ORIGINAL RESEARCH published: 31 May 2019 doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01294 Identification of Parameters That Predict Sport Climbing Performance Xavier Sanchez 1* , M. Torregrossa 2 , T. Woodman 3 , G. Jones 4 and D. J. Llewellyn 5 1 Department of Health and Sport, Halmstad University, Halmstad, Sweden, 2 Department of Psychology, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain, 3 School of Sport, Health and Exercise Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor, United Kingdom, 4 School of Clinical and Applied Sciences, Leeds Beckett University, Leeds, United Kingdom, 5 Medial School, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom In recent years, extreme sport-related pursuits including climbing have emerged not only as recreational activities but as competitive sports. Today, sport climbing is a rapidly developing, competitive sport included in the 2020 Olympic Games official program. Given recent developments, the understanding of which factors may influence actual climbing performance becomes critical. The present study aimed at identifying Edited by: key performance parameters as perceived by experts in predicting actual lead sport Maurizio Bertollo, climbing performance. Ten male (Mage = 28, SD = 6.6 years) expert climbers (7a+ to Università degli Studi G. d’Annunzio Chieti e Pescara, Italy 8b on-sight French Rating Scale of Difficulty), who were also registered as climbing Reviewed by: coaches, participated in semi-structured interviews. Participants’ responses were Ludovic Seifert, subjected to inductive-deductive content analysis. Several performance parameters Université de Rouen, France Jeff Elison, were identified: passing cruxes, strength and conditioning aspects, interaction with Adams State University, United States the environment, possessing a good climbing movement repertoire, risk management, *Correspondence: route management, mental balance, peer communication, and route preview. Route Xavier Sanchez previewing emerged as critical when it comes to preparing and planning ascents, xavier.sanchez@hh.se both cognitively and physically. That is, when optimizing decision making in relation Specialty section: to progressing on the route (ascent strategy forecasting) and when enhancing strategic This article was submitted to management in relation to the effort exerted on the route (ascent effort forecasting). Movement Science and Sport Psychology, Participants described how such planning for the ascent allows them to: select an a section of the journal accurate and comprehensive movement repertoire relative to the specific demands Frontiers in Psychology of the route and reject ineffective movements; optimize effective movements; and Received: 15 December 2018 Accepted: 16 May 2019 link different movements upward. As the sport of climbing continues to develop, our Published: 31 May 2019 findings provide a basis for further research that shall examine further how, each Citation: of these performance parameters identified, can most effectively be enhanced and Sanchez X, Torregrossa M, optimized to influence performance positively. In addition, the present study provides a Woodman T, Jones G and Llewellyn DJ (2019) Identification comprehensive view of parameters to consider when planning, designing and delivering of Parameters That Predict Sport holistic and coherent training programs aimed at enhancing climbing performance. Climbing Performance. Front. Psychol. 10:1294. Keywords: climbing, extreme sports, lead-climbing, performance parameters, qualitative analysis, route finding, doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01294 route previewing Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 1 May 2019 | Volume 10 | Article 1294 Sanchez et al. Climbing Performance Parameters INTRODUCTION The main objective of the present study was to identify sport climbing performance predictors so that future research can, In recent years, extreme sport-related pursuits such as climbing ultimately, influence both practice and performance. not only have emerged as recreational activities but have evolved In the sport of climbing, the consequence of a fall whilst into competitive mainstream sporting disciplines (Mittelstaedt, leading is complex and largely determined by the ability of 1997; Hoibian, 2017). Next to growing practice of sport climbing the belayer to arrest the fall, the length of fall, non-failure of as a leisure activity, competition environments and practices the protective equipment and whether impact is made with have been developing internationally since the first World the climbing surface during or at the termination of the fall. Championships held in Germany in 1991. Today, the sport of Climbers may elect to pre-practice a route prior to leading. climbing is a discipline included in the 2020 Olympic Games Pre-practice allows climbers to rehearse movement sequences, official program in Tokyo, and it is proposed for inclusion in evaluate potential risks and the likelihood of success in relative the 2024 Olympic Games official program in Paris. Despite the safety. It is common for individuals preparing to lead outdoor systematic and intensified training of athletes, the identification routes of the highest standards to pre-practice the ascent thereby and understanding of key factors that may influence actual sport increasing the chance of success and reduce the chance of failure climbing performance is warranted. Therefore, the present study due to a fall. Ascending a climbing route without conducting aimed at identifying key performance parameters as perceived by pre-practice is considered in the arena to be the personification experts in predicting actual lead sport climbing performance. of climbing performance. Critically, physical pre-practice is not Sport climbing takes place indoors as well as outdoors, permitted in competition – performances are what are labeled as and utilizes a belayed dynamic rope, which is attached to the “on-sight” – but a standardized time to visually preview the route climber. The belayed rope is connected to pre-fixed anchor prior to ascent by participants is allowed (i.e., route previewing). points during the ascent by the climber and the system acts Little research has examined the psychological requirements of to protect the climber in the event of a fall. From a sporting rock climbing although they are thought to be “a key element in point of view (see Stiehl and Ramsey, 2005), climbing is accomplished climbers” (Morrison and Schöffl, 2007, p. 852). unique because of the different vertical practice environments. Route previewing is one of such variables suggested by sport Climbers are routinely required to ascend and/or descend and/or scientists as a determinant to successful climbing performance traverse a given surface to complete the route. Sport lead (e.g., MacLeod et al., 2007; Sanchez et al., 2012; Seifert et al., climbing in particular may be performed indoor or outdoor; 2017). In the same line, sport psychology researchers have indoor on an artificial surface using artificial holds and outdoor suggested that route previewing mistakes are “a major reason for on a variety of natural rock types and surfaces. The range falling during climbing” (Boschker et al., 2002, p. 25) and elite of different types of climbing behavior that exist and the climbing competitors have reported that a lack of climbing route number of permutations of such behaviors makes categorizing knowledge is a handicap prior to performing in competition individual climbing activity challenging [see taxonomy and (Ferrand et al., 2006). In climbing, when performing on-sight, further discussion in Jones and Johnson (2016)]. mistakes are not allowed: falling off the wall is not only the end The emergence of climbing as a competitive discipline has of that given ascent; it also means for the climber that the given generated research interest. Studies have mainly examined route will have never been performed on-sight, ever. Therefore, motivational and risk-taking profiles (e.g., Martha et al., 2009; a second objective of the present study was to describe the role Jones et al., 2017), physiological aspects (e.g., Espanña-Romero and function of route previewing, understood as the pre-ascent et al., 2012), biomechanical properties (e.g., Vigouroux et al., visual inspection of the climbing route, which past research had 2011), and injuries (e.g., Jones et al., 2018). Notwithstanding suggested as a climbing-specific, psychological-in-nature variable previous work, researchers frequently discuss that variables for successful performance (Ferrand et al., 2006; MacLeod et al., of a psychological nature such as problem-solving ability, 2007; Sanchez et al., 2012; Seifert et al., 2017). movement sequence recall, route finding skills, anxiety Given the current limited understanding of the factors that levels and stress management may be better predictors of influence climbing performance, in the present study we adopted optimal physical climbing performance than physiological or Bishop’s (2008) first stage of his sport sciences applied research biomechanical variables (e.g., Sheel, 2004; Watts, 2004; Giles model for sport sciences (ARMSS). Precisely, ARMSS is a et al., 2006; MacLeod et al., 2007; Morrison and Schöffl, 2007; three-phase, eight-stage model, originally proposed for injury Jones and Sanchez, 2017). prevention and health research (Finch, 2006; Sussman et al., However, psychology-based research has rather utilized 2006), which provides a framework of particular interest to such climbing, typically, as a task to fulfill its experimental designs and new sporting disciplines for which performance predictors are reach its research goals by adapting climbing rules and adjusting still to be identified. These three phases evolve from description climbing routes (e.g., Smyth and Waller, 1998; Boschker et al., to experimentation and implementation with the following 2002; Pijpers et al., 2005). In sport climbing in general and in different stages being proposed within (see Bishop, 2008, for climbing competition in particular most of these modifications, full details). Bishop’s (2008) ARMSS first stage highlights the if not all, are not permitted. In addition, whilst previous studies need for discussion with athletes and coaches to gain a thorough within other areas of sport sciences had recruited elite/expert understanding of the sport and its performance-related issues climbers as well as novices, most psychology-based research before proceeding to the following stages of the model. Therefore, had basically recruited inexperienced/novice participants only. we applied a qualitative analytic approach (Patton, 2002) to Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 2 May 2019 | Volume 10 | Article 1294 Sanchez et al. Climbing Performance Parameters gain a comprehensive understanding of the key performance but the different questions were open-ended to elicit a range parameters as perceived by experts in predicting actual sport of responses pertinent to, and generated by, each participant lead-climbing performance. (inductive process). Pilot interviews were conducted with two participants matching the pre-established study participation criteria. These MATERIALS AND METHODS two climber-coaches were interviewed individually and were not included in the final sample. A second researcher, who acted as Participants a passive observer, was present during the interviews. After each A purposive sample was adopted (Berg, 2001; Patton, 2002) pilot interview, the two researchers and the interviewee discussed to represent expert climbers with coaching climbing badges; the interview with a view to (a) enhance interviewing procedures inclusion criteria included (a) domain-specific indicators of and interviewer skills and (b) refine the phraseology and technical personal climbing performance and (b) officially regulated jargon employed by the interviewer. awards that indicated coaching education in sport climbing. The final interview guide consisted of four main sections. On the one side, interviewees were required to possess an The first section gathered general demographic information such advanced to elite current climbing ability level superior to an as age, occupation, educational and coaching backgrounds, and on-sight 7a French Rating Scale of Difficulty [F-RSD; see Draper sports practice. Also, specific sport climbing information such et al. (2016) for comparative amongst climbing rating systems]. as reasons, frequency and types of practice were gathered. In Current ability rather than climbing experience was gathered as the second and third sections, questions revolved specifically a measure of expertise since an individual’s climbing standard around the participants’ experience of “on-sight” (section “The can vary throughout a single year. Research has categorized Interview Guide”) and “pre-practiced” (section “The Interview climbers possessing an ability superior to 7a F-RSD as advanced Guide”) climbing modalities in lead sport climbing. An “on-sight” performers (Draper et al., 2016), as individuals require excellent ascent is characterized by time-constraint visual examination of skills, strength and time commitment to maintain such a the route before climbing without previous physical rehearsal, standard ability level (Cox and Fulsaas, 2003). On the other and then ascent without a single fall. One may attempt an on- side, interviewees were also required to hold, at least, a national sight climb and fail the challenge. Subsequent successful attempts officially recognized coaching qualification in sport climbing. on that same route are considered “pre-practiced” ascents (a Given the purpose of the study, it was deemed significant to climb on a physically pre-rehearsed route). Examples of questions interview climbers who, in addition to being experts in the in these two sections were: “what do you do to prepare for practice of climbing would also possess an officially recognized an on-sight/pre-practiced climb and how do you do it?”; “what education in teaching and coaching climbing, and thus who do you focus on when climbing on-sight/pre-practiced?”; “do would be used to provide feedback, incorporate prompts, correct you train with a view to climb on-sight/pre-practiced?”; “how and reinstruct, use questioning and clarifying, and engage in do you prepare/work for particularly difficult parts of the route instruction (Douge and Hastie, 1993). (e.g., cruxes)?” Discussion with the participants in these sections The final sample interviewed in the present study comprised revolved around the factors that they believed influence climbing 10 male climbers (M age = 28, SD = 6.6 years, range 21–40) performance. The last section of the interview guide (section 4) with an on-sight climbing ability ranging from 7a+ to 8b focused particularly on route previewing in sport climbing. F-RSD (advanced to elite) and a climbing experience ranging Participants were first asked to define, in their own words, the from 8 to 22 years of practice (M exp = 14, SD = 6.2 years). concept of “route preview/previewing” and then were asked to In addition, four participants were in possession of the discuss its role and functions, both when climbing on-sight and Royal Belgian Alpinism Federation (Royale Club Alpin Belge) pre-practiced. The complete interview guide is available from the qualification whereas the other six possessed the Belgian corresponding author. Physical Education and Sport (ADministration de l’Education Physique et du Sport) qualification. Amongst the ten participants, Procedures six also held a Higher Education taught degree in physical Climbers were individually approached at five different indoor education. Participants practiced in a wide range of other sports climbing facilities across the French-speaking part of Belgium including ice-climbing, sky-diving, paragliding, swimming, and invited to take part in this qualitative study investigating gymnastics, and cycling. climbing performance. Note that contact with these facilities was regular during a period of time within the scope of a wider The Interview Guide project that examined psychological aspects of sport climbing in Two psychologists were first involved in the construction of the a series of different studies (Sanchez and Dauby, 2009; Sanchez semi-structured interview guide. The open-ended questions were et al., 2010, 2012). All participants received written and verbal generated based on existing climbing-specific literature (Deweze information about the study and were informed that they could and Le Menestrel, 1987; Salomon and Vigier, 1989; Glowacz withdraw from the study at any time. Confidentiality was assured and Pohl, 1992; Lemare and Morrot, 1995; Sheel, 2004; Watts, by giving each interviewee a participant number, which was 2004; Giles et al., 2006). As per previous research (e.g., Holt used as the only identification code (e.g., P1). The investigators and Morley, 2004; Wolfenden and Holt, 2005), the main topics ensured that the participants understood the overall purpose of of the interview guide were predetermined (deductive process) the present qualitative study. Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 3 May 2019 | Volume 10 | Article 1294 Sanchez et al. Climbing Performance Parameters The interviews were carried out by the first investigator, who Kelle, 1995 for an overview on qualitative methodology and had both experience working with international elite athletes and computer software). coaches as a psychologist, and had experience of indoor sport A hierarchical content analysis was carried out by the first climbing. All these aspects facilitated communication with the and second authors on the textual information to classify and participants during the meetings and ensured rigor from the reduce the data to more relevant and manageable units (Sparkes investigator during the course of the research. All interviews and Smith, 2014). The analysis of the transcripts, which departed were conducted face-to-face, individually, either in a meeting from raw data, kept as a reference the interview guide and room at the participant’s climbing club or in a laboratory at alternated an inductive category development -bottom-up or the interviewer’s university. All interviews were recorded using data-driven- with a deductive category application -top-down or a dictaphone and their duration ranged from 65 to 110 min. theory-driven (Patton, 2002). Inter-rater reliability amongst two Each interview began by reminding the participants the nature first authors aimed at ensuring that all units of meaning, themes and purpose of the study. Then, the different sections of the and categories emerging from the information provided by the interview guide were followed in the pre-established order. climbers were appropriately created, grouped and categorized Although the same questions were asked to all participants in a (Sparkes and Smith, 2014). Member checking took place for similar manner, the order of the questions within each section trustworthiness (Smith and McGannon, 2018); findings were was allowed to vary according to the flow of the interaction verified by the participants who agreed to do so (n = 6) once between the interviewer and the interviewee. The interviewer analysis procedures were finalized. allowed the participants to express themselves freely, to enhance the richness of the information (Patton, 2002). In addition, consistent with the semi-structured interview RESULTS format and use of open-ended questions (Patton, 2002), probes were asked throughout the interview, “to elicit more information From the content analysis, several performance parameters about whatever the respondent has already said in response to perceived by the climbers as most influential emerged: passing a question” (Berg, 2001, p. 76). This encouraged the climbers cruxes, strength and conditioning aspects, interaction with the to expand on their answers (elaboration) and allowed a more environment, possessing a good climbing movement repertoire, thorough understanding of their responses (clarification) (Rubin risk management, route management, mental balance, peer and Rubin, 2005). This knowledge elicitation took place using communication, and route preview. Route previewing emerged Spradley’s (1979) three types of questions for interviewing: as critical when it comes to preparing and planning ascents, (1) “descriptive questions” to identify precisely what was being both cognitively and physically. That is, when optimizing discussed (e.g., “Can you describe what you do to prepare decision making in relation to progressing on the route (ascent yourself for an on-sight climb? Can you tell me which are, strategy forecasting) and when enhancing strategic management in your opinion, the key aspects for success when climbing in relation to the effort exerted on the route (ascent effort pre-practiced?”); (2) “structural questions” to obtain as much forecasting). Table 1 provides their frequencies, per participant information as possible about the different aspects mentioned and overall. A sample of participants’ quotes for each climbing (e.g., “You mentioned that resting points and cruxes are crucial performance predictor is provided in Table 2. parts of a route. Why are they so important? What do you do Moreover, participants described how such planning for the to find them? What do you do to optimally face/utilize them?”); ascent allows them to: select an accurate and comprehensive and (3) “contrast questions” to clarify and distinguish what the movement repertoire relative to the specific demands of the route informant meant by the various terms and situations used (e.g., and reject ineffective movements; optimize effective movements; “Which are the differences between climbing a route on-sight and link different movements upward. Our sample of expert and or pre-practiced? Does it change to face a crux at the beginning advanced climbers believed that these two aspects, that is path of the route compared to facing it at the end of that route?”). strategy planning (ascent strategy forecasting) and ascent effort These data collection procedures were adopted to elicit relevant management were inter-related (see Figure 1). knowledge from the sample interviewed. The same approach was More precisely, route previewing would help climbers to used for each interview. acquire an accurate and comprehensive movement repertoire, to eliminate ineffective movements and optimize the effective ones, Data Analysis and to determine how to link these movements upward, over the Interviews were transcribed verbatim, yielding 130 pages of entire route. Our sample considered route finding necessary for single-spaced typed text. All participants were given the both the mental preparation of a route never climbed before (on- opportunity to check their own interview transcript for content sight performance, competition) and the actual practice of cruxes accuracy and validity. Most participants (6 out of 10) checked in training sessions (training, learning). Climbers noted that and returned their interview transcript; no significant changes to performance outputs were, ultimately, determined by both the the transcripts were noted. The transcriptions of the interviews, factors contributing to the climber’s profile (e.g., anthropometric which were defined as a hermeneutic unit, were content analyzed characteristics) and the route itself (e.g., traverse, overhanging). using ATLAS/ti qualitative data analysis software package (Muhr, Table 3 provides their frequencies, per participant and overall. 1997). ATLAS/ti is a flexible tool for constructing networks, A sample of participants’ quotes for the perceived role and particularly suited for approaches of theory building (see functions of route previewing is provided in Table 4. Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 4 May 2019 | Volume 10 | Article 1294 Sanchez et al. Climbing Performance Parameters TABLE 1 | Coded performance predictors frequencies (per participant and totals). P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 P9 P 10 Total Mental balance 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 Peer communication 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 0 1 0 9 Optimal route previewing 1 2 0 6 4 0 2 2 2 3 22 Training in route previewing 2 3 5 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 20 Passing cruxes 1 1 0 0 3 2 4 4 3 2 20 Physical aspects: strength and conditioning 5 1 2 1 2 2 2 0 5 0 20 Interaction with environment 0 0 3 2 0 2 0 0 3 1 11 Climbing movements repertoire 7 1 1 3 0 5 1 0 3 0 21 Risk management 2 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 1 6 Route management 6 1 2 2 4 0 0 0 0 0 15 Total 26 11 14 19 16 13 12 7 20 8 TABLE 2 | Sample of participants’ quotes for each perceived predictor of sport climbing performance. Mental balance P2: Based on belief, you build up or copy habits because you believe they will have an influence on your performance . . . sleep, eating habits . . . with the goal of achieving top performance. Peer communication P1: To improve myself and make progress in climbing, I used to talk and discuss everything with my friends . . . from how to do it, to what to change to improve things, etc. And that’s what I try to do in my work now as trainer . . . P3: Talking things over with people is obviously necessary to come up with the optimal method . . . Optimal route previewing P4: The quality of the route previewing is a determining factor: poor route finding leads to poorer performance. P9: Since I’m not interested in performance, sometimes I don’t take time to preview the route and just set off and try it . . . but if you’re interested in performance, you have to be patient and do more systematic, methodical route previewing . . . Training in route previewing P3: It’s obvious that it’s important to train yourself in how to preview routes if you’re going after performance! P10: With people I train, I teach them route finding, for example by having two people preview the same route together and you see if they are ineffective and why they are ineffective. But generally speaking it just boils down to being interested . . . you have to see it as a challenge or else you just go off on a route, like that . . . Passing cruxes P5: When my aim is performance, I concentrate on the hard parts . . . It’s important to aim for the cruxes . . . The easy places: they take care of themselves . . . But the difficult ones, the cruxes, that’s something else again: I try to memorize them (especially the distance/length of the crux, and what they are like: if there’s some special characteristic about it) and to picture them in my head. That way, when I reach a certain section of the route, I know where and how to position myself (hands and feet . . . that’s it, more or less!) . . . Physical aspects: strength P2: To reach the best level possible you’ve got to work on the wall, to train specific muscles... and conditioning P9: The size and body type of the climber plays an important role!!!... That’s how it is: two climbers with the same physical-body type will generally end up spotting the same difficulties when previewing the route . . . Interaction with P3: A “general pattern” exists, but every climber (style, technique, strength, body shape) adapts this model to his own characteristics. environment But this adaptation will also depend on the level of the route: the higher the level of the route is, the less choice there will be sorting it out! And this is even more so in the hall. P4: Relative to a given route, top performance depends on the interaction between the climber and the characteristics of the route to be climbed. Climbing movements P4: I work a lot (route finding and afterward performance) by comparing the movement to be done with the ones in our repertoire repertoire (knowledge base, I suppose you’d say). It’s very possible to find sequences that are more or less the same (or moves) for different routes. The stock of movements (repertoire) is key in climbing. P6: The fact is, there is a certain range of climbing movements that you can teach people you train, but it’s always the same movements you’d come up with anyway . . . the only thing that changes according to the size of the hold is the orientation of the wall, etc. . . . but a crux will always be a crux! So like with the feel of the crux you have, then you know you’ve already been on a wall incline just like the one you’re reading, so you know you’ve got all that same stuff to do . . . it’s always comparing what you know and what you see! Risk management P9: The ideal way to use a route or pass (definition) is the one that’s the most efficient and where you’ll be running the least risk of falling! Because it’s also important not to take an unnecessary risk, so you don’t fall . . . keeping in mind that risk is an objective thing . . . P10: Between a route that will take lots of my energy but where I’m sure I’ll succeed (and not fall), and a route that will take less of my energy but where the risk of falling is higher, I choose the most efficient one (less energy without falling!). What I mean is first and foremost the one that’s the safest . . . because falling is the end of the route! Now, if the risk is great but I’m not going to fall, then that will depend on how the route is and afterward will depend on where I am on the route . . . if it’s the end of the route than I can let myself take a risk, ok . . . that’s a possibility . . . but if it’s at the beginning then I’m not going to take any risks . . . if it’s at the end, with my kind of climbing style, my energy is sure to be at its limit anyway, and so to waste a lot of energy would be asking for a fall, so . . . either things go easy or I’ll get tired and then I’ll fall anyway! Route management P8: Climbing a route badly doesn’t just mean falling . . . not just that!!! I can reach the top of a route and do it all over again because I was too tense . . . climbing badly is being choppy, using much too much energy for the effort the route demands . . . and more than anything, not getting any fun out of the route and its moves. You can see when someone “climbs a route badly” if it’s choppy, if someone is tense with his grips . . . you see it right off . . . which doesn’t mean mixing up fast-dynamic with tense! Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 5 May 2019 | Volume 10 | Article 1294 Sanchez et al. Climbing Performance Parameters FIGURE 1 | Perceived role and function of route previewing in sport climbing performance. TABLE 3 | Coded route previewing-related frequencies (per participant and totals). P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 P9 P10 Total Decision making of climb progression1 18 7 3 1 4 9 9 6 11 6 74 Strategic management of climb effort2 1 1 1 2 5 5 4 2 7 9 37 Total 19 8 4 3 9 14 13 8 18 15 1 Code 1 in Figure 1. 2 Code 2 in Figure 1. DISCUSSION as perceived by experts in predicting lead sport climbing performance. Precisely, the primary aim of the present To the best of our knowledge, the present study represents study was to identify sport climbing performance predictors the first qualitative investigation of performance parameters perceived as most influential in lead sport climbing and, Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 6 May 2019 | Volume 10 | Article 1294 Sanchez et al. Climbing Performance Parameters TABLE 4 | Participants’ quotes sample for the perceived role and function of route previewing in sport climbing performance. Decision-making of climb P1: What I try to do, to teach them every time, is to spot the hard sections and the easy sections, to intersperse the rest position points progression and the non-rest positions . . . Afterward, if we have the time, we’ll try to spot more specific moves (but sometimes, like when competing, there’s no time to do all that). Spot instead. The “left-right-left” so you don’t do it wrong! The hidden holds . . . And especially spot the points or the different parts of the route: “there it’s hard, watch out there because there’s no resting point, over there it’s easier . . .” P4: The ideal thing is to see the sequence as a whole (feet and hands): sequence by sequence, the series of moves (like a collection of photos). Route finding steps: This is all about a process going from broader and general to more specific and fine-tuned: (1) Look at the route as a whole: (a) Trace it out (without focusing). You need to understand the route so you can focus afterward; (b) With as wide a scope as possible (like a movie). (2) Memorize the route: (a) Zoom in to spot the details; (b) Get the plan as firmed up as possible. (3) Read in sequences: (a) Figure out the various ways of succeeding; (b) Choose the moves best suited for each one . . . P7: Actually, speed in making the moves is a factor in success . . . a result of correct route finding among other things . . . in fact, two climbers at the same level can have different levels of route finding. You can see this because “the best finder” will bind the sections together faster (very fast), for example, he’ll be stable in every position (or almost every one), he’ll take the best advantage of the resting points, manage the route and the transitions between the parts correctly, the easier sections, etc. And from there you get a whole efficient climbing body-language strategy, which goes for the moves as well . . . you see a fluid series, fine-tuned moves, etc. P8: When I’m reading the route from the ground, instead of thinking about how I’m going to crimp the hold (because often it’s hard to see its exact characteristics, maybe it’s blocked and so I can’t crimp it the way I planned from the ground), I spot how I’m going to use it in the best way. What I’ll do when I’m there (rest, dyno, etc.) and see what’s got to be done, what’s going to happen next . . . now, if I know how I’m going to do it, that’s just great, but my first concern is to know what I’m going to do when I’m there, so I don’t waste time! Strategic management of P2: The basic principle of climbing is to save your arms by pulling yourself up by your feet . . . climb effort/exertion P3: Hold back . . . as soon as you can, you have to rest. It’s important to spot all the resting points on the route as far as possible, especially visually, and to use them! Find the most efficient path you can: this is one of the key tips you should never forget. Listen to your body and feel it: when you feel tired, it’s already too late . . . too much lactic acid in the muscles! P4: The goal is to find the most efficient movement, the fastest one possible (the slower you go, the less your chances of succeeding). P5: This is a climbing basic: be as efficient as you can! When you’re reading, you have to see what hold to take further on before taking the one right before that one . . . while taking great care to save energy . . . and sometimes there are holds that don’t get you anywhere . . . or on the other hand, you find there is no foothold and you have to use the wall like a foothold! P6: From the ground you learn how to evaluate the risks that a route entails and see that, over there, it’s risky and you could fall. And then too, for the same route, you can evaluate the difference between two ways of going forward (the one that’s going to take the most energy) . . . of course!!! that’s what the job of route finding is all about . . . What’s the way that’s going to cost me the least amount of energy and get me as far along as possible! That’s it: I try to record everything I’ll have to do in advance . . . all the effort I’m going to have to make in advance, right to the top! Doing and effort (two things): When I read, relying on my experience, I know how much energy I’ll have to use, bit by bit, from the start. If you don’t manage your energy, you won’t know when you should rest and how useful that is: Make the climb as easily as you can. Economize as much as you can. There’s obviously a link between reading the route and performance! P10: When I read a route, I try and map out the big traps . . . I especially look at the start, the start, ok . . . I imagine . . . the big traps and I tell myself “ok, you’ve got to get there right handed, if I don’t get there with my right I’m screwed. Next, I take everything apart and tell myself that to get there right-handed, I absolutely have to do this, this, this, this and this . . . watching out for the big traps like I said (a big trap is a place where if you get there with the wrong hand, you’ll fall . . . or you’re going to get tired, you’ll have to go back or you’ll have to change hands, whatever!). I really try to see that ‘for sure that grip is right-handed,” ok . . . then from below I’ll take it to my right then . . . I’ll do a re-launch there . . . here, there’s got to be a half-way spot and not a key grip . . . so, yeah, stuff like that’ . . . and the feet follow . . . of course . . . and it’s true you think of your feet too, but generally speaking you concentrate more on the hands (the grips), but the move you’re going to make always depends on your feet!!! So I also watch the feet . . . if for instance I’ve got a vertical climb and I see a foothold is very far, it’ll be sure to be a drop knee or stuff like that . . . rest-spots on the route . . . I look for where I’ll be sure to be able to rest . . . like, on a corner . . . secondly, to describe the role and function of route interaction between different parameters that contributed to previewing in climbing performance. Our analysis revealed the configuration of the profile of the climber, ranging from a wide-range of psychological, physiological, biomechanical individual such as anthropometrics profiles (Watts et al., 2003) and sociological climbing performance parameters that to more external such as characteristics of the route (de Geus include passing cruxes, strength and conditioning aspects, et al., 2006). Most technical decisions made by climbers on high interaction with the environment, possessing a good climbing grade climbing routes are automatically processed. Possessing a movement repertoire, risk management (referring mainly good climbing repertoire developed through training and “stress- to the risk of failing rather than the risk of injury), route tested” on increasingly more difficult standards of climbing management, mental balance, peer communication, and routes would appear fundamental. Inherent in gaining a sound route preview. Route previewing emerged as the critical climbing repertoire would be the development of a high level of parameter that influenced cognitive and physical preparedness strength and conditioning. prior to ascent. In addition to the parameters more common to most Participants in our study emphasized that performance competitive sporting disciplines in general, such as mental output and success were, ultimately, determined by the balance and risk management, participants in our study Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 7 May 2019 | Volume 10 | Article 1294 Sanchez et al. Climbing Performance Parameters highlighted other more climbing-specific parameters such as study provide further qualitative information on how accurate peer communication and those related to route previewing route previewing is believed to function, optimizing the (see further discussion below for the latter). Indeed, our planning for the ascent in two distinct manners. Advanced and participants reported that peer communication influenced expert climbers conferred central value to route previewing, climbers’ behaviors; it is still very common to see competitors in line with recent work from Seifert et al. (2017), who route previewing together, and trying to find the best solutions suggested that this activity may help climbers to pick up to reach the top of a given route together despite being, actually, functional information about reachable, graspable and usable opponents. This, whilst today is considered to be a healthy form holds to chain movements and find the way up on the of rivalry, may well disappear in future once climbing reaches wall. Such ability to correctly view and interpret climbing the standard competitive level more common to other more route information prior to an ascent was confirmed as an traditional competitive environments. essential skill when it comes to prepare and plan ascents, When it comes to route previewing, the views of the both cognitively and physically. That is, the climber would sample interviewed were that even if climbers were of equal estimate how the ascent is likely to be best achieved in biological (e.g., height) and physical capabilities (e.g., strength), relation to planning strategically the progression on the route preview would make the difference between succeeding route (ascent strategy forecasting) and enhancing strategic and failing on an ascent. Elite climbers are lean, muscular management in relation to the effort exerted on the route and likely able to climbing routes of a comparable standard. (ascent effort forecasting). Our participants described how such Therefore, given they are similar in that respect, route preview planning for an ascent allows them to: select an accurate and is likely the key parameter. Our participants declared that comprehensive movement repertoire relative to the specific route preview allows individuals to mentally rehearse expected demands of the route and reject ineffective movement; optimize movement sequences in advance, identify and plan for crux effective movements; and link different movements upward sections thereby preserving energy and reducing the risk of non- the entire route. completion due to a fall. Thus, route preview would allow the The present study provides a comprehensive view of para- individual to reciprocally process the demands of the climbing meters to consider when planning, designing and delivering route in regard of the key parameters highlighted to accurately holistic and coherent training programs aimed at enhancing appraise the challenges faced, and plan the best course of climbing performance. In climbing, when performing on-sight, action required. a mistake may result in failure to complete the route at There is limited research on the role of psychological that time point, or result in later failure due to increased processing of climbing route information on climbing fatigue in recovering from the original mistake. Despite a performance. Despite authorship teams suggesting that the mistake the climber may still complete the ascent but at an ability to correctly visualize and interpret climbing route increased physical cost (i.e., energy expenditure), which may information prior to an ascent as an essential climbing skill have short-term implications for additional planned ascents, (Boschker et al., 2002; MacLeod et al., 2007), and elite climbing especially in competition. Additionally, in competition, a sport competitors reporting a lack of climbing route knowledge lead climbing mistake may also result in non-completion as a handicap prior to performing in competition (Ferrand due to being timed out. Failing to complete an ascent et al., 2006), the efficacy of route preview had not been tested also means for the climber that the given route will not experimentally until Sanchez et al. (2012). When examining be performed on-sight. If programs and training regimes the efficacy of pre-ascent climbing route visual inspection are to be developed for climbers, the specific characteristics on indoor sport climbers, they found that expert climbers of the different climbing modalities (e.g., on-sight vs. pre- benefited most from route preview by making fewer stops practiced) and the specific interacting parameters that influence and stops of a shorter duration during their ascent (Sanchez performance need further consideration. For instance, and et al., 2012). Their findings went in line with intervention probably due to the consequence of a fall in competitive studies that have shown that techniques such as imagery and climbing, a clear distinction was made between on-sight and video-modeling do influence climbing performance positively pre-practiced modalities. (e.g., Sanchez and Dauby, 2009). When it comes to competition, previous research has shown In fact, route previewing likely plays a significant role in that pre-performance psychological states influence subsequent climbing performance. Whereas competitors in other sports performance (Sanchez et al., 2010). Other physiological and might see their opponents performing (e.g., in gymnastics, attentional changes due to a heightened stress have been shown figure skating, trampoline) and practice on the itinerary in climbing populations. For instance, Pijpers et al. (2003) where competition will take place (e.g., a rally driving investigated anxiety and performance relationships in climbing route, a cycling circuit, a golf course), in sport climbing and found anxiety was exhibited at three levels; subjective, none of this is permitted. Thus, if a climber misjudges a physiological and behavioral, and that increased anxiety resulted sequence of holds that s/he has never done before (nor has in greater uncertainty in movement sequence and hold selection. ever seen anyone doing), s/he will likely fail/fall. In sports In a later study, Pijpers et al. (2006) investigated anxiety in where environmental constraints change across competitions, perceiving and realizing affordances and found anxiety narrowed specific preparation has been suggested as critical to successful the visual field and that the climber’s perception of the actions performance (Eccles et al., 2009). Findings from the present necessary to progress were altered by their emotional state. Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 8 May 2019 | Volume 10 | Article 1294 Sanchez et al. Climbing Performance Parameters In both studies, Pijpers et al. (2003, 2006) show that controlled competitions (conf. Sanchez et al., 2010), so a more holistic and fluid movements are vital for success in climbing. Studies and coherent approach to training can be adopted now that a that examine the relation between route previewing, emotions comprehensive range of predictors have been identified. and actual climbing performance is warranted to gain further As the sport continues to develop, these new insights knowledge and understanding on how to prepare climbers best will also provide a basis for further investigation to establish when seeking optimal climbing performance. how these key performance-related parameters can be most Overall, findings from the present study indicate that the effectively enhanced. Taken together, findings from the present combination of the abovementioned parameters is necessary to study provide a preliminary conceptual model with which progress up the route in general, and to overcome particularly to understand optimal lead-climbing performance on artificial difficult sections (cruxes). However, to elucidate these parameters climbing structures. Nevertheless, findings shall be taken with further, it is necessary to consider their inter-relatedness and caution when it comes to generalize to the other two disciplines frame these within the environmental context of elite sport included in the Olympic program as they are very different in climbing performance. As the sport of climbing continues to nature when compared to that of lead-climbing, even though develop, our findings provide a basis for further research that competitors are requested to combine the three disciplines. shall examine further how, each of these performance parameters identified, can most effectively be enhanced and optimized to influence performance positively. ETHICS STATEMENT CONCLUSION This study was carried out in accordance with the recommen- dations of the Université catholique de Louvain, Faculty of The sport of climbing is rapidly developing whilst our under- Psychology and Education Sciences. All subjects gave written standing of the factors that influence performance is limited, informed consent in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. and programs to enhance performance lack a robust ecologically The protocol was approved by the Post-Graduate Committee, valid evidence base. Our findings provide tentative for the Department of Emotion, Cognition and Health. design and delivery of training programs aimed at enhancing indoor sport climbing performance. In the present study, a comprehensive range of climbing performance parameters AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS implicated in facilitating climbing performance achievement were identified. The importance of route previewing, which XS conceived and designed the study, carried out and transcribed had been identified in previous studies, was confirmed. Current the interviews, and wrote the first draft of the manuscript. programs are typically developed on an ad hoc basis and, as XS and MT organized the database and performed the qualitative a result, key performance parameters may be neglected. Even analysis. All authors contributed to manuscript developing and small differences in performance can be critical during elite writing until manuscript was submitted in its final version. REFERENCES Espanña-Romero, V., Jensen, R. 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Psychol. Sport Exer. 4, 283–304. doi: 10.1016/s1469-0292(02)00 Conflict of Interest Statement: The authors declare that the research was 010-9 conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could Rubin, H. J., and Rubin, I. S. (2005). Qualitative Interviewing: The Art of Hearing be construed as a potential conflict of interest. Data, 2nd Edn. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Salomon, J. C., and Vigier, C. (1989). Pratique de L’escalade. Paris: Editions Vigot. Copyright © 2019 Sanchez, Torregrossa, Woodman, Jones and Llewellyn. This is an Sanchez, X., Boschker, M. S. J., and Llewellyn, D. J. (2010). Pre-performance open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution psychological states and performance in an elite climbing competition. License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports 20, 356–363. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0838.2009.00 provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the 904.x original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic Sanchez, X., and Dauby, N. (2009). Imagery and video-modelling in sport climbing. practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply Can. J. Behav. Sci. 41, 93–101. with these terms. Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 10 May 2019 | Volume 10 | Article 1294