Acta Botanica Brasilica - 33(2): 376-385. April-June 2019. doi: 10.1590/0102-33062018abb0331 Viewpoint Ten important questions/issues for ethnobotanical research Ulysses Paulino Albuquerque1* , André Luiz Borba Nascimento1 , Gustavo Taboada Soldati2 , Ivanilda Soares Feitosa1 , Juliana Loureiro Almeida Campos1 , Julio Alberto Hurrell3 , Natalia Hanazaki4 , Patricia Muniz de Medeiros5 , Rafael Ricardo Vasconcelos da Silva5 , Rafaela Helena Ludwinsky4 , Washington Soares Ferreira Júnior6 and Victoria Reyes-García7,8 Received: September 27, 2018 Accepted: February 19, 2019 . ABSTRACT For at least 30 years researchers have called for a deeper reflection on the paths we desire for ethnobotanical research. Although the discipline of ethnobotany is growing, as measured by the number of publications in the area, there is still work to be done regarding the homogeneity of theoretical and methodological approaches and the implications of ethnobotanical research findings for society as a whole. In this article we present 10 questions/issues that we believe can guide the research and actions of ethnobotanists for the coming years. Keywords: biocultural conservation, ethnobiology, local botanical knowledge, local ecological knowledge, social- ecological systems Introduction century, consisted of descriptive texts that sought to list plants and their uses (Hunn 2007; Albuquerque et al. 2013; Gaoue et al. 2017). Over the last four decades, however, Ethnobotanists seek to understand how people interact this type of descriptive contribution has been criticized, with the environment and obtain plant resources to meet largely on the basis that, while the information provided their cultural and physical needs. The first ethnobotanical might be of interest, the knowledge gained has a fragile or contributions, dating from the first half of the nineteenth even nonexistent theoretical basis and little methodological 1 Laboratório de Ecologia e Evolução de Sistemas Socioecológicos, Centro de Biociências, Departamento de Botânica, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, 50670-901, Recife, PE, Brazil 2 Laboratório de Etnobiologia e Agroecologia, Departamento de Botânica, Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora, 36036-900, Juiz de Fora, MG, Brazil 3 Laboratorio de Etnobotánica y Botánica Aplicada, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Calle 64, La Plata, Argentina 4 Laboratório de Ecologia Humana e Etnobotânica, Departamento de Ecologia e Zoologia, Centro de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, 88040-900, Florianópolis, SC, Brazil 5 Laboratório de Ecologia, Conservação e Evolução Biocultural, Centro de Ciências Agrárias, Universidade Federal de Alagoas, 57100-000, Rio Largo, AL, Brazil 6 Laboratório de Investigações Bioculturais no Semiárido, Universidade de Pernambuco, 56328-903, Petrolina, PE, Brazil 7 Institució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats, 08010, Barcelona, Spain 8 Institut de Ciència i Tecnologia Ambientals, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193, Barcelona, Spain * Corresponding author: upa677@hotmail.com Ten important questions/issues for ethnobotanical research rigor (see Phillips & Gentry 1993; Albuquerque 2009; 2013; In this article, we present some topics that are not Gaoue et al. 2017). Moreover, rapid changes in livelihoods exclusive. However, they can serve as starting points and have resulted in rapid changes in the way people relate to the a way to reach more relevant objectives. We present 10 environment, making the relationship between people and large questions that are ordered not by any judgment of plants increasingly complex. As a result, ethnobotanists have relevance but by the affinity between them. been increasingly compelled to move beyond descriptive studies and develop a theoretical framework that explains human behavior in relation to plant resource use (Gaoue Some major questions et al. 2017). Thus, in recent decades, ethnobotany has incorporated How is indigenous and local knowledge in theoretical insights from several disciplines, including ethnobotanical research best represented? ecology, economics and anthropology (Oliveira et al. 2009; Ritter et al. 2015). This has resulted in an increase in the As ethnobotanical studies rely heavily on indigenous number of publications and the types of approaches used and local knowledge (ILK)1, they face the challenge of (Albuquerque et al. 2011; 2013; Campos et al. 2016). The adequately bringing evidence from these knowledge question, however, is whether these changes answer new systems. The challenge arises not only because unwritten questions and contribute to the elucidation of gaps that forms of knowledge can be difficult to transpose to into provide scientific growth. To answer these questions, the written scientific studies (Reid et al. 2006; Berkes 2018), discipline needs to reflect on its main challenges and develop but more importantly because scientific studies might new theoretical and methodological research proposals. This decontextualize the information and remove it from the reflection exercise has already been undertaken in other cultural environment that gives it meaning (Stevenson sciences and has proven to be quite challenging (Grierson 1996). While there is a growing and laudable tendency et al. 2011; Sutherland et al. 2013). Indeed, almost a decade to include indigenous peoples and local communities ago, Albuquerque & Hanazaki (2009) proposed that the (IPLCs) as coauthors in ethnobotanical research (e.g., main problems faced in ethnobotany become a field of Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2017), this procedure alone research. Reflecting on the issues and challenges faced does not guarantee the proper representation of ILK in should be the first step in implementing contemporary ethnobotanical research (Turnhout et al. 2016). Since this and relevant research agendas aligned with the advances procedure is not commonly employed, perhaps it generates of recent years. difficulties for decision makers to operationalize the use of In this article, we aim to suggest new research this data when monitoring species or systems. proposals based on how current needs are perceived by Recently, some authors have suggested that, where some researchers working in the field. The questions that relevant, information and data from ILK systems should follow result from the personal history of each researcher, be considered through a ‘multiple evidence-based’ (MEB) their theoretical and epistemological orientations, and approach (Tengö et al. 2014), which puts ILK on equal their academic approaches. Unquestionably, they do not footing with globally generated academic science. The MEB represent a consensus in the community of ethnobotanists approach notes that there are “parallels whereby indigenous, but result from the reflections and debates that some of us local, and scientific knowledge systems are viewed to generate have been developing over the last few years. Thus, our text different manifestations of knowledge (…)” (Tengö et al. 2014: is not exhaustive but limited to the experience and vision 571). Ethnobotanists could engage with this or similar of the authors. Despite this limitation, we hope that this frameworks to continue in the quest to better represent article may motivate future contributions so that we can ILK in ethnobotanical research. implement a research agenda for the future of ethnobotany. Ethnobotany has sustained development in recent An alternative would be to hold discussion workshops so decades. However, reflections on ethnobotanical research that experts can revisit the issues presented here and itself have experienced little development, especially in propose new ones together. In our view, this is imperative. the theoretical-methodological domain, as mentioned Although ethnobotany produces more knowledge than other earlier. Reflection is understood here as a recursive process ethnobiological subdisciplines, the scientific community, (nonlinear) that involves rethinking our thoughts in a way similar to other fields of knowledge, has been experiencing that interpolates our fundamental assumptions (Maturana a process of self-criticism and self-analysis. This requires 1996; Morin 2009). Numerous ethnobotanical studies reflecting on the relevance and current importance of address ILK, but an important fact is not considered studies based mainly on lists of species and descriptions because the knowledge system of “the Other” is not of their uses, since the field has provided few updates that directly accessible to us (see Ludwig 2017). Conversely, it are usually redundant. is indirectly accessible through the actions that knowledge 1 The terms indigenous, local and traditional are often employed in the literature indistinctively. In this article we consider indigenous knowledge as the knowledge that comes from autochthonous peoples. We reserve the term local to the knowledge of other peoples. Acta Botanica Brasilica - 33(2): 376-385. April-June 2019 377 Ulysses Paulino Albuquerque, André Luiz Borba Nascimento, Gustavo Taboada Soldati, et al. guides, including narratives (verbal language), behaviors, methodological innovation for capturing the dynamic nature practices, and selective strategies, which can be evaluated. of botanical knowledge. Through online platforms that allow Knowledge is retroactively and recursively embodied in the collection of data, knowledge holders could have more actions that in turn inspire knowledge, thus forming a active participation in ethnobotanical research, especially recursive relationship. The researcher starts with actions if access to the internet is improved. While some authors to reconstruct the knowledge that generated them (Hurrell have started to explore these methodological innovations 2014). (e.g., Reyes-Garcia et al. 2018), ethnobotanists should The interview aims to rebuild the local knowledge system continue to explore its strengths and weaknesses to develop using verbal language (Hurrell 2014). Nevertheless, its methodological innovations that allow for the dynamic value as a complex communication experience is often nature of botanical knowledge to be captured. underestimated or ignored. An initial reflection indicates that the interview is a conversation (Maturana 1996), What theoretical innovations can capture the dynamic which necessarily implies a context that gives it meaning. nature of ILK systems? However, nonverbal language (gestures, use of space) (Hall 2005) is not considered a descriptive variable, although in There are several possibilities and alternatives for human communication, nonverbal language is frequently integrating different theoretical scenarios in order to more relevant than verbal language in terms of meaning. advance the contribution of ethnobotany for understanding In addition, the presence of the researcher usually seems to the dynamic relationships between IPLCs and plants. be overlooked, and the conversation becomes a unilateral Albuquerque & Ferreira Júnior (2017), for example, narrative of the interviewee outside the interview list several research questions from an ecological and context. In this case, the self-excluded researcher acts evolutionary perspective. Gaoue et al. (2017) describe and as a mere translator. A second reflection shows that the systematize different hypotheses that have been added researcher rebuilds knowledge because he is included in the to ethnobotanical studies in the last 30 years that still conversation (Auge 2014). Researcher “absence” generates need to be tested in different social-ecological contexts2. a risk: he transfers his own categories to the interviewee, Given the interdisciplinary nature of ethnobotany, the e.g., the distinction between native and exotic species, or field is receptive to different theoretical articulations, what a resource is. and ethnobotanists could continue to explore these opportunities (see, for example, opportunities to integrate What methodological innovations can capture phylogeny and taxonomy to understand plant selection: the dynamic nature of local/traditional botanical Saslis-Lagoudakis et al. 2014; Toneu et al. 2018 – and the knowledge? new theory in ethnobiology and related fields proposed by Albuquerque et al. 2019b). ILK systems, including botanical knowledge, are Researchers from different disciplines have agreed that dynamic by nature in that they adapt to new ecological and humans have modified environments throughout history to social conditions (Gomez-Baggethun et al. 2013). In most favor their survival, producing persistent effects (Laland et regions of the world, IPLCs are subject to increasing social, al. 2010; Levis et al. 2017; Sullivan et al. 2017). In this case, economic, political and environmental/ecological pressures, new generations inherit modified environments that result experiencing high rates of social and environmental changes. from past decisions, and this may affect the knowledge and These changes, no doubt, have an impact on plant-based current use of plants for different uses (Albuquerque et al. knowledge systems (PBKS). While these changes have 2018; Lins Neto & Albuquerque 2018), especially in the mostly resulted in the loss of knowledge (Reyes-Garcia et al. face of climate change (see Ladio 2017). 2013; Aswani et al. 2018), in other circumstances, they have A recent study showed that IPLC groups in Africa, located just led to changes in the knowledge system (Reyes-Garcia in regions with a high incidence of malaria, knew of a great et al. 2014). In several parts of the world, current studies number of plants that could be used for treatment (Santoro can benefit from past studies, using them as baselines in et al. 2017). This relationship occurred before the adoption cross-sectional approaches (Aswani et al. 2018). The use of public policies to control the disease, which seems to have of such approaches can help in understanding dynamic negatively affected the knowledge of antimalarial plants. aspects of ILK over time. In these groups, the incidence of malaria may be a result Given the fast pace of socioenvironmental changes and of changes in the environment that occurred in the past, their impact on ILK systems, an ethnobotanist’s tool kit which has generated pressure to increase plant richness in might not be adequate to document such changes (for the treatment of malaria. Similarly, for plants used as fuel methods, see, for example, Albuquerque et al. 2014a; 2019a). in northeastern Brazil, the number of known exotic plants The use of information and communication technologies is favored in environments with a scarcity of forest areas, (ICTs) by knowledge holders presents an untapped which will increase fuel availability (Silva et al. 2018). Thus, 2 For information on hypothesis-guided research in ethnobiology see also Gonçalves-Souza et al. (2019). 378 Acta Botanica Brasilica - 33(2): 376-385. April-June 2019 Ten important questions/issues for ethnobotanical research it is possible that human strategies that were applied in information would help predict what would happen, for the past and altered the availability of native species have example, with the use of a species for wood purposes when driven the selection and use of exotic species over time. other uses were added to or removed from the social- In other words, we need to better understand how the ecological system. Some specific questions could be the action of the human species has modified and still modifies following: Can the use of a species for a given purpose ecosystems and other species and how past human decisions curb or block its use for other purposes? Can the use of may have affected the way we interact with plants in the a species for a given purpose increase the chances that it present (see examples of approaches in Silva et al. 2017; will be used for other purposes? 2019). Research guided by this approach can reveal how Another important and relevant issue in ethnobotany is past human decisions affect the evolution of plant-based to study the transmission of cultural information (Santoro knowledge systems (PBKS). et al. 2018). Social transmission or social learning is the process of learning with other individuals by interaction or What challenges do we need to face to better observation of them or their products (Kendal et al. 2018). understand the structure and function of social- The capacity of learn from others allow us to obtain an ecological systems? adaptive information without the cost of experimentation (Mesoudi 2011). Moreover, it is possible to create more Social-ecological systems comprise plants and other complex knowledge by using the previous transmitted elements of the environment known and/or used by information as basis to innovate (Boyd et al. 2011). people, information flow (cultural transmission), storage Humans have psychological mechanisms that indirectly and retrieval of this information (cognition), and other favour the acquisition of cultural information (Enquist et factors (see some research questions in Albuquerque & al. 2007). These mechanisms or social learning strategies Ferreira Junior 2017). Despite this complexity, we need to are related with different kinds of decisions (see Kendal understand relatively simple things for which we still do et al. 2018). not have good answers. For example, some ethnobotanical The majority of research in ethnobotany related with studies often record the categories of PBKS. However, few these aspects just describes the different types of social studies have examined the interaction between the elements transmission. There is a necessity to go deeper in this of these categories. For example, one could test whether subject. Some important questions are: What makes an uses considered more “noble” in a species stop or block uses information on a plant more transmitted than others for considered less noble for the same species. The rationale is a same purpose? Who are the people considered by the that people would adopt the most relevant use for the plant community as sources of knowledge about plants? Do the and use substitute species for other purposes in which the learning models change if plant use (food, medicine, timber, species would fit. Information in the literature supports this construction) is different? What are the cues used by people argument. Lins Neto et al. (2010), for example, in a study to detect the learning models? Expertise? Similarity (e.g. in the Brazilian semiarid region, observed that the species women learning with women)? Are possible that people Spondias tuberosa Arruda was of great food importance but copy information about one cultural domain (e.g. medicinal was generally only used for logging when there was a natural plants) with people that are recognized as knowledgeable fall of the trunk. This indicates that special use would limit about other cultural domains (e.g. agriculture)? or protect plants for other uses. Ritualistic species are also normally not used for other purposes, even if they have the How can ethnobotanical research better contribute to potential for it (see Colding & Folke 2001). strengthening biodiversity governance? Answering this question is important because the use of a species for one purpose may increase the chances that The potential of ethnobotanical knowledge for it will be tried and harvested for another purpose. For biodiversity conservation is acknowledged in the academic example, in a compilation of studies from the northern literature (e.g., Porter-Bolland et al. 2012; Turnhout et al. region of South America, Bennett & Prance (2000) suggest 2012; Pardo-de-Santayana & Macia 2015; Mistry et al. that most medicinal plants have been adopted because 2016), and is experiencing a growth in recognition among of their value as food or medicine. Thus, plants used as policy-makers and science-policy platforms (Vohland et ornamental and food products would be more likely to be al. 2011; Ford et al. 2016; Díaz et al. 2018). A notable incorporated into local pharmacopoeias (see an implication development that largely contributed to the recognition of this idea in the hypothesis of versatility - Gaoue et al. of ILK in international policy-making was the establishment 2017). of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in 1992. The elucidation of these interactions can help in Specifically, Article 8j of the CBD establishes that signatory understanding why certain species, even when exhibiting countries should respect, preserve, and promote the high potential for a given use, are barely used for that contributions of traditional knowledge to biodiversity purpose. From a conservation point of view, such conservation, which includes local/traditional botanical Acta Botanica Brasilica - 33(2): 376-385. April-June 2019 379 Ulysses Paulino Albuquerque, André Luiz Borba Nascimento, Gustavo Taboada Soldati, et al. knowledge. ILK and associated practices are considered interlocutors. For example, it should advance studies on important and relevant for achieving conservation goals historical ecology and landscape domestication to evaluate and are treated with the same importance and relevance as the role of ILK in the construction and modification of any other form of knowledge in the implementation of the landscapes, especially in protected areas occupied by these CBD. Even within conservation goals, the CBD encompasses peoples. Wolverton et al. (2016) analyze three case studies in targets such as target 13 of the Global Strategy for Plants which ethnobiological research talks with Political Ecology Conservation (GSPC), which concerns ILK about plant use and “the relations of power” in our society. Finally, rather and the dependence of these peoples on plants. However, at than describing specific processes and cases, political least in Brazil, there is still a lack of integrative and effective ethnobotany could benefit from dialogue with other fields policy initiatives, and profound changes are necessary for of knowledge that reflect a more socially engaged ecology the achievement of such goals that articulate conservation (see Martínez-Alier 2003; Santos 2014). and IPLCs (Hanazaki et al. 2018). Despite interest among scientists and policy-makers, How have current and past migrations been shaping few countries are making systematic efforts to preserve PBKS? and, to a lesser degree, promote the use of ethnobotanical knowledge to strengthen environmental governance. There Human movements are reflected in the cultural and have been several initiatives in that direction (see Benyei social characteristics of people due to historic changes that et al. 2019; Lakshmi et al. 2014 for reviews). However, spit, merge, and reorganize the distribution of people in only a few have the capacity to influence policy making. space. Migration is an old phenomenon that is ongoing; there Over the last two years, the IPBES Global Assessment has were approximately 244 million international migrants in developed one of the first global-scale mechanisms for the world in 2015, both across borders and within countries, operationalizing ILK in sustainability decision-making which is 3.3 percent of the global population (International (McElwee et al. 2019). Ethnobotanists should engage in Organization for Migration 2018). The separation of human this and similar initiatives to bring ethnobotanical research species into ethnic, cultural, and linguistic groups was an results into the applied domain. outcome of migration, and it has also been the basis of the transmission of genes, cultures, and knowledge (Marsella How can ethnobotanical research better contribute to & Ring 2003). While migrating, people not only carry, strengthening the political interests of IPLCs? adapt, and transform their own culture and society but also transform other living beings. IPLCs are the main interlocutors of ethnobiological Not only people migrate; a whole set of local or research and have always been the target of threats to traditional knowledge migrates with them (Pieroni & their identities, knowledge, and, above all, their territories Vandebroek 2007; Ceuterick et al. 2008; 2011; Andel & (Soldati & Albuquerque 2016). This situation was formally Westers 2010; Abreu et al. 2015), and propagules, seeds and denounced in 1988 in the “Carta de Belém”. However, when plants can also be transported and adapted (see Medeiros et this document was reprinted thirty years later during the al. 2012). The study of the migration of human populations International Congress of Ethnobiology in 2018 (Belém, is fundamentally important for understanding the dynamics Brazil), the same themes were highlighted, which suggests of biocultural knowledge and transformations in natural that ethnobotanical research could have more strongly and urban landscapes through times past and in the current benefitted local people. In other words, ethnobotanists have globalized world (Pieroni & Vandebroek 2007; Waldstein not succeeded in vocalizing the need for a more inclusive 2008; Salpeteur et al. 2016). socio-biodiversity conservation project despite growing This biocultural knowledge changes as a function of political agreement regarding its relevance. adaptive processes (Pieroni & Vandebroek 2007), which can Therefore, the moment becomes opportune for a “Political be interpreted through a variety of explanatory models (see, Ethnobotany” (see also Alexiades 2003), starting from the for example, Turner et al. 2003; Erten 2018; Fonseca & Balick premise that society is divided among different social actors 2018). However, every model needs to be fitted to differing who present different projects that are irreconcilable in local realities. Depending on the social-ecological context most cases. This scientific project can be synthesized by the in which the immigrant groups are located, there may be challenge of answering two major questions. First, “How incorporations of native species and changes of perceptions are threats to territories, identities and ILK organized, towards species considered culturally important (Medeiros et structured and advanced?” Second, “What are the strategies al. 2012; Pirker et al. 2012; Kujawska et al. 2017). From this of resistance of IPLCs for the use of the plant resources in framework, we raise two main questions: How can we study their territories?” ethnobotany of past and present migratory movements Political Ethnobotany should also be concerned with considering that they occur in different timeframes? How the construction of bridges between concepts and theories can the movement of people be related to changes in local of fields close to ethnobotany and the real demands of our environments and local floras? 380 Acta Botanica Brasilica - 33(2): 376-385. April-June 2019 Ten important questions/issues for ethnobotanical research Ethnobotany and urbanization: how do we understand Moreover, several other uses require an ethnobotanist’s PBKS in cities? attention. Exploitation of wood, for example, is among the oldest and most frequent forest uses (Almeida et al. Along with migration, urbanization has become an 2008). Timber forest products include all woody material important issue, especially in the last half century. More with potential use as stakes, firewood, buildings, power than half of the world’s population lives in urban areas generation, cellulose production and others. This resource (55 %), and the projections are for this percentage to increase is widely used by IPLCs, especially with regard to the to 68 % by 2050 (United Nations 2018). Urbanization socioeconomic reality found in developing countries, where results in deep transformations to the environment, with wood is a resource for fuel, buildings, fences, hedges, etc. changes in the abundance, diversity, and composition (Walters 2005; Ramos et al. 2008). Additionally, little of species in the urbanized area and beyond (Faeth et al. is known about the influence of logging resources on 2005). Moreover, urbanization can lead people to shift to a the ecology of tropical forests, since this practice can sedentary lifestyle, consume processed food and disconnect substantially affect canopy cover and the basal area of​​ with nature (Hawkes 2006; Soga & Gaston 2016; Turreira- trees (Kumar & Shahabuddin 2005) and have consequences García et al. 2017). for the plant community of the entire region. For example, In cities, several spaces remain or are created where above-ground biomass and plant species diversity are people interact with the plant world (see Ladio & generally higher in older forests compared to younger Albuquerque 2014). Home gardens, for example, survived forests (Álvarez-Yépiz et al. 2008). and evolved over centuries of biocultural transformations Thus, ethnobotanists could try to answer some as one of the oldest systems of land use (Nair & Kumar important questions from uses other than medicine, 2006). Green lands and home gardens in urbanized areas such as: Are the population dynamics of extracted promote diversity and food security, allow for adaptation species influenced by the extractive practice? How can to climate change, improve life quality and wellbeing and the extraction of one species for logging purposes alter can also increase the connectivity between urbanized the population structure of other plant species? Is the landscapes and remnant forest areas (Galhena et al. 2013; composition and richness of species in a plant community Larios et al. 2013; Mattsson et al. 2013; Capaldi et al. influenced by logging? Finally, what are the consequences 2014; Peroni et al. 2016; Ávila et al. 2017; Shackleton of these environmental changes on the extractive practices et al. 2017). of IPLCs? Considering multicultural societies, especially in large cities, most exotic plants can represent the diversity in home How can the interface between ecology and gardens and green spaces in urban areas, and perceptions ethnobotany explain the processes associated with the and preferences of natural resources can govern the purpose collection of plant resources? of a green area in the city. In this context, some major issues surrounding ethnobotany and urbanization can be proposed: The collection of plant resources by IPLCs has been How does increasing urbanization result in changes in the the subject of several studies over the decades. Many local and regional diversity of useful plants? How are people of them focused on aspects related to the knowledge transforming urban landscapes through their dependence on and use of plants to infer how a selection pattern is plants? Are there cultural signatures of ILK in green spaces formed for the collection (Feitosa et al. 2014). However, of urban areas? How can we rethink conservation strategies to understand the process of collecting a resource by considering the increasing disconnect with nature – and the human populations, it is necessary to have the greatest consequent knowledge of native plants – and the increase amount of information possible on all stages, from the of exotic plants in urban areas? selection of the resource to the time when the resource regenerates in nature and is available for collection again. How can we go beyond searching for medicinal plants? Little is known about the variables that influence the strategies adopted by people in the foraging process, the Classically, ethnobotany has accumulated great levels of damage that species are able to withstand after knowledge about medicinal plants. The focus on medicinal collection, or the time required for species to regenerate plants has been lacking, and this can be due to several (Mariot et al. 2014; Baldauf & Santos 2014; Feitosa et reasons. One of the reasons is based on the argument that al. 2017). by investigating this very specific knowledge, we can advance Depending on the intrinsic characteristics of the the discovery of new drugs. However, different researchers species, evidence shows that it is possible to keep have long criticized the fact that few new developments collecting large amounts in a sustainable manner (see have arisen in this sense, and this is often due to several Lopes & Begossi 2011). Another issue not yet known by problems in how the research is conducted (see Albuquerque researchers is how the behavior of foragers influences et al. 2014b; Medeiros et al. 2014). the decision-making process of others, especially how Acta Botanica Brasilica - 33(2): 376-385. April-June 2019 381 Ulysses Paulino Albuquerque, André Luiz Borba Nascimento, Gustavo Taboada Soldati, et al. the collection patterns affect the conservation of PBKS. Currently, the first questions are based on the influence Acknowledgements that collection exerts on the sustainability of the practice. UPA thanks the financial support from FACEPE Moreover, ILK is an important variable in harvesting (Foundation for Support to Science and Technology of the practices, and it is important to understand how it State of Pernambuco - Grant number: APQ-0562-2.01/17). interacts with other variables. ISF thanks to CAPES/FACEPE for providing a post-doctoral Related to this, plant resources constitute part of scholarship (grants number: APQ-0700-2.05/16 and BCT- the local, regional, national and international markets, 0259.22-05/17). Thanks to CNPq for the productivity grant forming the so-called chain of biodiversity. Although awarded to NH, PMM and UPA, and to the post-doctoral many of these chains are directed to local markets, fellowship (151518/2018-1) granted to ALBN. Thanks to which are already recognized as an excellent field for CAPES through the Ph.D. scholarship awarded to RHL. ethnobotanical research, it is still necessary to explain the influence of these commercial relationships on collection behavior, consumption and the production environment. References Thus, ethnobotanical surveys are capable of generating important insights about the influence of trade on the Abreu DBO, Santoro FR, Albuquerque UP, Ladio AH, Medeiros PM. 2015. behavior of harvesting and consumption of resources by Medicinal plant knowledge in a context of cultural pluralism: A case study in Northeastern Brazil. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 175: IPLCs (Ruiz-Pérez et al. 2004) as well as on the impacts 124-130. on the production environment (Varghese & Ticktin Albuquerque UP. 2009. Quantitative ethnobotany or quantification in 2008). However, to gain this knowledge, it is necessary ethnobotany? 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