ORIGINAL RESEARCH published: 14 January 2019 doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02761 The Impact of the Content of the Label on the Buying Intention of a Wine Consumer Diana Escandon-Barbosa 1* and Josep Rialp-Criado 2 1 Gestión de Organizaciones Department, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana Cali, Cali, Colombia, 2 Economia i Empresa, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain This paper aims to analyze the influence of the content of the label of wine bottles on the purchase intention of wine. The sample was 114 individuals (51, 32% women and 48, 67% men) inside simulated Supermarket at Javeriana University of the city of Cali (Colombia). They were viewed for 2 min in front of a grocery shelving with 100 wines. The study uses eye tracking to estimate the behavior related to wine attributes included on the label of wine bottles, specifically the denomination of origin, nutritional information, and health warnings. The authors use the hierarchical model methodology, which generates a pattern of relationships among variables. Among the results, it is possible to determine a consistent model for purchase intention, where the mentioned components of the label that are related to wine attributes and their interactions constitute important factors in the possibility of influencing a purchase intention. However, when executing a group division of the audience attending to the experience in wine consumption, it is evident that based on their experience, consumers read the labels’ information Edited by: Ana I. Jiménez-Zarco, differently, causing certain effects in their buying intention. Universitat Oberta de Catalunya, Spain Keywords: labels, purchase intention, expert consumers, novices, gender Reviewed by: Giuseppe Santisi, INTRODUCTION Università di Catania, Italy Montserrat Balas, To study the consumer behavior and their process for decision making, the marketing field Complutense University of Madrid, Spain has increased by theories, methodologies obtained from different sciences such as psychology, sociology, economy and other (Stasi et al., 2018). *Correspondence: Diana Escandon-Barbosa Analysis of consumer behavior validates that for the same type of product there are different dmescandon@javerianacali.edu.co consumption groups. As a consequence, consumer product producers as well as scholars have created different market segmentations, specific to each product, which allow for the development Specialty section: of deeper and more intensive analyses to understand each population group. Since 1980 there have This article was submitted to been studies about the different wine consumption segments, organized by socio-demographic Organizational Psychology, characteristics like lifestyle, geographical location, and others (Szolnoki and Hoffmann, 2013; a section of the journal Gluckman, 1990). Within the existing segmentations, this research focuses on two groups: by type Frontiers in Psychology of expertise in consumption and by gender. Received: 22 September 2018 Gender equality has evolved in all dimensions of society and its customs, having a direct Accepted: 21 December 2018 influence on the consumption habits and the roles played by men and women within the family Published: 14 January 2019 and among shopping and purchasing behaviors, given that today’s egalitarian values greatly affect Citation: purchasing decisions. A considerable number of studies have included gender as a key determinant Escandon-Barbosa D and in their research to explain the different perceptions of men and women (Buss, 1988; Baltas, 1997; Rialp-Criado J (2019) The Impact of the Content of the Label on Eagly and Steffen, 2000). However, few studies have demonstrated the role of gender as relevant to the Buying Intention of a Wine analyze the influence of label content on purchase intention (Slama and Williams, 1990; Miquel Consumer. Front. Psychol. 9:2761. et al., 2017). This few research are demonstrative of gender is relevant for consumer behavior doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02761 studies. Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 1 January 2019 | Volume 9 | Article 2761 Escandon-Barbosa and Rialp-Criado TRACK Consumer Behavior In general, the effectiveness of content of labels is associate of To cover our objectives, this article is divided into the have confidence information (Liao et al., 2015; Songa et al., 2019) following sections: a first part includes the theoretical framework and it generate emotional connection for decision-marking for and the approach to the study hypothesis; this is followed by the purchase. methodology used to test the hypothesis, the discussion of the On the other hand, there are further types of consumers results, and conclusions. who are classified by their level of expertise or knowledge of the product. Expert consumers are those who know the product because they tend to be recurring consumers, while non-experts BACKGROUND LITERATURE are those sporadic consumers who have low product information. In this sense, studies in the literature have shown that there are With regard to consumer behavior, the purchase intention two types of highly differentiated consumers due to the volume is a key aspect that can be defined as the probability of of information they can process and understand when selecting buying the labeled product (Hawley et al., 2013). According and buying a product. Although it is recognized that they are to Goh et al. (2016), the purchase intention is an effective two different market segments, there are few studies that explore tool to predict the buying process, given that consumers’ these differences. In the case of the content of the label, no purchase decisions will be driven by their intentions. The use study that analyzes the differences between expert and non-expert of the information presented on labels has an impact that consumers has been found. has been highlighted in many different investigations (Campos This project aims to give continuity to the schemes that et al., 2011; Thøgersen et al., 2017), which have reported analyze the influence of the content of the product’s label on the different aspects to consider, for instance the preference for purchase intention for the product (Sherman and Tuten, 2011; short labels on the front of the product in contrast to long Tang et al., 2015; Danner et al., 2017). Additionally, this study descriptions on the back (Williams, 2005; Herpen and Trijp, focuses on analyzing the presence of the denomination of the 2011). product’s origin, nutritional information, and health warnings on Accordingly, the denomination of origin is an influential the product’s label in relation to consumption, and it seeks to factor in the purchase decision for wine, especially for those examine how these aspects relate to the purchase intention within people who do not have prior knowledge and experience in their the two classifications – expert and non-expert – and by gender. consumption (Campos et al., 2011). In this case, the selected product to analyze the effect of these label Furthermore, expert consumers read the label’s information components on purchase intention is wine. differently compared to non-expert consumers. According to Nowadays, the main wine-consuming countries have seen this Mitchell and Dacin (1996) and Carsana and Jolibert (2015), while product changing from being sold only in specialized stores to non-expert consumers try to make a quick choice and detail being bought mostly through retail channels in mass-market few wine attributes, the denomination of origin is one of the stores (Lick et al., 2017). This implies that the process carried out few attributes used by this group of consumers. In contrast, the by consumers for their selection and purchase is quite complex, expert consumer has a longer purchase process, in which he/she as it is influenced by many factors and fulfills the conditions of considers different sources of additional information from the the retail market, for example, that it is bought without being denomination of origin. able to prove it (Lick et al., 2017). According to Lick et al. Therefore, the denomination of origin is a characteristic used (2017), the three key objectives to achieving a product sale in the mainly by non-expert consumers, and it may even be irrelevant retail channel must be met by packaging. These are: attract the for expert consumers (Mueller and Szolnoki, 2010). In the case consumer, provide information, and persuade him/her to make of non-expert consumers, the denomination of origin allows the purchase. them to obtain sufficient information to increase their purchase The receptive interaction between the consumer and the intention given that it allows them to gain generic information product plays a significant role in the purchase intention. This is about the quality of the wine just by knowing the place of origin because nowadays the packaging is no longer a purely functional (Read et al., 2016). tool but has become a mechanism to establish a close relationship Yet another part of the label that acts on the intention with the consumer. The packaging of wine, especially the main of purchasing wine by expert consumers and, to a lesser bottle label, is responsible not only for transmitting information extent, by non-expert consumers is the nutritional information. about the product as such, but it also serves to connect with the Its influence has been shown to be greater in women than emotions and expectations of the consumer (Krishna et al., 2017). in men. Several investigations about the effectiveness of the For consumers of this product, choosing a wine at the retail use of nutritional information on labels and its influence on location is not an easy task given its wide variety. Therefore, consumer decisions have been carried out (Drichoutis et al., 2005; the descriptions provided on the wine bottles’ labels are usually Annunziata et al., 2016). It should be noted that the labeling very useful information for the consumer at the moment of their requirements for alcoholic beverages differ depending on the choice. Sherman and Tuten (2011); Tang et al. (2015), and Danner country and have a limited scope with regard to the information et al. (2017) have pointed out that wine labels play a meaningful on labels of other products (Mueller et al., 2010). role in the consumer’s choice, influencing their expectations and Apart from the obligatory nature of this type of information emotional responses and generating changes in the acceptability on the labels, the effectiveness of the information resides in of the product. the consumer’s interest in it and in his or her capacity for Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 2 January 2019 | Volume 9 | Article 2761 Escandon-Barbosa and Rialp-Criado TRACK Consumer Behavior understanding it (Mueller et al., 2010). In the case of wine, though purchase of wine in the retail channel takes no more than 10 min labels are often neglected with respect to nutritional information, (Schnettler and Rivera, 2003); therefore, both the information on it has been demonstrated that for experienced consumers it is a the label and the valuation of the product will be closely related key source of information because it provides them details about to the amount of time consumers take to observe and analyze it the quality of the wine (Kleef and Dagevos, 2015) and allows them (Krishna et al., 2017). to attend to decisions about the authenticity of the product (Youn The interaction of different components of the wine labels – and Kim, 2017). such as the denomination of origin, health warnings, and Nevertheless, in the case of the influence of nutritional nutritional information – and their influence on the purchase information by gender, no evidence of differentiation has intention has not been analyzed in previous studies. This been found in the literature. However, when women read interaction can be highly relevant in experienced consumers more information on the product labels, this creates a because they seek the most information available to be certain greater contact with the nutritional information of the about their purchase. product. Additionally, compared to men, women may In the case of considering the denomination of origin and have a broader intention to buy based on the nutritional the nutritional information, though no previous works have information because they base their decisions on other analyzed this combination, it is important to emphasize that these information available or on the opinion of others. In this components are the ones that occupy the most visual space within sense, since wine is a product of social prestige, with high the wine label. In this sense, in the case of people who observe the publicity about its nutritional and health benefits (Yap and label, this information can help to generate a classification of the Tan, 2017), it can generate a larger effect in this population product or some stimulus (Gutman, 1982). group. With regard to expert consumers, they use the denomination Health warnings on the labels of alcoholic beverages have of origin only in combination with other characteristics, or when been established in some countries, according to regulatory the other information is incomplete or ambiguous (Perrouty authorities, to make consumers aware of the harmful effects et al., 2006). In addition, these consumers significantly value the of alcohol on the human body. These warnings provide greater amount of information available on the label, given that information like alcohol levels, restrictions for specific population they can distinguish and separate the different types of wines groups (minors, pregnant women, and people who will into categories by analyzing the exhibited information (Solomon, drive after consumption), information about the presence 1997). of some potential allergens, and maximum daily values of In general terms, the information on the label such as the alcohol consumption. Such warnings vary depending on the denomination of origin, nutritional information, and health country. warnings are key aspects to transfer to the consumer the The presence of warnings on the labels has been widely experience that can be produced when enjoying the product. examined by producers, but some entities such as the World For expert consumers, it is highly relevant to have the largest Health Organization are concerned about not having more amount of information available to make a selection. Expert effective measures. Kersbergen and Field (2017) have claimed consumers make a deeper and more detailed analysis of the that these warnings have limited effect, given that consumers label than do non-expert consumers. What’s more, the level do not pay enough attention to this part of the label. Thus, the of understanding of the information is also different between scarce information related to health displayed on wine labels the two types of consumers. For instance, for experts, having and other alcohol beverages is focused on promoting moderate more information generates a positive impression because it consumption, which leads the consumer to consider the negative manages to implement different categories of analysis to make the effects of the consumption of these products. purchase decision. Yet a greater amount of information requires As a result, health warnings are visibly displayed on the label further cognitive processes and may exceed the comprehension with bold letter sizes or colors to discourage consumers from capacity, especially for non-expert consumers, creating a sense of all population groups (experts, non-experts, men, women, etc.). confusion (Beverland, 2006). Consequently, we postulate: Nowadays, however, a large number of mainstream publications have upheld the positive effects of wine on the health of the people Hypothesis 1: The thoughtfulness in health warnings who consume it, offsetting these cautions. strengthens the positive influence of the attention in Consequently, a model that examines how the components denomination of origin and purchase intention, but this of the label can affect the purchase intention for wine has been relationship strengthens as nutritional information of both developed. From previous studies in the literature, different increases, for expert and non-expert wine consumers. hypotheses have been proposed according to the type of consumer (wine experts and non-experts) and by gender to find possible similarities or differences in these population groups. On the other hand, the examination of multiple components of the label from the gender perspective is associated with Hypotheses differences in information processing between men and women The wine label must be able to display the information in the (Rodgers and Harris, 2003). For example, in the case of buying most practical and precise way so that the consumer can make wine, women seek information that is quick and easy to process, his/her purchase decision, in lieu of an alternative product. The such as the designation of origin and nutritional information, to Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 3 January 2019 | Volume 9 | Article 2761 Escandon-Barbosa and Rialp-Criado TRACK Consumer Behavior make their decision, while men tend to make a more detailed Colombia. The university has a laboratory that simulates a analysis of that information. supermarket in an area of 125 m2 . This laboratory was equipped A recent study demonstrates a highly accepted point of view with more than 100 wines. The sample (114 individuals, 51.32% which analyzes the gender differences in terms of self-construal women and 48.67% men; with a high concentration (45%) in (Cross and Madson, 1997). This vision intends to analyze the ages between 25 and 54 years old) was related to the Javeriana differences from the same mental process, which includes aspects University of the city of Cali (Colombia) and it was a good such as the processing of information, emotional differences, and representation of the Colombian population attending gender the willingness to explain the human behavior associated with and age standards (50.8% women and 49.2% men – 41.82% their decision making (Maddux and Brewer, 2005). Then, these between 25 and 54 years old). natural differences are united with social conceptions to create The study was conducted through eye tracking as an self-construal in a different way for each of the genders. investigation of the impact of visual images because it is principal Research on brand and consumer behavior found that exist form to acquire information (Songa et al., 2019) on tastes and differences between male and female. Female usually attention preferences through the wine attributes: denomination of origin, more strongly on the text, but male focus more on images nutritional information, and health warnings. (Putrevu, 2004; Goodrich-Hunsaker et al., 2011; Aschemann- This study was carried out in accordance with the Witzel et al., 2018). This is because males and females use recommendations of World Medical Asociation’s Declaration of different selectivity models to process information. Helsinki, it was performed in concordance with Editorial and Females use more comprehensive model with a selection form Ethics Committee of the FCEA and Institutional Committee, than those utilized by males (Goodrich, 2014). Additionally, Javeriana University. The protocol was approved by the Editorial female can read more careful that males when reading and Ethics Committee of the FCEA and Institutional Committee. information (Leong and Hawamdeh, 1999), allowing that female All subjects gave written informed consent in accordance with present a significantly greater tendency to read or explore product the Declaration of Helsinki. information than males because they wish to know more aspects To qualify, participants must have had a smartphone with of product content (Shaouf et al., 2016; Aschemann-Witzel et al., internet access and have reported consuming at least one glass 2018). of wine per week. Participants did not enroll in the study Consequently, men and women differ in the sort of until they completed a pre-intervention evaluation period that information they assume as relevant and on which they consider was used to confirm whether they met the minimum wine making their judgments and finally making the purchase decision consumption required for inclusion (8 oz per week or at least 7 (Wolin et al., 2002). Women are linked with being more visual drinks per week). On average, the randomly selected participants and using different sources of information to be able to interpret reported consuming 23 oz of wine during the period prior to the the product signals and to give a more informed opinion intervention. This process in which participants must report their (Meyers-Levy and Sternthal, 1991), while men tend to be more behavior in real time and context is called Momentary Ecological frequently engaged in intuitive processes with an interpretation Evaluation (Stone and Shiffman, 1994; Gibbons, 2017). of images (Hass, 1979; Joo et al., 2018). During the pre-registration period, participants had to answer In the case of women, to a greater extent than in men it is at least 14 of the 28 messages sent by EMA (90.5%) to be selected evident that during the wine selection process there is a high for the study. Participants who missed more than two messages predisposition toward reading and observing the content of the were given the opportunity to repeat the entire process with label (Atkin et al., 2007). Some studies carried out in multiple adequate compliance before being withdrawn from the study. regions of the world have argued that women tend to carefully Only three people managed to be admitted on their second consult the bottle label and its information when they are not sure attempt. about which wine to buy (Atkin and Sutanonpaiboon, 2007). To This procedure was repeated for the 114 participants who were sum up, we put forward: placed under laboratory conditions of the Universidad Javeriana Cali with an interval between trials of 1500 ms. Participants Hypothesis 2: The consideration in health warnings were observed for 2 min in front of a grocery shelving unit strengthens the positive impact of the attention in with approximately 100 wines, where it was possible to show denomination of origin and purchase intention, but more than 1200 observations regarding the participants and the this relationship strengthens as nutritional information combinations of the information on the wine label. increases in women compared to men consumers of wine. Accordingly, the theoretical model proposed for this research is visualized in Figure 1. Measurements Participants in this study were classified as expert and non-expert depending on the frequency of their wine consumption and the MATERIALS AND METHODS number of years of consumption. In general, non-expert is characterized by low years of Sample consumption and low weekly frequency; while expert is The selected participants for the study were men and women characterized by several years of consumption and high weekly who are part of Javeriana University in Cali, Valle del Cauca, frequency. Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 4 January 2019 | Volume 9 | Article 2761 Escandon-Barbosa and Rialp-Criado TRACK Consumer Behavior FIGURE 1 | Model. Moreover, to check Hypothesis 2, participants were divided by We find no significant heterogeneity “between-group” (Hotelling gender as a dichotomous variable to segment the wine consumers; T2 = 13.51, p = 0.14) for wine consumer in Colombia allowing women were assigned the value of 0 and men the value of 1. to conclude that purchase intention have a very relation with To measure purchase intention, the eye-tracking technique purchase final. Additionally, We utilized a jackknife resampling used these indicators: technique to check the robustness in our results. This technique is convenient for estimating the robustness of these types of models – Dwell Time: Total average time of visualization of the area, (Chambers and Chandra, 2013). The results confirm that sub- regardless of the number of fixations. survey estimations (jackknife) are very comparable to the original – First Fixation Duration: Time in milliseconds of the first results – providing assurance for the original estimations. fixation. – Revisits: How many more times the person entered to see the area of interest. RESULTS – Fixation Count: Number of fixations. – Average Fixation Duration: Average length for each Initially, we estimated an ANOVA model in which the fixation, in milliseconds. dependent variable was related to the purchase intention, and the independent variables were DO, NI, and H; subsequently With this information, a factor analysis was performed to we added double and triple interaction effects. To conclude, a obtain a common factor that explained 85% of the total variance graphic analysis of the interactions for each group of consumers of the original variables (KMO = 0.91); the common factor was carried out. The variables of gender and type of consumer presented an eigenvalue of 3.5. were also included to identify the differences between these Additionally, we did a testing of wine for consumer who groups. answered between two option: “I certainly would buy” Or “I am In general, the principal effects did not have a significant not sure would I buy” The purchase intention ratings increased impact, and only the consideration of the health warnings was when consumer affirm “I certainly would buy” but decrease when relevant according to the types of consumer (expert, non-expert). the answer that “I am not sure would I buy or not”. In General, Moreover, it was found that the double effects between the main purchase intention is high relation with actual purchase (Paired variables were significant for the two study groups, except for the t-test: 1.0236 p > 0.1). double effects that included gender or type of consumer. This In contrast, for the measurements of the denomination of result illustrates that wine consumers have to look for combined origin (DO), nutritional information (NI), and health warnings information to make a decision. In the case of triple effects, (H) variables, we wondered whether consumers would fix their unique values were achieved only in the interactions among gaze in these areas. Hence, these three variables were also DO, H, and gender because the combination of DO and gender dichotomous, with 0 if the consumer did not look at the area and was significant for women and less relevant for men (t = 3.1: 1 if the consumer observed it. women = 0.710, p > 0.10, men = 1.13, p < 0.05). Summing up, to check Hypotheses 1 and 2, which were the Robustness Checks main areas of investigation, Figures 2, 3 show the magnitude In our experiment, wine’s consumer tested and answered about and statistical significance of the coefficients reported in Table 1 their preferred wine and which wine they would buy in the future (Dawson and Richter, 2006). (Purchase real). We performed robustness checks on our results. The Y axis represents the obtained values for the purchase For robustness test purposes, we present results based to find intention for each group (by gender and level of expertise). In heterogeneity between purchase intention and purchase final. the X axis the different values of the independent variables are Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 5 January 2019 | Volume 9 | Article 2761 Escandon-Barbosa and Rialp-Criado TRACK Consumer Behavior FIGURE 2 | (A) Triple interaction in non-expert wine consumers. (B) Triple interaction in expert wine consumers. presented: (i) the consumer does not read the denomination of affects the purchase intention only if the consumer also reads the origin (0); (ii) the consumer reads the denomination of origin nutrient information (Function 3) but decreases if the consumer (1); (iii) the consumer does not read the nutritional information does not read this information (Function 4). Then, a low effect on (0); (iv) the consumer reads the nutritional information (1); the purchase intention is achieved when the consumer brings into (v) the consumer does not read health warnings (0); and (vi) consideration the three components of the label (DO, NI, and H) the consumer reads health warnings (1). Two levels of the because it is confuse for them. moderation variable are presented (Aiken and West, 1991; Figure 2B shows that expert wine consumers who do not Jaccard et al., 2003). read the health warnings but do read the denomination of origin In contrast, Figure 2 shows the interaction effect by type of decrease their purchase intention to a greater extent if they do not consumer. In Figure 2A, if a non-expert wine consumer does read the nutritional facts (Function 3) rather than reading this not read the health warnings, the designation of origin positively information (Function 4). When men read the health warnings, Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 6 January 2019 | Volume 9 | Article 2761 Escandon-Barbosa and Rialp-Criado TRACK Consumer Behavior FIGURE 3 | (A) Triple interaction in female wine consumers. (B) Triple interaction in male wine consumers. it is likely that if they also read the denomination of origin If the size of the effect is examined, it is found that for non- they can increase their purchase intention more if they obtain expert consumers the purchase intention is 4.54 and for experts additional information about nutrition (Function 1) than if not it is 8.86. Therefore, Hypothesis 1 is verified, though there are (Function 2). Therefore, the expert consumer will increase his or significant differences among the groups (p < 0.01): experts have her purchase intention when obtaining information on the three greater effects on their purchase intention by attending to the components of the label. three components of the label than do non-experts. This is consistent with Hypothesis 1, which affirms that the In this Graph, we provide behavioral differences between interaction of denomination of origin, health warnings, and expert and non-expert wine consumers, and it is possible to nutritional information increases the purchase intention of both visualize how decision making of expert is different to non- expert and non-expert wine consumers. expert: the expert consumer will increase his or her purchase Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 7 January 2019 | Volume 9 | Article 2761 Escandon-Barbosa and Rialp-Criado TRACK Consumer Behavior TABLE 1 | ANOVA for each consumer group. Non-expert consumer Expert consumer Woman Man Variable Coef B P-value b P-value b P-value b P-value DO b1 0.023 0.77 0.507 0.30 1.29 0.08 0.081 0.59 NI b2 0.001 0.93 1.505 0.08 1.57 0.05 0.050 0.67 H b3 0.654 0.13 0.625 0.25 0.951 0.13 1.20 0.04 DO∗ NI b4 0.021 0.78 2.35 0.03 1.31 0.08 0.24 0.35 DO∗ H b5 0.587 0.10 0.38 0.37 0.710 0.19 1.13 0.05 NI∗ H b6 0.013 0.82 2.75 0.02 1.70 0.04 0.028 0.75 DO∗ NI∗ H b7 0.318 0.02 1.82 0.05 1.38 0.07 0.988 0.07 intention when obtaining information on the three components TABLE 2 | Investigation hypothesis. of the label, but non-expert consumer won’t. Hypothesis Types of expert Gender Figure 3A shows that if women do not read the health warnings, the reading of the denomination of origin is more Non-expert Expert Women Men likely not to be carried out to improve their purchase intention H: DO∗ NI∗ H → PI Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted than when they read the nutritional information (Function 3), but decreases the purchase intention when they do not read the nutritional information (Function 4). When women read the health warnings, they are likely to read the denomination of CONCLUSION origin to aim for increasing their purchase intention to a greater extent if they obtain additional information on the nutritional The main objective of this research was to determine the influence facts (Function 1), but decreasing their intention to purchase if of the content of the label on the purchase intention of wine. they do not read the nutritional information (Function 2). In Carrero et al. (2016) highlighted the importance of labels to general, for women, the effect on purchase intention increases influence the purchase decision, recommending that companies significantly when they look at the three components of the labels. implement campaigns to inform and educate the consumer In the case of men (Figure 3B), if they do not read the about labels’ design and content. The search for strategies that health warnings, the reading of the denomination of origin is encourage consumer confidence in a product is a key factor for less likely not to be carried out, affecting their purchase intention influencing the purchase decision of any given consumer. This to a greater extent if they only read the nutritional information research confirmed that the available information on the label (Function 3) rather than not reading this information (Function can be highly positive in suggesting the purchase intention for 4). When men read the health warnings, it is likely that if they different consumers: experts, non-experts, women, and man (Van read the denomination of origin it will increase their purchase Den Bulcke and Verbeke, 2001; Hoek and Dewhirst, 2012; Bradu intention to a greater extent if they obtain additional information et al., 2014). about nutrition (Function 1) than if not (Function 2). In general, This study determined that the information on the label is for men the interaction effect of the purchase intention is high highly relevant to different types of consumers and to both when the three components of the label (DO, NI, and H) are genders. It is important to emphasize that nutritional information considered. is relevant to differentiate between non-expert and expert This is not consistent with Hypothesis 2, which states that consumers, as well as to show differences by gender. Therefore, the interaction of DO, NI, and H more positively influences the the nutritional information alone, compared to being combined purchase intention of women compared to men. If the size of with other parts of the label, positively influences the purchase the effect is evaluated, it is found that for women, the purchase intention to a greater extent in experts vs. non-experts and in intention is 4.05 and for men it is 12.88. Therefore, there are women vs. men. significant differences between men and women (p < 0.05); men In the case of expert consumers, considering all aspects of show a greater effect on their purchase intention by considering the label can create a more informed consumer and thus a more the three components of the label. informed decision; it is typical that this type of consumer always There are significant differences between the time men take uses the combined information to better analyze the product to make the decision and what women take (t = 4.87), being (Perrouty et al., 2006). Thus the expert consumer appreciates the higher for women (mean of women = 145 s; mean of men = 64 s). existence of detailed information on the label in order to classify This implies that women take decisions less rapid due to the time the different types of wine into categories (Solomon, 1997). dedicated to look for and analyze prior information before taking In the case of the non-expert consumer, though the content a decision, while men make it in a much more agile way. of the label can be confusing by not identifying the differences To sum up, the verifications of the hypothesis are shown in between the wines (and thus leading to the consumer’s failure to Table 2. classify them by type), it can be concluded that this consumer Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 8 January 2019 | Volume 9 | Article 2761 Escandon-Barbosa and Rialp-Criado TRACK Consumer Behavior does not observe the label in order to increase the purchase This article presents some recommendations given that the intention. Still, it is the combination of the denomination of research is important for academics as an aid for the creation origin and health warnings that together allow the consumer to and understanding of knowledge about consumer behavior for have some signal to make a decision. certain products and markets. Through the disclosure of relevant According to Atkin et al. (2007) women are prone to reading attributes in the purchase process, these can serve as guidelines to labels because they are more guided by the sense of vision. identify patterns in the consumption behavior for other products This reading does not necessarily lead to understanding in with characteristics similar to wine. an intellectual sense, but it makes them feel that they are For future researchers, it is recommended to integrate better informed after considering the label contents (Atkin this research with new discoveries and conclusions related and Sutanonpaiboon, 2007). Also, as women make decisions to consumer behavior, through the deepening of the cultural influenced by the opinions of others, they possess additional background that allows the identification of differences by information prior to the time of purchase and, therefore, country, culture, religion, or race in the consumption of alcoholic count on the information from the label to help them identify beverages. Furthermore, it is proposed as a future line of research the characteristics they were seeking (Venkatesh and Morris, to continue examining why in some products the health warnings 2000). For that reason, in this study it is emphasized that generate greater consumption, as in the case of wine, that is to say women, especially, rely on nutritional information for their that it does not discourage consumption but rather increases the decision making. Women use this information individually purchase intention of this product. This aspect can be compared or in combination with the other parts of the label such as with other alcoholic products to learn if the effect is the same. the denomination of origin, health warnings, and in general For the category of wine, this study provides relevant combining all parts of the label, whereas men are less visual than information about the content that a label must have. Thus, wine women if they actually read the labels. producers must pay special attention to the information provided With respect to the health advisories and in combination above in order to generate trust and brand awareness in the with the denomination of origin, it is possible to state that the market. The label content and the reliability of the data must be combined label information is also relevant for increasing the all-encompassing in order to increase purchase intention, which purchase intention, that is, access to more complete information later can be transformed into successful purchase and profit allows for an intuitive selection process based on signals that the generation for the producers. consumer can detect (Hass, 1979; Joo et al., 2018). An important bet for producers is to encourage wine tourism, We have to recognize that our study focuses on the analysis dedicated to advertising the activities related to wine and of a small part of the information media that customers its production process. This is the perfect opportunity for can use when making the purchasing decision in the field entrepreneurs to gain more expert consumers and to teach them of wines. We have focused on the label and we have leaved how to distinguish the attributes of good wine. out the analysis other sources of information that can be Other future paths of research can be associated with the more recurrent and habitual nowadays for wine experts (digital informational accuracy and ethical behavior of wine producers, forums of ethnologists, information from professional journals, given the dilemma presented by communicating the real health etc.). Furthermore, these other sources could contribute more warnings or nutritional information to consumers and increasing effectively to the purchase decision making of wine. We recognize their sales. The accountability for the label information can be that the consideration of this media represents a very interesting explored and the ethical behavior of the wine producer can be research line, so future research should address how wine considered in this process. producers could combine different sources of information to Other future research line is analyze how important is the influence in the purchase decision. information of the content of the label in the process of decision Other limitation is that this research the study leaves out to purchase this type of product and compare with other products the application of research techniques related to neuroscience to and it will archive complete this research and make a contribution validate or falsify if the activation of other senses such as smell in this field. or taste at the point of sale could be more relevant at the time of produce the experience of wine consumption, and therefore better predict the purchase intention. 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