ORIGINAL RESEARCH published: 16 October 2019 doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02260 Psychological Intervention Program to Control Stress in Youth Soccer Players Aurelio Olmedilla1, Isabel Mª Moreno-Fernández2, Verónica Gómez-Espejo3, Francisco Javier Robles-Palazón4, Isidro Verdú5 and Enrique Ortega4* 1 Department of Personality, Evaluation and Psychological Treatment, Sports Activities Service, Campus of Excellence Mare Nostrum, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain, 2 Department of Basic, Evolutionary and Educational Psychology, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain, 3Department of Psychology, Real Murcia C.F., Murcia, Spain, 4Department of Physical Activity and Sport, Campus of Excellence Mare Nostrum, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain, 5Department of Computing and Systems, Campus of Excellence Mare Nostrum, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain The influence on the psychological well-being of the players and their sports performance seems to be one of the keys to the current sports practice. The purpose of this study Edited by: Martin James Turner, was to determine the effectiveness of a psychological intervention program for stress Staffordshire University, control in youth soccer players. A total sample of 19 male youth soccer players (age: United Kingdom 16.3 ± 0.99 years; years playing soccer: 10.89 ± 1.56 years) completed the current Reviewed by: research. The Psychological Characteristics Questionnaire related to Sports Performance Joseph Dixon, Staffordshire University, (CPRD) was used to assess stress factors related to sports competition. A program United Kingdom based on Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy was implemented during eight sessions of Donatella Di Corrado, Kore University of Enna, Italy approximately 50 min each. A pre-post design was used and statistical differences *Correspondence: between pre- and post-measures were checked through dependent sample t-tests. Enrique Ortega The results indicated that the post-test scores were higher than the pre-tests in “Influence eortega@um.es of the Evaluation of Performance” and “Mental Skills” factors, which supposes a Specialty section: significant improvement of the stress management related to performance evaluation, This article was submitted to as well as the use of psychological resources and techniques. In addition, the post-test Movement Science and Sport scores were also higher in the “Stress Control” factor, although in this case the differences Psychology, a section of the journal were not statistically significant. Practical indications deriving from the findings of this Frontiers in Psychology study can help youth soccer players to manage the stress of competition using a Received: 07 June 2019 psychological training program. Accepted: 20 September 2019 Published: 16 October 2019 Keywords: psychological training, adolescent, football, stress, psychological skills Citation: Olmedilla A, Moreno-Fernández IM, Gómez-Espejo V, Robles-Palazón FJ, Verdú I and Ortega E (2019) INTRODUCTION Psychological Intervention Program to Control Stress in Youth Currently, psychological interventions are usually utilized in sport, thanks to their positive Soccer Players. influence on the psychological well-being (Golby and Wood, 2016; Breslin et al., 2017) Front. Psychol. 10:2260. and sport performance (Brown and Fletcher, 2017; Gross et al., 2018). Psychological doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02260 training can help several psychological variables such as motivation, concentration, Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 1 October 2019 | Volume 10 | Article 2260 Olmedilla et al. Psychological Program to Control Stress self-confidence, or activation level (Beckmann and Elbe, incorrect development of the sport activity (Kerdijk et al., 2015; Olmedilla and Domínguez-Igual, 2016), as well as 2016; Randall et al., 2018). Thus, this ability to control stress the acquisition of psychological skills as techniques and is one of the main requirements to achieve sport success, resources to manage the sport practice (Simonsmeier and and athletes use different coping styles according to their Buecker, 2017; McCormick et al., 2018). individual characteristics (Fletcher and Sarkar, 2012; Kerdijk In sports with changeable demands where it is necessary et al., 2016; McCormick et al., 2018). Coping might be defined to make complex decisions continuously (team sports), cognitive generally as the cognitive and behavioral effort that is carried skills have equal or even more relevance than technical or out by the athletes with the aim of controlling some demands tactical executions (Escolano-Pérez et al., 2014; Larkin et al., (internal or external) that are really difficult to deal with 2018; Olmedilla et al., 2018a). Although psychological skills using their own resources (Pinto and Vásquez, 2013; Nicholls do not provide an increment of the athlete’s sport performance et al., 2016; Arnold et al., 2017). Coping styles have been on their own, they can assist athletes (in conjunction with divided in two types, principally: problem-focused coping and the physical, technical, and tactical training) with the emotion-focused coping, depending on whether the individual achievement of higher level of performance (Abdullah et al., typically exerts cognitive and behavioral efforts to change a 2016). For instance, the knowledge of the psychological situation or typically adopts strategies to regulate any emotional influence might help an individual to apply appropriated distress, respectively (Urra, 2014; Nicholls et al., 2016). Scientific interventions for neutralizing some factors that could obstruct literature highlight the importance of stress control for an the sport performance (Gimeno et al., 2007). Thus, variables athlete’s sport performance and mental health (Gimeno et al., such as motivation, concentration, stress control, or self- 2007; Schinke et al., 2018); so, stress management training regulation of mood have been proposed as key to explain programs seem to be an essential approach to sportspeople differences in athletes’ sport performance (Cerasoli et al., 2014; in both youth and professional levels. Mercado et al., 2017; Swann et al., 2017). Some authors defend the need to know the psychological Psychological training is not only important in professional profile of the athlete (Pazo et al., 2012) as a starting point or elite sport, but also in grassroots sports. Young athletes to design specific psychological training programs that favor sometimes need a certain amount of motivation to obtain a the optimal development of a sports career. Psychological good level of adherence to sport practice (matches and trainings), training is another way of sports training that directly affects and require efficacy resources to manage the stress derived athletic development; this training must be based, on the from competitions. A suitable psychological development in one hand, on the learning of psychological skills and strategies young athletes will increase their achievement of goals and that allow the most appropriate coping of different sports satisfaction in sport (Navarrón et al., 2017; Simonsmeier and situations (Reyes et al., 2012; Portenga et al., 2017; Gross Buecker, 2017; Brière et al., 2018), and will make easier the et al., 2018) and, on the other hand, on the promotion of process of socialization through sport practice, managing better the psychological well-being of the athlete that allows him/her the requirement and pressure habitually supplied by coaches and/ to grow and mature as a person (Romero et al., 2010; Golby or parents (Tjomsland et al., 2016; Gómez-Espejo et al., 2017; and Wood, 2016; Breslin et al., 2017; Olmedilla et al., 2018b). Lorenzo et al., 2018). In any case, the psychologist must pursue that the athlete Several stress sources exist at within youth sport practice, has a better expertise of his skills and psychological strategies, and their consequences may be really negative for the young as well as the processes of reflection and decision- athlete: less sport performance (Romero et al., 2010), absence making in the different situations of sport and extra-sport of satisfaction, mental disorders (Schinke et al., 2018), (Olmedilla et al., 2018b). dysfunctional attitudes (Fenoy and Campoy, 2012), sport dropout The evaluation of psychological skills can allow working (Gimeno et al., 2007), or sport injuries (Ivarsson et al., 2017), hypotheses about the most appropriate psychological intervention among others. Likewise, stressful conditions during competitions to favor sports performance (Olmedilla et al., 2010; Abenza provoke psychological disorders, such as loss of attentional focus et al., 2014). The knowledge of the psychological profile of or anxiety increase, that may negatively affect the athlete’s sport an athlete allows to understand him/her better, improve participation (Bennett and Maynard, 2017; Brown and Fletcher, communication processes with him/her, and increase the 2017). Something we perceive as a threat is stressful and, therefore, effectiveness of training (McCormick et al., 2017; Olmedilla produces significant changes in physiological, psychological, and et al., 2018a). Although it is not possible to find two equal behavioral responses; in a competitive sport context, this causes athletes, there are certain common characteristics that lead to the athlete to think and act differently in stressful situations sport success. The weight of psychological factors in the definition (Márquez, 2006). However, stress can also have positive of the successful athlete is high, so nowadays in sport, mental connotations, helping the athlete to be prepared for the competition preparation and psychological skills can distinguish the successful and favoring motivation, attention, and, consequently, the athlete from the rest (Bahrololoum et al., 2012). subsequent athlete’s sport performance (Ferreira et al., 2002; Therefore, the main purpose of the present study was to McCormick et al., 2018). determine the efficacy of an intervention program for the Properly managing stress is very important for any athlete acquisition of psychological skills to control stress in male since it entails directing the stressors in order to avoid the youth soccer players. Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 2 October 2019 | Volume 10 | Article 2260 Olmedilla et al. Psychological Program to Control Stress MATERIALS AND METHODS TABLE 1 | Chronogram and general contents of the program. Sessions Contents Participants A total of 19 male youth soccer players completed the current Session 1 Initial assessment. study (age: 16.3 ± 0.99 years; years playing soccer: Explanation of the procedure to be followed throughout 10.89 ± 1.56 years). All of them belonged to the same Spanish the sessions. soccer club that was engaged in a Regional Amateur Soccer CPRD pre-test League of the Spanish Soccer Federation, and participated in Session 2 Motivation (I). four training sessions and one competitive match per week. Psychoeducation: explanation of the concept, types and ways to increase. Measures Session 3 Motivation (II). Psychological variables were assessed using the Psychological Setting objectives. Characteristics Related to Sport Performance Questionnaire Distinction between short-, medium-, and long-term objectives. (CPRD, Gimeno et al., 2001), based on the Psychological Distinction between performance objectives and outcome Skills Inventory for Sports (PSIS, Mahoney et al., 1987; Mahoney, objectives. 1989). The questionnaire consists of 55 items graded in a How to carry out the registration of the objectives table. Session 4 Attention-Concentration (I). 5-option Likert scale (from totally disagree to totally agree) and grouped into five subscales: Stress Control (SC), Influence Psychoeducation: explanation of the concept, types of attention, ways to increase attention and concentration. of Performance Evaluation (IPE), Motivation (M), Mental Skills Session 5 Attention-Concentration (II). Visualization. (MSK), and Team Cohesion (TCOH), showing acceptable What is the visualization technique and how to apply it. values of internal consistency for the total scale (α = 0.85) Observation of testimonies of athletes who practice this technique. and for most of the subscales (αSC = 0.88; αIPE = 0.72; Session 6 Activation level (I). αM = 0.67; αTCOH = 0.78; αMSK = 0.34). According to the Psychoeducation: explanation of the concept and how to increase authors, the low internal consistency of MSK is probably or decrease the level of activation. related to it tapping a wide range of different skills but authors Session 7 Activation level (II). still keep the subscale due to the factorial loads shown by Relaxation. the items of this factor. Explanation of what Jacobson’s progressive relaxation technique SC consists of 20 items and refers to athlete’s responses to consists of and how to carry it out. potentially stressful situations and other training and competition Session 8 Final assessment. demands. Higher scores denote the athlete has management CPRD post-test. skills to cope with sport-related stress. IPE consists of 12 items Psychological Preparation Evaluation Questionnaire. and refers to athlete’s responses to situations in which he/she or people close to him/her judge his/her performance. It also includes an assessment about antecedents of athlete’s performance Subsequently, a psychological intervention program was judgment. Higher scores mean the athlete can control the implemented, whose theoretical framework was based on Cognitive- impact of performance judgment. M consists of eight items Behavioral Therapy and its four key principles (McArdle and referring to basic motivation to sport performance and Moore, 2012). This psychological training program was carried achievement, as well as to the regular training and competition out in eight sessions of approximately 50 min each. All psychological activities. Higher scores indicate strong motivation and intervention sessions were developed in small groups and before commitment to competitive sport practice. MSK consists of the regular soccer training practices, aiming to avoid the fatigue nine items and assesses the use of different mental skills that effect. The structure of the psychological session was based on are related to sport performance. Higher scores express better previous therapy programs used in similar cohorts of athletes psychological resources to improve his/her performance. TCOH (Beswick, 2001; Dosil, 2006; Olmedilla and Domínguez-Igual, includes six items and assesses the extent to which the athlete 2016). Table 1 shows the structure of the program with the feels attracted to and identified with the sport group. This number and content of the different intervention sessions. scale has not been used in this study due to the nature of the target sports. Data Analysis Prior to statistical analysis, the normal distribution (p > 0.05) Procedure of raw data set was checked using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. After the authors’ institution IRB approval (UM1551/2017), Descriptive statistics including means and standard deviations athletes were contacted through the psychological staff belonging were calculated. Dependent sample t-tests were carried out to to the club, who collaborated with the researchers to explain assess differences between the pre-intervention and post-intervention to coaches, parents, and athletes about the aims of the study measures. Finally, effect sizes were calculated using the method and use of the information. Those who voluntarily agreed to previously described by Cohen (1988). All the analyses were participate in the current research signed an informed consent completed using the statistical software SPSS version 21 (SPSS form (parents and athletes). Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 3 October 2019 | Volume 10 | Article 2260 Olmedilla et al. Psychological Program to Control Stress RESULTS significant differences are found in two of the five factors: Influence of the Performance Evaluation (p = 0.030; Table 2 shows the data obtained from the dependent sample d = −0.389) and Mental Skills (p = 0.030; d = −0.788); and t-test and the statistical significance in each of the there is a marginal significance in Stress Control (p = 0.083; CPRD subscales. d = −0.234). The results are complemented by a calculation Figure 1 presents the pre- and post-scores for each of of the effect size in order to evaluate the degree of change the CPRD scales (SC, IPE, M, MSK, and TCOH). Statistically observed in the sample. TABLE 2 | Differences between pre- and post-intervention scores in each of the CPRD subscales. M SD SE 95% CI t df Sig. Cohen’s d Lower Higher SC pre −2.684 6.377 1.463 −5.758 0.389 −1.835 18 0.083 −0.234 SC post IPE pre −2.631 4.867 1.116 −4.977 −0.285 −2.357 18 0.030 −0.389 IPE post M pre −0.315 3.056 0.701 −1.157 1.788 −0.450 18 0.658 0.077 M post MSK pre −2.263 4.201 0.963 −4.288 −0.238 −2.348 18 0.030 −0.788 MSK post TCOH pre 0.789 3.675 0.843 −0.982 2.560 0.936 18 0.362 0.291 TCOH pre SC, stress control; IPE, influence of performance evaluation; M, motivation; MSK, mental skills; TCOH, team cohesion. FIGURE 1 | Graphical comparison of the total means pre-test and post-test. Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 4 October 2019 | Volume 10 | Article 2260 Olmedilla et al. Psychological Program to Control Stress DISCUSSION On the other hand, although psychological programs focused on Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy have shown their effectiveness The aim of this study was to determine the effectiveness of (McArdle and Moore, 2012; Brown and Fletcher, 2017), other a psychological intervention program (Cognitive-Behavioral types of programs that could be effective in sports have also Therapy) in a cohort of male youth soccer players for the been proposed in recent years. For instance, in the study by acquisition of psychological skills to control and manage Gross et al. (2018), university athletes who participated in a stress. The results indicated a general improvement in the mindfulness program (Mindfulness-Acceptance-Commitment, scores of the players after the intervention program; thus, MAC) reported reduced anxiety, eating problems, and other differences in the IPE and the MSK factors appeared statistically psychological disorders; increased psychological flexibility; and significant, which suppose an enhancement to stress had better sport performance than the group of university management related to the evaluation of performance, as well athletes who participated in a conventional program of as to the use of resources and psychological techniques. psychological skills. As indicated by Bühlmayer et al. (2017), Likewise, scores after the program were also better in the mindfulness as a form of mental training oriented to the present SC factor, although in this case the differences were not affects cognitive processes and is considered increasingly statistically significant. significant for sport psychological training approaches. In any The results of the present study are similar to those obtained case, these results, rather than invalidating the Cognitive- in recently published research (Aoyagi et al., 2017; Brown Behavioral Therapy programs, present other options for and Fletcher, 2017) and show the efficacy of psychological psychological preparation that led by expert psychologists intervention programs both for the acquisition and learning (Aoyagi et al., 2017; Portenga et al., 2017) can complement of psychological techniques, and for the application of these what already exists. improving skills for managing the stress of competition and However, far from affecting only the sports context, the sports practice, which could improve the psychological application of these programs can also represent an disposition of players favoring the increment of sport extraordinary learning for daily life. Learning skills in the performance (McCormick et al., 2017). This psychological sports field can be closely related to learning life skills; for disposition, focused on variables such as motivation, this, it must be transferred and applied successfully beyond concentration, or self-efficacy, will be optimized through the sport. As Pierce et al. (2017) stated recently, the transfer of use of visualization, goal setting, or relaxation through breathing life skills is an essential process that has not yet been sufficiently techniques, among others. described in the scientific literature of sports psychology. In addition, stress control has proven its usefulness and Therefore, stress control could be a very important application effectiveness in the field of athlete’s health, both physical and tool from the sports context to the vital (daily life) context psychological. In terms of physical rehabilitation or prevention of the athlete. of sport injuries (Mankad and Gordon, 2010; Gagnon et al., Finally, it is necessary to point out that this work provides 2015; Wesch et al., 2016; Olmedilla et al., 2017), there are evidence on the effectiveness of a cognitive behavioral numerous studies that correlate stress to the increase in the intervention in youth soccer players, using conventional incidence of injury in sport. Ivarsson et al. (2017) found strong psychological techniques of confirmed validity, such as associations between responses to stress and the history of visualization (Wesch et al., 2016; Simonsmeier and Buecker, stressors with injury rates, results that agree with many other 2017). Epidemiological studies have indicated that sports investigations (Johnson and Ivarsson, 2011; Edvardsson et al., practice in the youth represents a protective factor against 2012). Otherwise, and regarding psychological well-being, mental psychological imbalances (Brière et al., 2018); so if psychological health has been considered a very important resource for work is also available, this protection could be increased. athletes in relation to their performance and professional The work of a sport psychologist in these adolescent ages development. Recent studies (Gouttebarge et al., 2015) show is really relevant for a good sport and social development that more than one-third (38%) of active professional soccer of the youth athletes, both in the work with the athletes players suffer from depression or a similar disorder, as well themselves and with coaches and parents (Tjomsland et al., as 35% of retired players. Similarly, the probability of a 2016; Lorenzo et al., 2018). These ages constitute a fundamental professional suffering depression increases by up to four points stage for the acquisition of good practices and habits for a when the player has suffered at least three serious injuries, future professional sports career or, simply, a healthy vital the pressure exerts before the expectations of a large signing relationship with sports. and/or an unfulfilled self-demand occurs. In general, athletes experience situations (high training loads, highly relevant competitions, stressful lifestyle) that are real risk factors for LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH their mental health (Schinke et al., 2018). In this regard, the DIRECTIONS International Society of Sports Psychology (ISSP) has presented six proposals and recommendations to address the mental The main limitation of the current research is the small sample health of athletes from an intervention and research perspective size of soccer players (N = 19) who received the psychological (Henriksen et al., 2019). intervention, which makes it difficult to extrapolate the present Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 5 October 2019 | Volume 10 | Article 2260 Olmedilla et al. Psychological Program to Control Stress results to other cohorts of soccer players. In addition, the ETHICS STATEMENT participation of the coaches in the study was unequal, showing, sometimes, a lack of involvement in the planning of the program. This study was carried out in accordance with the The increased involvement by these coaches could favor a greater recommendations of the Declaration of Helsinki. The studies participation of the players in the intervention program, making involving human participants were reviewed and approved by possible at the same time the application of parallel programs the Comité de Ética de la Universidad de Murcia (ID: UM to coaches that could improve the results obtained in the current 1551/2017). Written informed consent to participate in this study study. Also, the timing in which the psychological program was was provided by the participants’ legal guardian/next of kin. carried out (mid-season) hindered its development and made it impossible to compare the effects of the intervention in different sections of the season. Therefore, future investigations should AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS study the possible differences derived from the implementation of this type of psychological program in several competitive AO and IM-F contributed to the conception and design of phases of the season, using a larger sample size of soccer players the study. AO and EO organized the database. EO and IV and checking the effect of parallel interventions with coaches. performed the statistical analysis. AO wrote the first draft of the manuscript. IM-F, VG-E, and FR-P wrote the sections of the manuscript. FR-P was in charge of the formal aspects CONCLUSIONS of the work. All authors contributed to the revision of the manuscript and read and approved the presented version. The findings of this study show that the implementation of a psychological training program of duration 50 min (per session) for eight sessions can be effective to provide FUNDING psychological skills to youth players that will help them to better manage the stress of sports practice, both in competition This research was supported in part by the Murcia (Spain) and training sessions. Regional Football Association’s, Football Project (Grant FFRMUMU-040092 321B 64502 14704) and by Counseling Contract Real Murcia CF-Foundation (RM-UMU-8141-19256). DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT FR-P was supported by the Program of Human Resources Formation for Science and Technology (Grant 20326/FPI/2017) The datasets generated for this study are available on request from the Seneca Foundation-Agency for Science and Technology to the corresponding author. in the Region of Murcia (Spain). REFERENCES Brière, F. N., Yale-Soulière, G., Gonzalez-Sicilia, D., Harbec, M. J., Morizot, J., Janosz, M., et al. (2018). Prospective associations between sport participation Abdullah, M. R., Musa, R. M., Maliki, A. B. H. M. B., Kosni, N. A., and and psychological adjustment in adolescents. J. Epidemiol. Community Health Suppiah, P. K. (2016). Role of psychological factors on the performance of 72, 575–581. doi: 10.1136/jech-2017-209656 elite soccer players. J. Phys. Educ. Sport 16, 170–176. doi: 10.7752/jpes.2016.01027 Brown, D. J., and Fletcher, D. (2017). 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