eISSN: 1989-9742 © SIPS. DOI: 10.7179/PSRI_2019.34.07 http://recyt.fecyt.es/index.php/PSRI/ Versión en español: https://recyt.fecyt.es/index.php/PSRI/article/view/72240/44925 PROFESSIONAL PARENTING IN INSTITUTIONAL FOSTER CARE: PROPOSAL TO IMPROVE CARE OF CHILDREN FOSTERED IN CHILD PROTECTION CENTRES PARENTALIDAD PROFESIONAL EN EL ACOGIMIENTO INSTITUCIONAL: PROPUESTA PARA MEJORAR LA ATENCIÓN A LOS NIÑOS ACOGIDOS EN CENTROS DE PROTECCIÓN PARENTALIDADE PROFISSIONAL NO ACOLHIMENTO INSTITUCIONAL: PROPOSTA PARA MELHORAR A ATENÇÃO ÀS CRIANÇAS RECEBIDAS EM CENTROS DE PROTEÇÃO Josefina SALA ROCA* Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona* Received date: 23.IV.2019 Reviewed date: 02.V.2019 Accepted date: 30.VI.2019 KEY WORDS: ABSTRACT: The studies conducted about children fostered in child protection centres find Parent education delays and issues in the majority of developmental areas which hamper their wellbeing and professional transition to independent living. These adverse effects have been partly attributed to the parenting impoverished upbringing common in residential settings compared to family life. In this article, residential foster care we propose a reconceptualisation of the role of the social educator as a professional parental foster children figure as a way to overcome some of the limitations associated with institutional foster care. child protection Through a literature review, the most important contributions supporting this proposal are examined. In the first part, the difficulties faced by fostered children and adolescents are analysed, along with the role played by residential foster care in these difficulties. After that, we explore the most significant functions of the professional parental figure, such as protec- tion and stimulation of development, reparative affective bonds and guidance in resilience processes, and we compare them with the way institutional foster care has developed them. We propose replacing the concept of professional distance with that of optimal proximity, in which the social educator’s personal experiences become teaching resources in their educa- tional undertaking. CONTACT WITH THE AUTHORS JOSEFINA SALA ROCA. Fina.Sala@uab.cat [PROFESSIONAL PARENTING IN INSTITUTIONAL FOSTER CARE: PROPOSAL TO IMPROVE CARE OF CHILDREN…] SIPS - PEDAGOGÍA SOCIAL. REVISTA INTERUNIVERSITARIA [(2019) 34, 91-103] TERCERA ÉPOCA Copyright © 2015 SIPS. Licencia Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial (by-nc) Spain 3.0 eISSN: 1989-9742 © SIPS. DOI: 10.7179/PSRI_2019.34.07 [92] http://recyt.fecyt.es/index.php/PSRI/ PALABRAS CLAVE: RESUMEN: Los estudios realizados entorno a los niños acogidos en centros de protección Educación parental observan retrasos y problemáticas en la mayoría de áreas del desarrollo que dificultan su parentalidad bienestar y transición a la vida independiente. Estos efectos adversos se han atribuido, en profesional parte, al empobrecimiento educativo que supone el entorno residencial respecto al fami- acogimiento liar. En este artículo proponemos la reconceptualización del rol del educador social como residencial figura parental profesional para superar parte de las limitaciones asociadas al acogimiento infancia tutelada institucional. A través de una revisión narrativa se revisan las aportaciones más relevantes protección a la que apoyan esta propuesta. En una primera parte se analizan las dificultades de los niños infancia y adolescentes tutelados y el papel que el acogimiento residencial tiene en ellas. Posterior- mente exploramos las funciones más significativas de la figura parental profesional, como son la protección y estimulación del desarrollo, la vinculación afectiva reparadora y la guía de procesos de resiliencia, y las contrastamos con el desarrollo que el acogimiento institucional ha desarrollado en ellas. Proponemos sustituir el concepto de distancia profesional, por el de proximidad óptima, en el que las experiencias personales del educador son recursos de enseñanza en su labor educadora. PALAVRAS-CHAVE: RESUMO: Os estudos realizados em torno de crianças acolhidas em centros de proteção Educação parental observam atrasos e problemas na maioria das áreas de desenvolvimento, que impedem o seu parentalidade bem-estar e a transição para a vida independente. Esses efeitos adversos foram atribuídos, profissional em parte, ao empobrecimento educacional que representa o ambiente residencial relativo à acolhimento família. Neste artigo propomos a nova conceitualização do papel do educador social, enquan- residencial to figura parental profissional, para superar parte das limitações associadas ao acolhimento infância protegida institucional. Através de uma revisão narrativa, avaliam-se as contribuições mais relevantes proteção da infância que apoiam esta proposta. Numa primeira parte, são analisadas as dificuldades das crianças e dos adolescentes protegidos e o papel que o acolhimento residencial desempenha sobre eles. Mais tarde, exploramos as funções mais significativas da figura parental profissional, como a proteção e estimulação do desenvolvimento, o vínculo afetivo reparador e o guia dos processos de resiliência, e comparamos os mesmos com o desenvolvimento que o aco- lhimento institucional desenvolveu neles. Propomos a substituição do conceito de distância profissional, pelo de proximidade ideal, em que as experiências pessoais do educador são recursos de aprendizagem no seu trabalho educativo. 1. Introduction children or adolescents whose guardian they are. These spaces tend not to exceed one hour weekly In Spain, the public administration is the guardian per child or adolescent. of 6 out of every 1,000 children, protecting them Through a narrative review of the academic from extremely vulnerable situations such as ne- literature (Ferrari, 2015), we shall examine the cur- glect or abuse. According to the portal of the Min- rent state of several debates around the impact istry of Health, Consumer Affairs and Social Wel- that family or institutional foster care has on the fare, Children in Figures, 48% of these children are development of these children, and we shall pro- fostered in institutions, while 52% are fostered in pose several avenues of intervention to improve families. Social educators are the professionals in their care. To do so, first we shall focus on the im- charge of raising children whose protective meas- pact that both kinds of foster care have on the ure is institutional foster care. Thus, social educa- children, and then we shall analyse the possible tors are in charge of accompanying the children reasons for the shortcomings observed in the through their daily hygiene and feeding routines, development of children who are fostered at res- assisting them at school and extracurricular activ- idential centres. We shall particularly focus on the ities, accompanying them on trips to the doctor, upbringing at the centres and social educators, caring for their emotional wellbeing, etc. Although assuming that they have to provide the upbringing it is true that social educators work in educational needed for the physical, psychological, social and teams and the children see several social educa- moral development that the parents should have tors over the course of the day as shifts rotate, provided in the course of their work. just one social educator takes on the role of a spe- Many international studies have been con- cific child’s guardian to thus create a more indi- ducted on the development and evolution of vidualised space of care with the child. Guardians these children. These studies reveal difficulties develop the individualised education plan of the in areas like education, job placement, income, children they oversee and draft the respective fol- access to housing, mental health, suicidal behav- low-up reports. Even though social educators are iours, substance abuse and criminal behaviours. in charge of several children or adolescents during The data show this population’s high level of vul- their workday, they also have individualised spac- nerability, with lower results than those of chil- es where they can work more intensely with the dren from poor families (for a survey, see Gypen, [Josefina SALA ROCA] SIPS - PEDAGOGÍA SOCIAL. REVISTA INTERUNIVERSITARIA [(2019) 34, 91-103] TERCERA ÉPOCA Copyright © 2015 SIPS. Licencia Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial (by-nc) Spain 3.0 [93] eISSN: 1989-9742 © SIPS. DOI: 10.7179/PSRI_2019.34.07 http://recyt.fecyt.es/index.php/PSRI/ Vanderfaeillie, De Maeyer, Belenger, & Van Holen, after they are adopted, which would prove that 2017; Kääriälä, & Hiilamo, 2017; Evans, White, Tur- a family environment has a reparative power that ley, Slater, Morgan, Strange, & Scourfield, 2017). institutions do not. Another argument that would Similar results were observed in studies of the uphold this thesis is that when they are fostered Spanish population (Bernal & Melendro, 2014; Bra- in centres, children experience added delays in vo & Fernández del Valle, 2003; Martin, Muñoz, many developmental parameters, plus there is a Rodríguez, & Pérez, 2008; Montserrat, Cases, & positive association between these delays and Bertran, 2013; Oriol-Granado, Sala-Roca, & Filella, the amount of time they spend in the centre. In 2014, 2015; Sainero, Del Valle, & Bravo, 2015; Sa- this same vein, it is found that delays in the de- la-Roca, Jariot, Villaba, & Rodríguez, 2009). velopment of attention and executive functions After a review of numerous studies, Kääriälä may only be observed in institutionalised children and Hiilamo (2017) state that the deficits found (Dozier, Zeanah, Wallin, & Shauffer, 2012; Quiroga have three possible origins. First, the personal con- & Hamilton-Giachritsis, 2016). ditions and accumulation of adverse experiences The majority of countries consider family fos- prior to entering the protection system may have ter care the preferable option (Fernández del caused a deterioration of such a magnitude that it Valle & Bravo, 2013). In Spain, the protection mod- cannot be offset by the protective measures. Sec- el is mixed, as half the children are in family foster ondly, another cause could be that the protective care (52%) and the other half in institutional foster measures themselves may have a negative influ- care (48%) (data on children from the Ministry). ence on children’s and adolescents’ development. This is partly because there are not enough fam- This possibility is extremely worrisome because ilies in Spain willing to foster children, and many it would imply that the protective measures may of the children that enter the protection system even further harm their beneficiaries. Thirdly, the are between puberty and adolescence, ages support they receive in their transition to inde- when foster care processes are more difficult. pendent living when they reach adulthood may be However, it is also important to bear in mind that inadequate or insufficient. These three factors are a significant percentage of foster situations (26%) joined by the lack of stable resources, in their fos- fail (López, del Valle, Montserrat, & Bravo, 2011), ter families and at school, which not only limits the and that the residential option may better fit the continuity of the work performed by the different needs of these children and adolescents. So, res- stakeholders but also entails the accumulation of idential centres are an indispensable resource in experiences involving loss (Gypen et al., 2017). the protection of children and adolescents within It is difficult to compare the different impact the protection system and will remain so in the of institutional and family foster care because al- future. though they do have different results – generally Residential centres seek to offer an alterna- in favour of family foster care – the severity of the tive nurturing environment to the nuclear fam- issues and the age of the children in institutional ily in which the child can feel safe, can recover and family foster care are not equivalent. There is from experiences of negligence and trauma, can a higher concentration of children and adolescents develop and, when the time comes, can prepare with behavioural or mental health problems in in- for independent living. To achieve this, the chil- stitutional foster care. Furthermore, the mean age dren fostered in centres need to be provided of children who do not have access to family foster with a safe environment and the comprehensive care is higher, and therefore prior to the protec- upbringing that they should have received in the tive measures they have accumulated adversities family setting from which they were removed. Ma- over a longer period of time. On the other hand, a jor efforts have been made to improve the quality larger proportion of children with normal cognitive of residential care (Del Valle, Bravo, Martínez, & development enter family foster care compared to Santos, 2013), but greater efforts are needed to institutional care (for a survey, see Leloux-Opmeer, ensure that residential foster care can offer the Kuiper, Swaab, & Scholte, 2016). support and stimulus that a family could. The in- Despite the limitations we have just cited, the itial hypothesis of this review is that residential majority of researchers believe that institutional foster care is highly limited by an excessively foster care may be damaging, and that the pref- technical conceptualisation of the social educator erable option is family care. Some even believe and by a misinterpretation of professional dis- that it may be preferable to leave the child with tance, which can be a good instrument to protect their biological family before fostering them in a against burnout while leading away from the re- residential centre. One of the arguments used is parative affective bond that these children need. that many of the problems observed in children These factors would be limiting and undermining who are in institutional foster care disappear the nurturing functions and potential impact of [PROFESSIONAL PARENTING IN INSTITUTIONAL FOSTER CARE: PROPOSAL TO IMPROVE CARE OF CHILDREN…] SIPS - PEDAGOGÍA SOCIAL. REVISTA INTERUNIVERSITARIA [(2019) 34, 91-103] TERCERA ÉPOCA Copyright © 2015 SIPS. Licencia Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial (by-nc) Spain 3.0 eISSN: 1989-9742 © SIPS. DOI: 10.7179/PSRI_2019.34.07 [94] http://recyt.fecyt.es/index.php/PSRI/ the social educator. For this reason, we propose failures and constant family changes, which even the concept of professional parenting in order further deepen their trauma (Vinnerljung, Sallnäs, to resituate the role of the social educator as a & Berlin, 2017). In this vein, in recent years some comprehensive nurturer and to overcome some researchers have noted that residential centres barriers which this professional figure has faced can offer greater stability for children and ado- in the transition from the care model to the soci- lescents for whom foster families are not appro- oeducational model. By professional parenting we priate or desired (Holmes, Connolly, Mortimer, & mean the pedagogue or social educator taking on Hevesi, 2018). For this reason, having a protection the family roles in the foster care at a residential model with different options in terms of the type centre, although this figure already exists in pro- of measures and centres enables children and fessional family foster care. their needs to be placed at the core of the deci- sion. However, this does not eliminate the need to 2. Family upbringing in the transition explore strategies ensure that residential centres from the care-based model to the have a more positive impact on children’s devel- socioeducational model of child opment, but instead it makes it even more urgent. protection If we analyse the evolution of institutional and family foster care in recent decades, we find that In the 1990s, after numerous studies which re- the improvement strategies seem to have pur- vealed the negative impact of institutionalisation sued different routes. While in family foster care on development, different reports were issued the main efforts have focused on empowering and stating the need to change these large institutions training in parental habits, both to improve the for more family-sized residences, with lower stay process and its results (Balsells et al., 2015) and times, higher foster care ages, teams of specialised to prevent vulnerability (Orte et al. 2016), in resi- professionals and socioeducational programmes dential foster care the efforts have primarily been that go beyond mere care (e.g., The Quality of focused on setting quality standards in resources Care, Home, 1992; Acommodating Children, 1992). and interventions from a more technical-educa- In consequence, reforms were undertaken in tional standpoint. However, the relationship with the protection systems, with major divergences the social educators is the crux of the children’s among countries. Thus, in some countries the ma- and adolescents’ perceived wellbeing (Llosa- jority of institutions were closed and the children da-Gistau, Casas, & Montserrat, 2017). were fostered in families; in others, such as Spain, In residential foster care, it is assumed that the the resources were diversified while maintaining centres are the children’s homes; however, in the most of the structures and adapting them to the educational regulations and projects no reference recommendations (Fernández del Valle & Bravo, is made to family upbringing, thus ignoring its im- 2013). In these three decades, regulations have portance in child and adolescent development. Al- been adopted aimed at gradually attaining fami- though it is true that working plans on the commu- ly-sized centres and more individual and nurturing nicative, social and school aspects are included in interventions. Thus, the old institutions are grad- the educational plans, family upbringing is broader ually reorganising their buildings to have smaller and requires one adult to take over the parental sizes, and they are professionalising their teams functions, and this implies an affective bond and and development programmes, projects and edu- the organisation of times according to the chil- cational evaluations. dren’s needs, which can be difficult to combine with Over these years, interventions have become the social educators’ aspirations and job demands. more technical, yet the evidence provided by Also it is possible that caution and professionals’ studies on the impact of institutional foster care and centres’ fear that the original family may view are nonetheless worrisome. If we consider the professional parenting as an attempt to usurp their results, it seems that the efficiency of the inter- figure and downplay their bond with the child have ventions are still far under the interventions of generated a kind of self-censure from taking on pa- non-professional adults who take on the upbring- rental functions (Holmes et al., 2018). The original ing of these children as foster parents (Dozier et family will always be a fundamental referent for al., 2012; Gypen et al., 2017). This has led many children and adolescents (Gradaílle, Montserrat, & countries to choose to limit residential foster care Ballester, 2018); however, we are living in a society to children with serious mental health problems when alloparental care is becoming more widely or disabilities. However, this policy also shows accepted (Holmes et al., 2018). significant problems, especially with adolescents, Children need a parental figure present who who do not always accept the imposition of a fos- meets their needs and guides them in their learn- ter family. This may lead to multiple ruptures and ing. This figure is taken on by foster parents in the [Josefina SALA ROCA] SIPS - PEDAGOGÍA SOCIAL. REVISTA INTERUNIVERSITARIA [(2019) 34, 91-103] TERCERA ÉPOCA Copyright © 2015 SIPS. Licencia Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial (by-nc) Spain 3.0 [95] eISSN: 1989-9742 © SIPS. DOI: 10.7179/PSRI_2019.34.07 http://recyt.fecyt.es/index.php/PSRI/ family foster care measure, and it should be pro- & Sala-Roca, 2014), as are a good educational lev- vided by social educators in a residential setting. el which is grounded upon basic school learning It is logical that the social educator may not feel (Cassarino-Perez, Crous, Goemans, Montserrat, the natural motivation conferred by attachment & Sarriera, 2018). to make these intense efforts, but their motiva- tion should emerge from an understanding of the 3. Professional parenting in institutional child’s needs and the awareness of the impact of foster care their intervention. This is why it is essential for the professional to understand the extreme impor- The family is essential in human development. It tance of their intervention, not only in the present covers basic needs; it provides protection and but also assessin its impact on the future life of physical and emotional wellbeing; and it is the the child or adolescent. main source of stimuli to develop instrumental, In countries like Spain, with extremely high communicative, cognitive and socio-emotional rates of youth unemployment, the family is the skills. The family is the first space of socialisation, lifesaver for the majority of youths, who do not where we learn to interact with others; we build become independent until quite advanced ages. our self-esteem and evaluative emotions within However, youths who are in the protection sys- the family. Likewise, the family also provides us tem do not have a family with this protective po- with cultural and social capital, conveying knowl- tential. There is very little assistance to deal with edge about the environment and fostering the re- the transition to independent living without rely- lationships which we need in order to positively ing on the nuclear family, and they do not always integrate into society. match the youths’ profiles and needs (Comaso- Taking on the care and upbringing of a child livas, Sala-Roca, & Arpón, 2018). Therefore, the or adolescent who has suffered from neglect or most effective intervention consists largely in de- abuse entails several responsibilities. This is why veloping skills and personal and social resources in residential foster care the parental function during childhood and adolescence which will be must not solely address basic needs and stimu- needed for the transition to independence, as late and guide development and learning while well as finding support in the different life stages. ensuring and advocating for the child’s wellbeing These lessons and resources cannot be provid- and interests, but it should also provide spaces ed within the span of one year, which is the time and experiences to overcome the imprint that usually allotted in exit plans; instead, they must this neglect or abuse has left. Within this context, be provided since early childhood. For example, the social educator should not only care for and certain basic employability competences which stimulate the child in the absence of their parents; begin to be developed before puberty are need- they must also become a resilience guardian. ed to secure a job (Arnau-Sabatés, Marzo, Jariot, [PROFESSIONAL PARENTING IN INSTITUTIONAL FOSTER CARE: PROPOSAL TO IMPROVE CARE OF CHILDREN…] SIPS - PEDAGOGÍA SOCIAL. REVISTA INTERUNIVERSITARIA [(2019) 34, 91-103] TERCERA ÉPOCA Copyright © 2015 SIPS. Licencia Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial (by-nc) Spain 3.0 eISSN: 1989-9742 © SIPS. DOI: 10.7179/PSRI_2019.34.07 [96] http://recyt.fecyt.es/index.php/PSRI/                                                                             Figure 1. Professional parenting and intervention models. 3.1. Protective function rejection, moral harassment and bullying which many children fostered in centres face at school Among the different functions entailed in profes- (Martin, Muñoz, Rodríguez, & Pérez, 2008; Vacca sional parenting, the protective function is the one & Kramer-Vida, 2012). Social educators, just like on which all professionals concur. Certainly, many any parent, should be attentive to detect possi- children feel relieved when they enter residential ble situations of bullying which the children under foster care because it offers them a stable place to their charge may be experiencing outside the cen- live, where they access the basic services and food tre and intervene when this happens. Even though is secure. The professionalization of caregivers and these experiences are extremely harmful for all the oversight of the administration has led to a children, they are even more so for children who drastic decrease in the abuse that may have hap- have already experienced traumatic experiences, pened in these institutions in the past. Today, the without close friends or a family who can provide main security risks may come from the youths at them with emotional security. the centres or their environs, which are models of risk due to drug consumption or criminal activities. 3.2. Reparative bonding Much work remains to be done in this sphere, given that fostered youths are 50 times more likely to en- One of the most important functions of profes- ter a juvenile justice centre than their non-fostered sional parenting is creating a reparative affective peers, and almost all these youths come from in- bond. The attachment bond stimulates socioemo- stitutional foster care measures (Oriol-Granado et tional development and imprints the mental rep- al., 2015). The inadequate models is a problem also resentation of social relations and what can be faced by many families living in neighbourhoods expected of the people around us. with high crime rates, and addressing it means in- Many fostered children have insecure attach- vesting efforts in moral development and getting ment (Vorria et al., 2003). It is calculated that chil- the child or adolescent involved in sports or activ- dren who have suffered from abuse are 80 times ities that not only prevent them from having too more likely to develop insecure, anxious, ambiva- much idle free time but also improve their self-es- lent or disorganised attachment (for a review, see teem. In this area, few youths have fun spaces that Sutton, 2019). Their baggage of traumatic experi- they share with their social educators, important ences and abuse is often further weighted down experiencies for their education and development by the experience of being separated from their (Sala-Roca et al., 2012). home, friends and classmates or neighbourhood Another no less important problem which mates, family and acquaintances. It is common for social educators have to address is cases of these children to experience different changes at [Josefina SALA ROCA] SIPS - PEDAGOGÍA SOCIAL. REVISTA INTERUNIVERSITARIA [(2019) 34, 91-103] TERCERA ÉPOCA Copyright © 2015 SIPS. Licencia Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial (by-nc) Spain 3.0 [97] eISSN: 1989-9742 © SIPS. DOI: 10.7179/PSRI_2019.34.07 http://recyt.fecyt.es/index.php/PSRI/ the centre, with the destruction and uprooting of professionals have misinterpreted the concept of new social circles which they may have been able “professional distance”. The youths complain of to create. This will even further magnify their dif- the lack of closeness with their social educators ficulties building trusting relationships and bonds in the sense that they have access to the youths’ like the ones needed for friendship. private lives yet never talk about their own (Sol- Anxious bonds tend to lead to affective de- devila, Peregrino, Oriol, & Filella, 2013), thus miss- pendencies and fear of rejection (Lecannelier, ing not only a chance to facilitate the bond but 2002), while episodes of anger and hostility char- also a basic nurturing resource in families. The acterise ambivalent bonds (Kerr, Melley, Travea, concept of “professional distance” should be re- & Pole, 2003). When parental behaviour is very placed by “optimal proximity”. In fact, empathy distorted, with conducts such as abandonment, or and engagement are the aspects that the youths fear-inducing or sexualised behaviours, as in dis- value the most in professionals (Montserrat & Me- organised attachment, the response expectations lendro, 2017), and satisfaction with the relation- built in this relationship are tinged with aggressive- ship with the social educator is one of the factors ness, sexuality or indifference (Hawkins-Rodgers, that contributes the most to the youths’ wellbeing 2007). However, the greatest difficulties will be (Llosada-Gistau et al., 2017). faced by children who never manage to construct As Maturana says, the transformation occurs an affective bond in their first few years of life and by living together, and the world to which the child show a reactive disorder in this bond. There is a has access expands through language and retell- high prevalence of this disorder among fostered ing our experiences (Maturana, 2004). Parents children, and it is associated with experiences of recount present and past experiences as educa- serious abuse and entry into centres in their early tional parables that enable their children to learn years of life (Minnis et al., 2013). without the need to have had the experience Insecure attachments have a series of conse- themselves. This is a child-rearing strategy which quences which end up amplifying the impact in has shaped the evolution of human beings. A so- the long term. Thus, the limitations that tend to cial educator who does not use their life experi- come with insecure attachments in socio-emo- ences to illustrate the values or lessons they are tional development hinder the children from trying to convey impoverishes their educational creating solid, trusting social relations with which potential. Without a doubt, sharing all of this ex- they can build their network of social support, perience would take longer than the amount of which is so essential to dealing with the multiple time set aside for guidance, so it is necessary to difficulties that they will face in their premature take advantage of moments in everyday life, such and forced transition to independent living. Stud- as travel, meals, sitting on the sofa, free-time, etc. ies concur that the majority of fostered youths The use of these everyday times is what shapes have weak support networks (Bravo & Fernández the nurturing potential of the family environ- del Valle, 2003; Hook & Courtney, 2011; Martin ment. It is a primarily informal, unplanned kind of et al., 2008; Sala-Roca, Villalba, Jariot, & Arnau, upbringing, yet it has a great deal of impact and 2012). In this sense, youths state that centres are importance. hardly involved in helping them create social net- works (Sala-Roca et al., 2012). 3.3. Stimulation of development Boris Cyrulnik (2002) states that insecure bonding styles can be reconstructed via repara- Many fostered children and adolescents show de- tive affective bonds. Youths often show resistance lays in their development of skills and knowledge. to the nurturing mentoring provided by their fos- These shortcomings will weave a web of exclusion ter caregiver (Villalba, 2017). This resistance tends throughout their lives. Thus, delays in cognitive de- to stem from the unease and mistrust generated velopment (Dozier et al., 2012) are associated with by so many experiences of rupture. To overcome school failure (Montserrat et al., 2013; Sala-Roca them, a reparative affective bond has to be con- et al., 2009), hindering their future job opportu- structed with the professionals, and the latter nities (Courtney & Dworsky, 2006; Sala-Roca et then become a trustworthy, available person. The al., 2009) and paving the way for chronic poverty adolescent must feel that their social educator has (Naccarato, Brophy, & Courtney, 2010). This situa- a real, authentic interest in them, and they must tion is further aggravated by the lower socioemo- find that when they need their social educator’s tional skills of these youths (Oriol-Granado, et al., support, it is given within a reasonable timeframe. 2014; Zárate-Alva & Sala-Roca, 2019), which lead Some youths experience bonds with a social to poor social networks without any real potential educator that last beyond the time they remain in to provide support (Bravo & Fernández del Valle, the centre (Sala-Roca et al., 2012). However, many 2003; Martin et al., 2008). [PROFESSIONAL PARENTING IN INSTITUTIONAL FOSTER CARE: PROPOSAL TO IMPROVE CARE OF CHILDREN…] SIPS - PEDAGOGÍA SOCIAL. REVISTA INTERUNIVERSITARIA [(2019) 34, 91-103] TERCERA ÉPOCA Copyright © 2015 SIPS. Licencia Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial (by-nc) Spain 3.0 eISSN: 1989-9742 © SIPS. DOI: 10.7179/PSRI_2019.34.07 [98] http://recyt.fecyt.es/index.php/PSRI/ In some cases, these developmental delays with children’s emotions and observational learn- have originated from situations of abuse experi- ing necessarily affect children’s emotional security enced before foster care, or they may have ge- and regulation and their social adjustment (for a netic roots; yet in others, the cause could be the review, see Morris, Silk, Steinberg, Myers, & Rob- residential environment’s insufficient stimulating inson, 2007). capacity (Kääriälä, & Hiilamo, 2017). The high ratios Likewise, as a professional parental figure, the certainly make this task more difficult, but other social educator must also provide access to forma- educational centres, like preschools or schools, tive opportunities in the environs, which will allow have to take on even higher ratios. the children to acquire an essential part of social The high school failure rates in these children capital by stimulating their socioemotional devel- and adolescents (Montserrat, Casas, & Bertran, opment. The social networks of children in foster 2013) is extremely worrisome. A high percentage care at centres are very limited, and in some cas- of children enter centres with a history of ab- es they are even non-existent (Bravo & Fernández senteeism and school delay. The low academic del Valle, 2003; Martin, et al., 2008; Sala-Roca, et self-concept that comes with learning delays is an al. 2012). Furthermore, they experience multiple emotional burden which can easily lead to demo- ruptures with their milieus and experiences of up- tivation and absenteeism, with the added risk of rootedness. The first separation from their family hours on the street unsupervised. and social environment is coupled with different Parental involvement has a high impact on changes in the centre and/or family, rendering it school progress, especially when the child has impossible for them to gain a sense of belong- difficulties (for a review, see Spera, 2005). Con- ing, thus hindering the construction of a support sequently, the professional parental figure should network and limiting social interactions and the spend a significant amount of their time helping development of socioemotional skills. Childhood the child overcoming their difficulties with their social networks are constructed by sharing play studies and seeking additional sources of sup- spaces. For this reason, many parents encourage port. Just as in any family, the social educator too them by taking their children to the park, going on can take advantage of the resources provided by outings with other parents who have children the siblings and peer tutoring, with two-way benefits: same age, and inviting classmates to play or have a not only on academic skills but also on the social snack at their house, who in turn invite the child to skills, self-esteem and the moral development of their house. This kind of practice does not occur both parties. This is an area which requires a ma- in institutional foster care. This leads to the child jor effort, since the spaces in many centres are not being excluded from complicities and social rela- appropriate for concentrating, and there is little tions at their schools, and they avoid situations educational support (Sala-Roca et al., 2012). that could reveal that they do not live in a family, Socioemotional development is another area as tends to happen if a classmate invites them and that professional parents should emphasise, giv- they have to ask their social educators for permis- en that socioemotional development is one of the sion. Some centres, aware of the need to create clearest predictors of fostered youths’ social and the opportunities needed for the child to build a job insertion (Sala-Roca et al., 2009). Likewise, normal network of friends, encourage the children more than half the children in residential centres to invite their classmates to do their homework or show psychological problems (González-García, eat at the centre. However, these practices are all Bravo, Arruabarrena, Martín, Santos, & Del Valle, too rare (Marzo, Sala, Jariot, & Arnau, 2016). 2017), which can lead to disorders without the right socioemotional education. 3.4. Educating children to deal with Parke et al. (2002) state that the strategies that everyday life the family uses to promote socioemotional devel- opment are: modelling, since the parents are role Knowledge of the environment, the social rela- models of skills; instructions/explanations that tions and the values needed to live in a human adults provide on emotions and regulation strat- society cannot be learned in a classroom. The egies; and the regulation that the caregivers pro- majority of children learn how the world works by vide regarding access to learning opportunities accompanying their parents as they do activities. that exist in the milieu. Based on this model, the They get to know their environs (streets, markets, social educator should create spaces in the cen- means of transport, etc.) by observing how their tre with positive emotional climates and should parents get around in it. At early ages, they imitate be aware of the power they exercise as a role their parents in cleaning and cooking chores, and model. Different studies show that the emotional their parents let them help out in these activities. climate at home, parental behaviours associated Even though this may happen naturally in family [Josefina SALA ROCA] SIPS - PEDAGOGÍA SOCIAL. REVISTA INTERUNIVERSITARIA [(2019) 34, 91-103] TERCERA ÉPOCA Copyright © 2015 SIPS. Licencia Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial (by-nc) Spain 3.0 [99] eISSN: 1989-9742 © SIPS. DOI: 10.7179/PSRI_2019.34.07 http://recyt.fecyt.es/index.php/PSRI/ foster care, it does not happen in residential fos- by their adverse experiences which has led them ter care in Spain. The children who enter these to live in a juvenile justice centre, or to have sub- centres at an early age tend not to have access stance problems, or to find themselves living on to all the spaces that any child has at home. The the streets. centres tend to argue that it is more convenient to organise the shopping, cooking and washing up 4. Conclusions without the children present, without being aware of how this is depriving them of stimulation and in- There are many reasons that can lead a child to formation. Other times, they refer to safety regu- be separated from their original family because lations, which are contradictory with the nurturing it is considered deficient for or even damaging to mission assigned to the centres but which could their development. This is a heavy responsibility be overcome with a bit of ingenuity. In fact, there which is entrusted to social educators who have are centres that are organised so that the children to care for and raise them in residential centres. occasionally participate in shopping, cleaning, The empirical evidence of the shortcomings that cooking workshops and household repairs and these children experience in protection centres learn how to use transport autonomously, priori- raises many doubts regarding the efficiency of the tise and manage budgets, etc. That is, they are or- separation measures and even shows that at times ganised to allow the children access to family ed- they can be harmful (Dozier et al., 2012). On the ucational spaces to which children in foster care other hand, studies concur that protection cen- have access. However, these experiences are few tres are more impoverished environments than and far between (Marzo et al., 2016). foster families and that they do not sufficiently stimulate the children (Gypen et al. 2017). Some 3.5. Resilience guardian centres introduce nurturing practices that incor- porate elements of family upbringing; however, Finally, one of the most complex challenges for they are rare experiences that have not spread to the social educator, as well as for any parental fig- all residential facilities (Marzo et al., 2016). ure, is to empower the youths and help them over- In this manuscript, we have suggested locating come their traumas, thus becoming their resilience the professional parental figure in the residential guardian (Ciurana, 2016; Melendro, Montserrat, Ig- foster care centre; we have explored important lesias, & Cruz, 2016). Studies show that resilience functions that should be performed, such as es- processes and overcoming highly adverse situa- tablishing reparative bonds, stimulating develop- tions, such as the ones the fostered children and ment and supporting and guiding the resilience adolescents have experienced, should be sought processes; and we have reviewed studies that in multiple factors within the children themselves show that there are still some deficits in this re- and their environment, and in the transactions be- gard. This survey enables us to assert that struc- tween both kinds of factors. In some cases, the tural changes are still needed to fully work within goal is to discover talents or utilise social skills, the socioeducational model. Advances have been while in others it is finding a purpose in life. The made from the methodological standpoint with catalysts of the resilience process may be differ- the design of instruments and procedures, but a ent for each child, although there always tends change in conceptual positioning is also needed to be a process of understanding and accepting by resituating the role of the social educator as their own history; an empowerment process; fa- a professional parental figure. The alloparenting cilitators such as humour, talents, positive self-es- framework of family foster care is also possible teem, social skills, etc.; and support figures such in institutional foster care. The social educator as a social educator, a teacher, an employer, etc. as a parental figure should guide their interven- (Kumpfer, 2002). The social educator can become tion towards the principle of “optimal proximity”, a resilience guardian by guiding the child or ad- create reparative bonds and incorporate strat- olescent towards understanding and accepting egies which are commonly used in families, such their own history through storytelling and accom- as those noted by Parke et al. (2002): modelling, panying them in their process of mourning and instruction and regulation of learning spaces and healing (Cyrulnik, 2002). In fact, many formerly experiences. The social educator’s life experience fostered youths state that their guardian was an thus become a meaningful resource in this new essential part of their healing process (Sala-Roca role. et al., 2012). However, there is still a long way to Preparation for adult life should begin the go before we can ensure that a higher percentage first day the child enters the protection system, of adolescents manage to overcome their traumas because the capacities that are needed at that and reach adulthood while avoiding the traps laid time rely upon their communicative, cognitive, [PROFESSIONAL PARENTING IN INSTITUTIONAL FOSTER CARE: PROPOSAL TO IMPROVE CARE OF CHILDREN…] SIPS - PEDAGOGÍA SOCIAL. REVISTA INTERUNIVERSITARIA [(2019) 34, 91-103] TERCERA ÉPOCA Copyright © 2015 SIPS. Licencia Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial (by-nc) Spain 3.0 eISSN: 1989-9742 © SIPS. DOI: 10.7179/PSRI_2019.34.07 [100] http://recyt.fecyt.es/index.php/PSRI/ socioemotional and oral development, as well as the biological family cannot perform this function their knowledge of the world. This preparation is properly, the parental function must be taken on not possible in a care-oriented model geared to- by proxy by a foster family, or by a professional wards covering basic needs, nor with profession- parent in an institutional environment, or profes- als who take a fundamentally technical position. sional family. However, substitute parenting, pro- The development of the competences needed to fessional or not, can also be negligent if it does deal with life independently require the upbring- ing that only engaged parents can provide. When not accept the functions and responsibilities it entails, casting doubt on foster care as a protective measure as opposed to the neglect of the original family. Note * In order to streamline the text, the masculine form is used to generically refer to both sexes. References Arnau-Sabatés, L., Marzo, M. T., Jariot, M., & Sala-Roca, J. (2014). 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DOI: 10.7179/PSRI_2019.34.07 http://recyt.fecyt.es/index.php/PSRI/ HOW TO CITE THE ARTICLE Sala-Roca, J. (2019). Parentalidad profesional en el acogimiento institucional: propuesta para me- jorar la atención a los niños acogidos en centros de protección. Pedagogía Social. Revista Interu- niversitaria, 34 91-103. DOI:10.7179/PSRI_2019.34.07 AUTHOR’S ADDRESS JOSEFINA SALA ROCA. Fina.Sala@uab.cat ACADEMIC PROFILE JOSEFINA SALA ROCA. Profesora del departamento de Pedagogía Sistemática y Social de la Universidad Autónoma de Barcelona. Coordina el grupo de Investigación de Infancia y Adoles- cencia en Riesgo Social (IARS). El grupo IARS en colaboración con FEPA, FEDAIA y DGAIA ha desarrollado diversos estudios sobre los factores que inciden en el bienestar y desarrollo positivo de los jóvenes tutelados, así como de las dificultades y apoyos a su transición a la vida indepen- diente. Las investigaciones desarrolladas se han publicado en diversos artículos e informes. [PROFESSIONAL PARENTING IN INSTITUTIONAL FOSTER CARE: PROPOSAL TO IMPROVE CARE OF CHILDREN…] SIPS - PEDAGOGÍA SOCIAL. REVISTA INTERUNIVERSITARIA [(2019) 34, 91-103] TERCERA ÉPOCA Copyright © 2015 SIPS. Licencia Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial (by-nc) Spain 3.0