underlined that they gained awareness 3 months the changes in self-talk had a continuous impact as they realized how they “might have thought things more on other performance-related variables. For example, Anna unconsciously (Maria)” or that now they “have seen all that I noted improvements in her concentration. She told us that she say to myself, there are many things” and that they “see how still had “a tendency for mind wandering” but now she told important these things are (Julia).” Similarly, Anna reported that herself “it’s time to focus on the here and now.” Julia, in turn, the intervention had helped her to understand the importance noted improvements in her emotional control. She reported of self-talk (“I see how important the things I was telling myself that before she was “very nervous, like so scared” and “now it’s before were”) and how self-talk had influenced her previous like ‘no, we can win and calm down, and if we don’t, nothing decisions (“It was fantastic, getting aware of unconscious happens’.” These comments were deemed positive, although it decisions I had taken based on my negative self-talk”). is unlikely that these changes can be attributed exclusively to Alongside their increased awareness, all three athletes also the intervention. Be it as it may, the athletes’ comments provide noted positive experiences in refining their self-talk. For example, support for the engagement with and acceptance of the athletes Maria changed her self-talk patterns as she “tried to be more for the intervention, as all three see the intervention as the cause positive than before, when I had more negative self-talk (. . .) of positive changes in their sport. to psych up and not to drag me down.” Anna even managed to According to Maria, Anna, and Julia, the intervention had transfer past successful self-talk experiences to future situations. positive long-term effects that were not restricted to sports She explained that “in situation in which I got conscious that because they identified changes in self-talk in other areas of life. my self-talk was positive, I kept these statements, as a tool, Anna for example used self-talk consciously “in other areas of for other moments.” Julia managed to overcome a problem she life, such as in academics or now when looking for a new job.” had previously experienced when attempting to purposefully Julia believed that “the whole program, the ‘what do you say to use self-talk: “The confidence self-talk hadn’t work well before. yourself ’ and ‘what could you have said differently to yourself ’, Now I know I need to take a different approach . . . I have can help you in all your life.” seen that I shouldn’t tell myself ‘you can’ and eliminate all the It was found that even 3 months after the intervention, the negative thoughts.” Julia now focuses her self-talk on finding athletes still evaluated the intervention as a positive experience. solutions for her problems instead of increasing confidence. She Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 13 August 2019 | Volume 10 | Article 1819 Latinjak et al. Online Reflexive Self-Talk Intervention understood that confidence is a consequence of having found DISCUSSION viable solutions. This last quote shows a connection between the reflexive self-talk intervention and the coping literature, where In this study, an online version of a novel reflexive self- studies have found that female athletes use emotion-oriented talk intervention (Latinjak et al., 2016) was implemented, rather than problem-oriented coping strategies (Crocker et al., and experiences of its application and perceived effects were 2015), although the latter generally lead to better outcomes gathered over a prolonged period of time from multiple sources. (Nicholls and Polman, 2007). The online text-messenger format received both approval and The awareness and the changes of self-talk were associated criticism. The potential beneficial effects of the intervention seem to improvements in performance-related variables. Anna, for to be based on (a) raised awareness of previous self-talk, (b) example, detected progress in her emotion-regulation. She refined self-talk content, and (c) effects on performance-related reported that “before fear stopped me (. . .); I wouldn’t even try variables such as emotions, motivation, or confidence. The to compete in my gym (. . .); Now I go!” Maria also described intervention was rated positively by three of the four participants, positive changes in her motivation, as the intervention helped who noted positive effects both in sport and outside their sport. her “to motivate myself better in all these short moments when Self-awareness has been identified as a fundamental I decay.” For Julia, the most important change was related to her psychological skill for athletes and one of four fundamental confidence. She told us that confidence is “where I’ve seen most components of effective self-regulation (Vealey, 2007; changes, and for the good, of course; (. . .) I approached things Heatherton, 2011). Awareness is also connected to differently, and that was like a door that opened.” metacognition, insofar as Zimmerman (2000, p. 65) defined Notwithstanding, the athletes also recognized that further metacognition as “the awareness of and knowledge about one’s changes in the awareness and content of self-talk were own thinking.” This is relevant as metacognition is an essential required to better self-regulate. Maria, for example, admitted component of self-regulation and its primary functions are that “I think I still can’t cope [with self-talk] 100%, to to monitor and control the thoughts and actions required for think always positive things.” Specifically, she told us that sport performance (Brick et al., 2016). As a result, it is thought “sometimes I am unaware of self-talk, and I don’t comprehend that the effects of our online reflexive self-talk intervention are that I could cope with things using self-talk.” Maria and accompanied by an improvement in metacognition, which is Anna argued that they had needed more time. For instance, caused by the reflection and planning of self-talk. Maria told us that she “had not enough time to assimilate According to Zinsser et al. (2006) it is possible that this it all,” and Anna recognized that “the intervention showed heightened awareness can cause athletes to change their self- me the basics, I gained consciousness, but there still is a talk patterns in order to improve sport performance. However, large way to go.” On the positive side, Maria and Anna it is likely that self-talk does not affect performance per se, but were keen to continue the intervention even 3 months through changes in performance-related mechanisms (Galanis after it had ended. et al., 2016). In the present study, the participants reported benefits in terms of concentration, confidence, motivation, and emotional control. This is in line with goal-directed Third-Party Reflections on the self-talk categories that have been uncovered in previous Intervention studies. Boudreault et al. (2018) described, as an example, Two athletes, Maria and Julia, gave us permission to contact motivational and emotion control functions of goal-directed self- a significant person in their sport environment to corroborate talk, which reflect many of the participants’ comments on the the effects of the intervention. On the contrary, Anna did outcomes of the present intervention. Likewise, concentration not allow us to contact anyone close to her. She preferred and confidence-oriented statements are among the most “those few people, who know me well enough to evaluate replicated findings in the research on goal-directed self-talk any changes, not to be involved with the intervention.” (e.g., Latinjak et al., 2014, 2019b). However, all of these Marc, Maria’s training partner noted meaningful changes that studies were descriptive and therefore cannot establish a causal confirm her reports on enhanced self-motivation. Before the link between goal-directed self-talk and performance-related intervention, “Maria tended to react negatively to challenges variables. In order to find inferential evidence, one must refer to and mistakes,” Marc explained. She “was the first to say things research with strategic self-talk interventions (e.g., Hardy et al., like ‘I can’t do it’,” what “had effects on others, because if 2015), in which self-talk is however far less self-determined. you have someone telling your constantly ‘I can’t, I can’t’, These studies indirectly support the findings of this project as (. . .) well, we have to be positive.” After the intervention, they demonstrate that self-talk can have a positive effect on Marc noticed that “she lets herself go more, she’s focused concentration, confidence, motivation, and emotional control on enjoying herself.” In summary, Marc saw her “more (e.g., Tod et al., 2011), and that changes in these factors motivated, more optimistic.” Julia’s coach also corroborated the may partly explain how self-talk improves sport performance positive changes his pupil had noticed in her confidence. Oriol (Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2014). explained that “she started to show a lot of confidence, she finished off plays, and she took responsibility in very important Issues Relevant to Applied Practice moments during the games, something anyone wouldn’t do Several considerations are important before utilizing the without confidence.” reflexive self-talk intervention. These relate to expectancies Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 14 August 2019 | Volume 10 | Article 1819 Latinjak et al. Online Reflexive Self-Talk Intervention and/or preferences of athletes when working with sport rises [e.g., in the United Kingdom, from 60% ownership in 2013 psychologists. First, when opting for self-talk interventions, to 80% by the end of 2017 (García et al., 2016)]. However, in cognitive processing preference should be considered. For practice, athletes should feel comfortable with mobile phones instance, it was apparent that Anna had a very little preference for this delivery option to be viable. Sandra, for instance, for self-talk, and this coincided with her being relatively unaware used her discomfort with mobile phones to partially explain of her inner dialog and how her inner dialog affected her sport her withdrawal from the intervention. To contextualize the participation. Conversely, Julia showed a strong preference for experiences reported in this study, it should also be noted that using self-talk and was, thus, relatively conscious of her self-talk demographic studies have shown that men and women use online even prior to the intervention. Nevertheless, there remains little messenger services differently (Rosenfeld et al., 2018). evidence about the impact of cognitive processing preference on Fourth, having chosen the online format, the applied the use of self-talk and its effects (for an exception see, Thomas practitioner is still left with the choice of written or verbal and Fogarty, 1997). In the present case, cognitive processing communication. Julia explicitly acknowledged the importance preference might explain why the intervention was considered of the written response format as it allowed her to take her too short by Anna, and why the time gap between sessions was time and to write and rewrite her answers. However, Maria and perceived too narrow by Julia, who eventually ran out of self- Sandra would have preferred video chat in combination with the talk to discuss. With regards to further individual differences and text-messenger application. Our decision to employ a text-based their effect on self-talk use, it is noteworthy in views of the present format was informed by Pennebaker’s (1997) work investigating study that previous studies found differences between males and expressive writing. Nonetheless, Pennebaker and Seagal (1999) females (Latinjak et al., 2017; Ada et al., 2019). reported that expressive writing and expressive talking should Second, applied practitioners need to decide whether to have comparable effects. Based on the available evidence, use the traditional strategic or the innovative reflexive self-talk practitioners may consider taking the athletes’ preference of one intervention. Strategic self-talk interventions are simpler and lead or the other communication format into account. to fixed self-talk plans to be used at particular instances to deal with fixed and specific performance issues (e.g., see also the Methodological Considerations IMPACT-ST model by Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2014). Alternatively, In this investigation, member reflecting was used as a means to more self-determined interventions, such as the reflexive self- enhance rigor in the qualitative research design. Member talk intervention (Latinjak et al., 2016), are more malleable reflections were considered to ensure the manuscript and less controlled, and aim to improve metacognitive skills. would reflect the subjective experience of both athletes Within reflexive self-talk interventions, a Socratic questioning and psychologists. Hence, in this study epistemological approach is indispensable. Maria and Anna evaluated the Socratic constructivism and ontological relativism were preferred questioning approach positively, whereas Julia and Sandra would over ontological realism (Smith and McGannon, 2017). This have preferred more guidance and assurance. Both psychologists approach was aligned with the present goal to collect qualitative advocated the use of scaffolding for applied practice. Scaffolding evidence about the delivery and perceived effects of our online is when the psychologist provides temporary support to the reflexive self-talk intervention. Future studies, however, should athletes to gain a deeper understanding of their psychological also be grounded within an ontological realism framework; challenges and the role of self-talk as a psychological skill (James that is, gather objective evidence to confirm the effects of et al., 2010). In this context, athletes may first become familiar the reflexive self-talk intervention in sports, and its broader with basic aspects of cognitive therapy. Such psychoeducation on effects beyond the boundaries of sport. With regard to future the influence of thought on emotions and behavior has proven to research, we also recommend testing the application and effects be important for cognitive interventions (Kazantzis et al., 2018). of reflexive self-talk interventions in non-sport contexts. The Along these lines, guidelines on the use of feedback should also use of goal-directed self-talk is common in a variety of contexts, be included in the intervention protocol. In time, the scaffolds including but not limited to physical activity and academic and used at the beginning of the intervention would gradually be professional activities. removed as athletes progressively gain an understanding of the reflective task, they are to perform. Overall, it will be important in future studies to add detailed guidelines for the provision of CONCLUSION scaffolding to the intervention procedures, and thus successfully overcome challenges such as resistance. This information could This innovative study provides a detailed insight into an online be particularly useful for relatively inexperienced practitioners version of a reflexive self-talk intervention. The steps of the such as the psychologists who participated in this study. intervention protocol and involvement of the client is best Third, use of an online intervention delivery format or summarized by: (a) a description of recurrent problematic traditional face-to-face sessions (Latinjak et al., 2016) is worthy situations in and around sports, (b) reflections on situation- of further consideration. In the present study, the athletes specific goal-directed self-talk and its effectiveness, and (c) the communicated with their psychologist by mobile phone. This development of alternative statements that can be used in future format was chosen because online interventions, administered situations. The online text-messenger may be beneficial as it via mobile phones, will become more and more accessible to allows athletes (a) to engage with the intervention when it best different populations as the rate of ownership of smart phones suits them, at any location of their convenience, (b) to take Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 15 August 2019 | Volume 10 | Article 1819 Latinjak et al. Online Reflexive Self-Talk Intervention as much time as they required to reflect on the intervention and athletes’ use of, information technology. This intervention questions, and (c) give their concise responses in a written represents one of very few in the sports psychology literature that format. The potential beneficial effects of the intervention seem embraces an online methodology. to be based on; (a) raised awareness of previous self-talk, (b) refined self-talk content, and (c) effects on performance- related variables like emotions, motivation, or confidence. The DATA AVAILABILITY intervention protocol displayed in Figure 1 can be taken as a starting point for applied practice. Yet, some sections of the The datasets generated for this study are available on request to protocol would benefit from further development. To improve the corresponding author. the protocol, applied practitioners should: (a) integrate guidelines for dealing with resistance, (b) consider using scaffolding during the initial sessions, and (c) combine text messenger and video ETHICS STATEMENT chat options. The increasingly popular voice recording function in text-messenger applications is another suitable option. This study was carried out in accordance with the The intervention described in this study is very different recommendations of the University of Suffolk Research Ethics to the traditional strategic self-talk interventions investigated Committee, with written informed consent from all subjects. over the last three decades yielding generally positive effects for All subjects gave written informed consent in accordance with sport performance (Tod et al., 2011). Whereas strategic self-talk the Declaration of Helsinki. The protocol was approved by the interventions targeted changes in psychological processes, such University of Suffolk Research Ethics Committee. as confidence or emotions (Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2009), this new reflexive self-talk intervention aims to enhance metacognitive knowledge. Athletes are encouraged to learn about themselves, AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS and to use this knowledge to better self-regulate both in and outside of their sport. 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Copyright © 2019 Latinjak, Hernando-Gimeno, Lorido-Méndez and Hardy. This Pennebaker, J. W. (1997). Writing about emotional experiences as a therapeutic is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons process. Psychol. Sci. 8, 162–166. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.1997.tb00 Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums 403.x is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited Pennebaker, J. W., and Seagal, J. D. (1999). Forming a story: the health benefits of and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted narrative. J. Clin. Psychol. 55, 1243–1254. doi: 10.1002/(sici)1097-4679(199910) academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not 55:10<1243::aid-jclp6>3.0.co;2-n comply with these terms. Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 17 August 2019 | Volume 10 | Article 1819