ORIGINAL RESEARCH published: 26 February 2020 doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00135 Social Impact of Psychological Research on Well-Being Shared in Social Media Cristina M. Pulido 1* , Liviu-Catalin Mara 2 , Vladia Ionescu 3 and Teresa Sordé-Martí 4 1 Department of Journalism and Communication Sciences, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain, 2 Department of Business Management, University of Rovira and Virgili, Tarragona, Spain, 3 Department of Sociology, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain, 4 Department of Sociology, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain The purpose of this article is to demonstrate how the Social Impact in Social Media (SISM, hereinafter) methodology applied in psychological research provides evidence for the visibility of the social impact of the research. This article helps researchers become aware of whether and how their improvements are capturing the interest of citizens and how citizens are applying such evidence and obtaining better outcomes, in this case, in relation to well-being. In addition, citizens can access the latest evidence on social media and act as channels of communication between science and social or personal networks and, in doing so, they can improve the living conditions of others. This methodology is also useful for agencies that support researchers in psychology with financial assistance, which can use it to evaluate the social impact of the funds that they invest in research. In this article, the 10 studies on well-being were selected for analysis Edited by: Sara Cadavid, using the following criteria: their research results led to demonstrable improvement in Rosario University, Colombia well-being, and these improvements are presented on social media. We applied the Reviewed by: social impact coverage ratio to identify the percentage of the social impact shared Emanuela Reale, Institute for Economic Research on in social media in relation to the total amount of social media data collected. Finally, Firms and Growth (CNR), Italy examples of quantitative and qualitative evidence of the social impact of the research on Jose Luis Condom Bosch, well-being are presented. University of Barcelona, Spain *Correspondence: Keywords: social impact, social media, well-being, psychological research, SISM methodology Cristina M. Pulido cristina.pulido@uab.cat INTRODUCTION Specialty section: This article was submitted to One of the current trends in research evaluation is to measure the social benefits of the research Educational Psychology, results by considering the social impact achieved through the implementation of evidence that a section of the journal guarantees improvements in different areas, which increase the quality of people’s lives (Reale et al., Frontiers in Psychology 2018). Psychological research is one of the disciplines that can contribute to different societal goals. Received: 19 October 2019 It is one of the research areas that must be taken into consideration because the potential impact Accepted: 17 January 2020 can improve people’s living conditions. This study shows how this discipline contributes to social Published: 26 February 2020 impact through the analysis of one of its specific fields, well-being research, measured through the Citation: SISM methodology. Pulido CM, Mara L-C, Ionescu V The roots of well-being research are anchored in ancient Greece, where philosophers focused and Sordé-Martí T (2020) Social Impact of Psychological Research on on how to achieve “the good life,” which we currently call well-being (Stoll, 2014). Since then, Well-Being Shared in Social Media. the search for happiness or the meaning of life has been a constant topic handled by different Front. Psychol. 11:135. disciplines; today, we have diverse scientific evidence demonstrating that “well-being” has a direct doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00135 impact on people’s health (Hajek and Helmut König, 2019; Van de Cauter et al., 2019). Some authors Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 1 February 2020 | Volume 11 | Article 135 Pulido et al. SISM and Well-Being even include happiness as a closely adjacent factor to well-being, established with the social environment. Therefore, research and we have added this concept when papers refer directly to from other disciplines, such as sociology, can also contribute to it or when the social media data analyzed include it too. This this area, for instance, by looking at how trust in institutions paper aims at corroborating how the application of the SISM (Barbalet, 2019) affects individuals’ well-being. A step forward methodology can identify evidence of the social impact of well- was the discovery that those elements that guarantee well-being being research. SISM collects and analyses social media data that are understood as life expectation and satisfaction, but another mentions the evidence of research that improves people’s lives advancement in recent years has been the demonstration that and health and is capturing the interest of citizens. well-being directly influences individuals’ health. Well-being is Thus, this paper first reviews some key contributions of well- not merely an aspect of happiness or a meaningful life; whether being research from the psychological perspective that are in or not people find happiness, their well-being directly affects line with one of the Sustainable Development Goals – SDG3: their mental and physical health (Jans-Beken et al., 2019). ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages Moreover, well-being also has consequences for people’s quality (World Health Organization [WHO], 2015; UNDP, 2017) and of life and even their life expectancy (Evans and Soliman, 2019). examines how social media plays a crucial role in capturing the Additionally, the impact of well-being affects other psychological interest of citizens with regard to the improvements that science factors, such as self-esteem and self-efficacy, that have a direct is delivering to society. The second part presents the results impact on self-confidence (Jaaffar et al., 2019). extracted through the application of the SISM methodology to In this regard, well-being research is crucial for improving identify the sharing in social media of social impact evidence individuals’ lives, and the identification of social impact evidence that has captured citizens’ interest. We selected 10 competitive is necessary to understand what contributes to improving projects on well-being research or related aspects that are present people’s lives and what does not. In fact, there is a constant in social media. Next, we analyzed all the social media data shared denunciation of the existence of pseudoscience books about to identify evidence of real or potential social impact. The results well-being that could promote negative impacts on people’s show that the research projects analyzed shared social impact health. One example of this fact was described in a piece for evidence on social media and some of them achieved a high level the American Psychological Association’s Good Company blog, of citizen interest, among other results. Future research lines are where authors reported that internet searches for the word proposed in the final section of this article. “Happiness” on Amazon produced more than 92,000 hits, and this number is constantly increasing. Furthermore, a quick look at the best-sellers among these books shows that they are not Psychological Research on Health and evidence-based (Grawicht and Ballard, 2019). Therefore, the need Well-Being in Line With SDG3 to identify and disseminate evidence of the social impact of well- Researchers from around the world need to pay attention to being research is not only a scientific need for the advancement of how their research projects contribute to societal goals. One knowledge. It is also necessary to provide evidence to people that of the ways to ensure that your research is answering these truly contributes to improving their well-being and even their challenges is to review the priorities of the funding institutions, physical and mental health and reducing risks to their health such as the European Commission in the case of Europe, or or well-being. Thus, health psychologists are bringing to light to review the priority goals of other international institutions, contributions to well-being research, examining the biological, such as the United Nations (UN). In this last case, the list social, and psychological factors that influence health and illness. of Sustainable Development Goals (UNDP, 2017) represents a These researchers build knowledge about how to achieve well- common agenda for researchers from different disciplines and being according to the standards of the American Psychological countries. In this sense, there is a prominent field of psychological Association. In this line, the World Health Organization, which research focused on well-being that addresses a specific aim defined health as “a state of complete physical, mental, and social of SDG3: ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all well-being, not merely the absence of the illness,” developed two at all ages. This global goal contains one specific target (3.4): instruments for measuring quality of life (the WHOQOL-100 and “(.) promote mental health and well-being” (World Health the WHOQOL BREF) by considering individuals’ perceptions of Organization [WHO], 2015). Considering this goal, the focus their position in life and by taking into account the social context of this study is on well-being and not on subjective well-being. in which they live. These instruments have been used by different The literature differentiates between objective well-being, which researchers for measuring the well-being aspects of health impact. depends on goods and values that go beyond the individual’s This is an example of health and psychology researchers working endorsement, and subjective well-being, where individuals together to advance this area of research. decide what is good for their own lives (Bloodworth and For instance, more than 300 million people of all ages suffer McNamee, 2007). Consequently, subjective well-being includes from depression according to the data delivered by the World (Diener et al., 1999), “people’s emotional responses, domain Health of Organization (World Health Organization [WHO], satisfactions, and global judgments of life satisfaction” (277). 2018). Some of the data collected include information about how More broadly, well-being is a multidimensional phenomenon well-being has a direct impact on the reduction of the risks faced that integrates biological, psychological, social, and spiritual when suffering from depression, which is a common mental dimensions (Moreira et al., 2014). disorder. One research finding highlights that engagement in Research on well-being has focused on identifying the aspects productive activities, such as volunteering, in persons with a that contribute to individual life satisfaction and the relation physical disability increases well-being, which directly impacts Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 2 February 2020 | Volume 11 | Article 135 Pulido et al. SISM and Well-Being risks related to being depressed (Fekete et al., 2019). At the (2015). Nonetheless, these studies present specific features of the same time, this result indicates that it is important to “promote other two types of studies, like considering the role of social targeted interventions considering all the factors personal and media in generating and disseminating certain phenomena (e.g., psychological resources, reducing environmental barriers, and addiction) or offering new perspectives, like an eye-tracking creating access to outside home activities” (Fekete et al., 2019, methodology (Hussain et al., 2019). p. 7). Other results provide evidence of the direct impact of Atroszko et al. (2018) used one scale to study the relationship being engaged in meaningful activities on psychological well- between Facebook addiction and psychosocial functioning and being (Hooker et al., 2019). In this sense, it is relevant to different dimensions of well-being in undergraduate students in identify the evidence that guarantees well-being to give people the Poland through the validation of the Bergen Facebook Addiction opportunity to apply that particular evidence to promote better Scale (BFAS). Results showed a relation between Facebook physical and mental health. addiction and impoverished well-being in terms of impaired general health, decreased sleep quality, or higher perceived stress (Atroszko et al., 2018). Calvo and Carbonell (2018) designed Well-Being Research Through the an experimental and longitudinal study aimed at increasing Collection of Social Media Data the well-being of individuals experiencing homelessness. Their According to recent data, 3.499 billion people, of the starting point was the use of information and communication approximately 7.697 billion people in the world, are active technologies, more specifically, the use of social networking social media users (Hootsuite, 2019). Because of its massive sites by homeless people, and they used Facebook and four spread, social media presents new issues but also opportunities scales measured at different points. The findings of this study for research in different areas and with different actors using indicate that Facebook as an essential element that can improve technology. Thus, the internet offers the possibility for user- the psychological well-being and socialization of the homeless generated content that helps to organize and simplify the amount (Calvo and Carbonell, 2018). of available information (Kapoor et al., 2018) and thus increases Hussain et al. (2019) used four questionnaires and an eye- the potential impact of a specific piece of information. tracking methodology to study social networking site (Facebook) The internet presents many advantages for psychological use and its relation to different indicators of well-being (mental research due to its continuous expansion and technological well-being, depression, anxiety, stress, and self-esteem). The advancement. Some of these advances help scientists reach study of the interactions with the areas of interest of the interface more diverse and larger samples, reducing the costs and time of this social network found that Facebook addiction, personality of fieldwork and the enabling development of novel research variables, and the Facebook features that individuals interact tools (Gosling and Mason, 2015). These two authors made an with are determinant in the individual outcomes related to well- extensive study of the main types of research done using the being variables. Kim and Stavrositu (2018) used one online internet, and they came up with three categories: translational, questionnaire in the United States and South Korea to study the phenomenological, and novel. The translational studies are those role of culture in the relationship between feelings on Facebook that implement traditional methods in psychology through the and their correlates with psychological well-being. Their results internet, and the phenomenological study phenomena generated suggest that “experiencing culturally fit emotions stemming from or disseminated by the internet. In contrast, innovative studies social interactions on Facebook appear to make users fulfill are those that allow the study of psychological topics from new central cultural mandates” (Kim and Stavrositu, 2018, p. 86). perspectives offered by the internet (Gosling and Mason, 2015). Park and Min Baek (2018) used one national survey dataset The amount of critical data that researchers can obtain to study how social comparison (SC)-based emotions shared in from social media is huge. The use of data collection and Facebook affect individuals’ psychological well-being. They found analysis techniques that can extract useful results for different that “psychological well-being was indirectly influenced by users’ scientific purposes from social media has increased lately, with ability-based or opinion-based SC orientations via four types many new studies published in recent years. The use of social of SC-based emotions [optimism, inspiration, depression, and media as a dataset for different research purposes has increased envy]” (Park and Min Baek, 2018, p. 90). in the last decade (Kapoor et al., 2018). Using a systematic Marino et al. (2018) used a systematic review of the literature review of the literature, Kapoor et al. (2018) highlight that and meta-analysis to study associations among problematic among the most common topics investigated by the academic Facebook use, psychological distress, and well-being among community are emotional, social, and health concerns, which teenagers and young adults. The authors could not establish are all connected with the focus on well-being research. Finally, directionality between Facebook use and psychological distress most of the studies in their sample used social exchange, and well-being due to the cross-sectional design of the studies in network, and organization theories, and they deal with the their sample. Plunz et al. (2019) used a method that allows the behavioral side of social media, reviews, and the incorporation capture of geolocated tweets and identifying users who tweeted of social media for marketing and organizational purposes. in parks. The objective was to compare whether tweets made by The bulk of the most recent psychological research on well- the same group of Twitter users when inside parks showed more being in social media has been quantitative and used one or positive sentiments than when they were outside parks (Plunz more scales via online questionnaires, which means that they et al., 2019). The study found that “in-park tweets express less are mostly transitional studies, in terms of Gosling and Mason positive sentiment as compared to tweets outside of parks, but Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 3 February 2020 | Volume 11 | Article 135 Pulido et al. SISM and Well-Being park visitors in the other boroughs of New York City [other than on research findings and provide evidence on resulting social Manhattan] generate more positive in-park tweets as compared improvements, or whether researchers identify actions that have to those outside of parks” (Plunz et al., 2019, p. 235). a positive impact on society and analyse their features to create Chen and Ren Huang (2019) analyzed the relationship possibilities for transferability” (305). Moreover, to achieve social between religion and the happiness indicator of well-being in impact, researchers must create spaces for dialogue with and Christianity and Buddhism through Twitter by analyzing the for the participation of other researchers, stakeholders, and the proportion of words related to social, cognitive, and affective public, as this is the best way to ensure that they respond to processes. These authors found psychological differences between societal needs in their research (Reale et al., 2018). This concept Christians and Buddhists through the word analysis, with of social impact applied to social media research led to the Christians found to be more social and positive, while Buddhists development of the SISM methodology (Pulido et al., 2018), and were more cognitive and negative. Morry et al. (2018) used this SISM methodology guides the present study on the social Facebook to design an experiment regarding the way people impact of psychological research on well-being in social media. construe relationship judgments when exposed to a friend’s or The social impact of research is fundamental and desirable in colleague’s Facebook profile in contrast with their relationship all scientific disciplines. In psychology, where research is directly and well-being. The authors started from the relationship conducted on individuals, social impact is even more important between social comparisons and personal well-being theories. because of the immediate effect that it has of either improving the They found that “individuals may react more strongly to lives of many people or, on the contrary, harming them. For this comparisons with close others as opposed to distant others” reason, we chose to study how the SISM methodology applied in (Morry et al., 2018, p. 140), which places the focus on the psychological research enhances the visibility of the evidence of role of Facebook as a key factor. On a different note, but still the social impact of research on well-being. concerning quantitative methodology, Penchalaiah et al. (2019) Thus far, we have seen that the emerging literature on social proposed applying probability theory to tweets generated by media has an enormous potential to change people’s lives for users for the early detection of suicide intentions. Authors used better or for worse, and that is why social media research is experiments for early detection of suicide warning signs through needed even more. From the researchers’ perspective, social Twitter’s streaming API, and they managed to “capture warning media offers new possibilities for the dissemination of scientific signs in text compared to traditional machine learning classifiers” research, and for its meaning dissemination through social (Penchalaiah et al., 2019, p. 1). networks, which is also known as altmetrics (Ortega, 2018). We also found a qualitative study that analyzed tweets The fact that the public has access to this information that related to leading brands of wearables in the US to explore is ready to use increases the chances of achieving a social perceptions and reactions toward wearable devices that improve impact from research. This possibility, coupled with big data health and well-being (El-Gayar et al., 2019). More specifically, analysis, data mining, and other related techniques, offers the the authors used supervised learning, sentiment analysis, and possibility of measuring and evaluating the scientific and social automated content analysis, which demonstrated “the relevance impact of research. Therefore, altmetrics have opened an avenue of persuasive design features such as dialogue, credibility, and for measuring the impact of research on society, and in the social support, through to various degrees,” among other uses future, altmetrics could help us study research interactions (El-Gayar et al., 2019, p. 3858). and communications (Erdt et al., 2016). From the perspective The evidence in these articles presents the impact of the of individuals, social media is a source of collective opinion use of technology in people’s lives. This study aims to offer a from which they can learn and make informed decisions in methodology that contributes to measuring the social impact of all areas, especially with regard to health and well-being; thus, well-being research in people’s lives. For this purpose, we build the information provided in social media can greatly affect an on a previous study in the area of the social impact of research in individual’s health (Li and Sakamoto, 2014). According to Li social media (Pulido et al., 2018). More specifically, we placed our and Sakamoto (2014), collective opinion may act as a filter attention on two social media platforms that attract numerous for deterring the spread of false information and may create a studies and users worldwide (Facebook and Twitter) to extract new socially accepted norm that individuals follow even if it those pieces of evidence of the social impact of the research on contradicts their strong belief. well-being shared in social media using the SISM methodology. Making visible the social impact of the research on well- being through the analysis of the social media data available is a step forward in how to measure this impact. Carey et al. Conceptual Framework of the Social (2019) call for the use of metamethods in psychology that can Impact in Well-Being Research Applied focus on the strengths and weaknesses of different programs This study is inspired by the perspective of the social impact or interventions to design better programs and interventions of research (Reale et al., 2018). In doing so, this article is a that serve individuals’ needs. The Thrive at Work well-being pioneer in the study of the social impact of well-being research on program has designed a trial to assess the relationship among individuals, and it is the first to apply a specific methodology to fiscal incentives, awareness, and the increase in health and well- measure this social impact of well-being research in psychology. being offerings at SMEs in the United Kingdom (Thrive at According to Reale et al. (2018), social impact of research Work Wellbeing Programme Collaboration, 2019). McGhee et al. takes place “whether researchers generate interventions based (2015) propose the use of a longitudinal survey of children Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 4 February 2020 | Volume 11 | Article 135 Pulido et al. SISM and Well-Being in state care to better understand children’s pathways in the are ongoing projects, but they have already presented system and improve the response of public policy, evaluation, research findings in the field of well-being research that are and research on the multi-professional interventions required by relevant for this study. this vulnerable group. Espinosa-Montero et al. (2016) developed Criterion 2. The period of the selection of the social media data an instrument to measure the relationship between water is the period from when the first message was published, and the consumption and well-being using empirical data from a low- data was available in their profile until August 2019. income adult population in an urban area, which can be useful Criterion 3. The social media data collected are from Twitter in other contexts. Finally, Robinson et al. (2019) found a positive and Facebook. In this study, we applied the criterion that the impact of engaging with books on the well-being of children research project must be present in one of these two social media and young adults with severe and profound learning disabilities, platforms. In the case of Facebook, we selected Facebook pages which is in line with what the Children and Families Act of 2014 with public posts. required in England. What all these examples have in common The second step was to define strategies for capturing the is the fact that they are oriented to responding to societal tweets and Facebook posts of the research project. In this needs, sometimes by including stakeholders’ knowledge about research, we applied two different strategies. The first one was to their daily life experience. The contribution of our article is to collect, through NVivo software, the corresponding social media demonstrate that the SISM methodology provides an additional data of the official research project accounts on Twitter and method to make visible the social impact of well-being research. Facebook. The second strategy was to collect those tweets that Considering these previous contributions and the goal of this mention the keyword that defines the research project selected. study, the research questions we raise are: is there any evidence of It is necessary to combine these two strategies to collect the social impact from well-being research shared on social media? If maximum of social media data published in relation to the so, are these examples of potential or real social impact? What are research project; to choose only one limits the results. Table 1 the main contributions identified? summarizes the number of tweets and Facebook posts that we collected from each research project using the different social media platforms and strategies previously defined. MATERIALS AND METHODS The total amount of the data collected through strategy 1 and strategy 2 is 1,559 messages (1,402 tweets and 157 Social Impact in Social Media is a novel methodology in Facebook posts). social media analytics for the evaluation of the social impact of research (Pulido et al., 2018) developed under IMPACT- EV, a research project funded under the Framework Program Data Analysis We analyzed all the tweets and Facebook posts collected (1402 FP7 of the Directorate-General for Research and Innovation of tweets and 157 Facebook posts) to first calculate the ratio of the European Commission. One of the contributions of this evidence of social impact to the total amount of data collected. methodology is to distinguish those messages published in social To do so, the first step was to apply a content analysis of the media profiles that are classified as dissemination messages from tweets and Facebook posts selected, and the second step was to those messages that constitute evidence of the real or potential calculate the corresponding ratio, which is called the SICOR – social impact of research. This contribution is significant, because social impact coverage ratio (Pulido et al., 2018). The result is we are moving toward the evaluation of research efforts that are expressed as a percentage. In this paper, we use the following measured by the social impact achieved, which ultimately refers to how well we are contributing to improving people’s living conditions. This methodology could be applied in any scientific area. In the present case, we have applied it to psychology, TABLE 1 | Number of tweets and Facebook posts collected for each search strategy. specifically in the field of well-being research. Strategy 1 Strategy 2 Data Collection The data collection, analysis, and dataset created applies the Project Program/zone N. Tweets – N. Facebook N. Tweets/ profile account page – project keyword ethical recommendations concerning social media data research of the European Commission (2018). The first step in the data P1 H2020/Europe – – 91 collection was to select the research projects aimed at studying P2 FP7/Europe 58 – 36 well-being or related areas to be analyzed. In the selection of these P3 United States 202 19 141 research projects, we applied the following criteria: P4 H2020/Europe 51 – – Criterion 1. Selection of 10 competitive research projects P5 H2020/Europe – 105 14 on well-being that publicly display their data on social P6 H2020/Europe 90 – – media. We selected eight research projects funded by the P7 United States – 33 392 FP7 (7th Framework Programme) and H2020 of the European P8 H2020/Europe 55 – 29 Commission. Two research projects were selected from two P9 H2020/Europe 220 – – universities from the United States due to their contribution P10 H2020/Europe 23 – – to well-being research. Most of the H2020 projects selected Total 699 157 703 Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 5 February 2020 | Volume 11 | Article 135 Pulido et al. SISM and Well-Being SICOR for Twitter and Facebook. TABLE 2 | Codebook SISM used in this research. Pn γi γ1 + γ2 + · · · + γn Code Description SICOR = Pni=1 = i=1 Ti T1 + T2 + · · · + Tn DI Tweet or Facebook post of which the main goal is to disseminate the research. where: OT Tweet or Facebook post that contains types of messages other than dissemination and not evidence of social impact, sometimes • γi is the total number of messages obtained about project i congratulations, jobs offers, personal interactions, etc. with evidence of social impact on social media (in this case, ESISM Evidence of social impact is a research result that contributes to Twitter and Facebook); the achievement of an objective of society defined by the • Ti is the total number of messages from project i in social corresponding institution, for instance, the UN sustainable media (in this case Twitter, Facebook); development goal 3 – Good health and Wellbeing. Evidence can be of potential impact or social impact already achieved. • n is the number of projects selected. QUANESISM Quantitative evidence of social impact. The evidence provided The third step carried out in this analysis was to identify gives quantitative information about improvements obtained whether the social impact evidence selected was of real through the implementation of the research results. Evidence can be of potential impact or social impact already achieved. or potential impact and whether there was quantitative or QUALESISM Qualitative evidence of social impact. The evidence provided qualitative evidence. The main contributions were identified gives quantitative information about improvements obtained under the criterion of having captured a lot of interest from through the implementation of the research results. Evidence can citizens on social media. This interest is measured by considering be of potential impact or social impact already achieved. the following criteria: the research captured the attention of POTENTIAL SI Potential social impact means that research findings have a people who are not directly involved in the research, and potential social impact because of the type of evidence the research team aims at identifying and links with societal goals. these people have published the social impact evidence or have REAL SI Real social impact means that there is already evidence for the retweeted, liked, shared, or commented on it. social impact of the research findings. Analytical Categories and Codebook The research team that conducted this analysis has expertise codebook a priori to the researchers in charge of the analysis. in the evaluation of the social impact of research in social To calculate the reliability of the analysis, we used inter-rater media. The analytical categories were previously defined and reliability in examining the level of agreement between the two tested in the current sample. The unit of analysis is the full raters with regard to the assignment of the categories defined complement of information available in the message analyzed through Cohen’s kappa. We used Cohen’s kappa calculator to (tweet or Facebook post). Therefore, the links provided were also calculate this coefficient. The research team analyzed the coding examined. Sometimes the evidence of social impact is provided agreement and further classified the sample with regard to in the message, but at other times, the message that is posted dissemination (DI = 1), evidence of social impact (ESISM = 2), is an introduction, and the evidence is presented in an attached or other type of message (OT = 3). There were 16 messages link. The analysis of the user profiles has some limitations. The coded with different values, and they were excluded from the final information in the bio is the unit of analysis of the profile, but sample analyzed. The result obtained is 0.89%. By interpreting some of the bios are empty, and access to others is restricted for this number according to the Cohen’s kappa coefficient (see privacy reasons. In this sense, we considered in our study only Supplementary Table S2), our level of agreement is reliable. Once those profiles that are entirely public to measure citizen interest, this review was complete, the final sample was composed of 1543 and for privacy and ethical reasons, we cannot show the profiles. tweets and Facebook posts. The codebook used in the analysis can be seen in Table 2. In this paper, we show the results of the sample classification in the three categories. Also, we provide the results of a second Inter-Rater Reliability (Kappa) analysis focused on the potential and real social impact, with The analysis of the sample selected was conducted following a an example of qualitative and quantitative evidence in the last content analysis method in which reliability was based on a peer- section that illustrates the selected contributions. review process. Each tweet and Facebook post were analyzed to identify whether it contained evidence of social impact (ESISM) or was another type of communication (DI – Dissemination, RESULTS OT – Other) according to the codebook defined previously. A second level of the analysis was to perform a qualitative To answer the research questions defined previously, in this analysis of those messages coded as ESISM to detect qualitative section, we divide the results into three parts. The first focuses and quantitative evidence and identify whether they present real on the question of whether there is any evidence of social impact or potential social impact. Once this step was completed, the from well-being research being shared in social media. The researchers selected the main pieces of evidence considering the second focuses on the question of whether the evidence shared interactions received (likes, shares, comments, retweets), and contains information about real or potential social impact, and after that, they analyzed those public user profiles that were the third focuses on the main contributions identified based on involved in the interactions. The first step was to deliver the the results regarding the detection of real social impact. Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 6 February 2020 | Volume 11 | Article 135 Pulido et al. SISM and Well-Being Evidence of the Social Impact of TABLE 5 | SICOR results for each project. Well-Being Research Shared in Social Project Program/zone SICOR Media P1 H2020/Europe 9.9% With the analysis complete, we can confirm that there is evidence P2 FP7/Europe 14.9% of the social impact of well-being research shared in social media P3 United States 10.8% (15.7%). We found a higher percentage of the presence of ESISM P4 H2020/Europe 27.5% (evidence of social impact) in this study than in a previous study, P5 H2020/Europe 23.5% where the highest percentage of ESISM for a project was 4.98% P6 H2020/Europe 12.2% (Pulido et al., 2018). In the current study, the project with the P7 United States 26.4% highest percentage had 27.5%. P8 H2020/Europe 8.3% Next, the results are explained in global and detailed ways. P9 H2020/Europe 3.6% Table 3 illustrates the coverage percentage of messages coded P10 H2020/Europe 8.7% based on the codebook (DI, ESISM, OT). The type of message (tweet or Facebook post) with the highest TABLE 6 | Percentage of real and potential social impact identified in percentage is dissemination (56.9%), while the percentage of the ESISM sample. ESISM (15.7%) is lower. This result is in line with previous Code Number of Tweets and Fb/posts found Percentage research results that indicated that tweets and posts are mostly linked to dissemination goals. ESISM 244 100 Table 4 illustrates the result of the SICOR considering the POTENTIAL SI 42 17 results of the sum of the ESISM based on the 10 research REAL SI 202 83 projects in relation to the total number of tweets and Facebook posts collected, classified by the type of strategy and type of social media platform. studies in well-being research. Regarding the other projects, we The results extracted by the strategy indicate that the SICOR found that three of them have more than 10% evidence of social is slightly higher in strategy 2 than in strategy 1. With regard impact (P2, P3, and P6), three of them more than 5% (P1, P8, and to the type of social media platform, although we collected P10), and one has less than 5% (P9). more tweets than Facebook posts, the posts have higher SICOR than the tweets. This result indicates that the number of tweets More Real Social Impact Than Potential or Facebook posts that are collected is not relevant to finding Social Impact Found in Selected Projects evidence of social impact, which is in line with the previous We have identified 244 tweets and Facebook posts that contain research conducted under the SISM methodology. evidence of social impact. When we analyzed the content Table 5 illustrates in detail the SICOR results extracted for of these messages in depth, the result was that there were each research project selected. As shown in the table, there are more detailing real social impact (83%) than potential social three projects with more than 20% evidence of social impact impact (17%). This result confirms the idea that applying (P4, P5, and P7). Two of these projects are recent research SISM (see Supplementary Table S1) to identify evidence projects funded by the H2020 Framework Programme, while P7, of social impact is a quick way to capture relevant pieces which has the second-highest percentage, belongs to one of the of evidence of social impact that researchers and citizens United States research projects that is one of the most relevant are sharing in the online public space. Table 6 shows the number of tweets and Facebook posts collected and the corresponding percentages in relation to the total number of TABLE 3 | Percentage of types of coded message. ESISMs collected. We elaborated Table 7 to display which projects have more Type of message Number of references Percentage real social impact than potential social impact and to specify the DI 880 56.9 results classified in both categories. In this way, we can detect ESISM 244 15.7 which project results it would be interesting to analyze in depth OT 429 27.5 to demonstrate the evidence of social impact. The percentage indicated corresponds to the total amount of social media data collected for the project. TABLE 4 | Global SICOR results. Considering these results, we can detect which of the projects has the greatest percentage of real social impact (P7), with 45.9%. Type of strategy SICOR – Social Impact Coverage Ratio The second-highest (P3) is considerably lower than the first, with Strategy 1 – Profile 13.8% a result of 11.5%, while the third one (P5) is close to the second, Strategy 2 – Keyword 17.9% with 9%. The fourth (P6) is half of the third, with 4.5%, and the Type of social media platform last one (P2) is close to the fourth, with 4.1%. In the next section, Twitter 15% we analyze the evidence of the social impact of the five projects Facebook 21.7% with the highest percentage of real social impact. Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 7 February 2020 | Volume 11 | Article 135 Pulido et al. SISM and Well-Being TABLE 7 | Results of real and potential social impact for each project in relation to function of close ties with family, friends, and community. It the total amount of the ESISM sample. had nothing to do with fame, wealth, social class, IQ, genes, etc.” Project Code N. Tweets and Fb/posts Percentage (REAL SI, P7, REF 87). “‘Close relationships, more than money or fame, are what keep P1 POTENTIAL SI 7 2.9 people happy throughout their lives. and are better predictors REAL SI 2 0.8 of long and happy lives than social class, IQ, or even genes,’ P2 POTENTIAL SI 4 1.6 concludes the 80 Year Harvard Study of Adult Development.” REAL SI 10 4.1 (REAL SI, P7, REF 3). P3 POTENTIAL SI 11 4.5 The following quote is also an example of how being aware of REAL SI 28 11.5 this qualitative evidence of social impact can encourage one to P4 POTENTIAL SI 5 2.0 apply the study results in one’s own life: REAL SI 9 3.7 “Watched a video today that said a Harvard study on Adult P5 POTENTIAL SI 6 2.5 Development conducted over 75 years shows that what keeps REAL SI 22 9.0 people living longer and happier is the quality of their social P6 POTENTIAL SI 0 0.0 relationships. Put the electronic gadgets down and actually REAL SI 11 4.5 engage in meaningful interactions. #HealthyLiving.” (REAL SI, P7 POTENTIAL SI 0 0 P7, REF 20). REAL SI 112 45.9 Another finding highlighted how loneliness negatively affects P8 POTENTIAL SI 4 1.6 health and the relevance of applying the evidence of improving REAL SI 3 1.2 health through strong relationships: P9 POTENTIAL SI 4 1.6 “Loneliness kills. The big finding from the Harvard Study of REAL SI 4 1.6 Adult Development. If you want to live a happy and healthy P10 POTENTIAL SI 1 0.4 life, you have to prioritize having strong social connections and REAL SI 1 0.4 relationships.” (REAL SI, P7, REF 9). Finally, this example highlights one of the pieces of evidence regarding the quality of connections. Similarly, the example Main Contributions Identified encourages the application of this evidence in daily life: Before beginning to explain the different examples collected from “It is never a question of IF there are connections in life, it is these projects, we would like to mention that the evidence of only a question of the quality of those connections. This study social impact that we will deliver could be in the same tweet or shows us that the better that quality, the better our life and our Fb/post or in a link delivered with that tweet or Fb/post, as we health long term. What more do we need to know?!? Check out explained in the prior study (Pulido et al., 2018). Considering my podcast for more about happiness too!” (REAL SI, P7, REF 7). the results explained in the previous section, we selected the following examples: Early Detection of Depression Symptoms Through The Quality of Relationships Directly Influences the Analysis of Language in Social Media Improves Health Prevention The first project (P7) belongs to the longest study of adult P3 belongs to the World Well-Being Project (WWBP), led development, led by researchers of Harvard University. This by researchers from the University of Pennsylvania. These study has been in place for more than 80 years, and there are researchers are leading a pioneering research study of scientific results available from the first part of the study focused on techniques for measuring psychological well-being and physical people who began the study in the 1940s. Now, the researchers health based on the analysis of language in social media. The are leading a second part of the study that is focused on the focus of their research is on those psychosocial processes that second generation, the children of the participants of the first affect health and happiness and how to improve them. In cohort. Evidence of the social impact of this study is the most this case, the examples provided links to explore the evidence tweeted and shared by citizens of all the samples collected in this identified. Some of the examples selected present evidence of study. As we have shown in Table 7, this project has the highest how the analysis of social media predicts earlier symptoms of percentage of real social impact because there are more tweets depression that could be used to help prevent depression before shared directly by citizens than in the other projects. Citizens that these symptoms worsen: tweet this evidence have been impressed to find out that health “Researchers from the WWBP analyzed social media with depends more on strong and meaningful relationships than on an AI algorithm to pick out linguistic cues that might predict fame, money, or social class. There is no doubt that this evidence depression. This may lead to early detection and treatment for has captured much citizen attention. Here are some examples of many. bit.ly/2E205OL.” (REAL SI, P3, REF 1). the messages related to this project. “We show that Facebook statuses can be used as a (rough) The first two examples epitomize this qualitative evidence: screening technology for depression as recorded in medical “Harvard Study of Adult Development has tracked the lives records – AUC.69 – article is open access. #depression #BigData of 724 men for 79 years and found that flourishing in life is a @WWBProject https://t.co/sLQpCTfPaC.” (REAL SI, P3, REF 7). Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 8 February 2020 | Volume 11 | Article 135 Pulido et al. SISM and Well-Being Engaging With Meaningful Social and Intellectual Positive Mental Health Self-Ratings Improve Future Interactions Impacts Brain Health Mental Health The third research project is LIFEBRAIN, funded by the H2020 The fourth project is CAPICE, funded under the H2020 project program of the European Commission. The aim of this project, by the European Commission. This is an ongoing project that will according to its webpage, is “to identify determinants of brain, also end in 2021, but the researchers have already shared evidence cognitive and mental health at different stages of life and establish of social impact on the well-being and mental health of children a solid foundation of knowledge for understanding how brain, and adolescents in Europe. One of the pieces of evidence shared cognitive and mental health can be optimized through the relates to an advance in improving the treatment and prevention lifespan.” This research is an ongoing project that will end in of mental health: that the positive self-rating of one’s own mental 2021, but the researchers have already identified evidence of health has a positive impact on future mental health: social impact. Some of this evidence comes from researchers “Self-rating mental health as ‘good’ predicts positive who belong to their own network, and the rest comes from future mental health https://t.co/G4YzTkNnfl #mental- other colleagues who are contributing to this research field. illness #depression #psychologicaldistress #InvestEUresearch The projects’ research team uses a newsletter to share the @GamianE @capice_project @EU_H2O20, https://t.co/ evidence, quoting the studies referenced and using good science vKqdElsgrA.” communication language to reach more people. These posts If we follow the link, we find more information about the have more interaction than in the other cases. The examples findings of this study published in the Journal of Health and selected are from the project’s Facebook page. Some of the Social Behavior. Researchers found that for 62% of people with Fb/posts contain this evidence; for instance, the relevance of a mental health problem, if they rated themselves in a positive being involved in social, physical and intellectual activities in way, they faced their health issues better. Besides, the researchers middle age has a direct impact on brain health in old age: found that individuals who evaluated their mental health as good “Lifebrain researcher Professor Rik Henson at the University had 30% lower probabilities of having a mental health problem, of Cambridge presented the recent results obtained within the being an example of quantitative evidence. According to the CamCan study cohort to the Lifebrain research group at the researchers (McAlpine et al., 2018), “even without treatment, University of Barcelona this week. One interesting finding is that persons with a mental health problem did better if they perceived middle-aged people who participated in higher levels of social, their mental health positively” (1). In fact, researchers involved in physical and intellectual activities had better thinking ability in this study show that self-rated mental health had an independent old age than those who undertook fewer of these midlife activities, positive influence on future mental health and highlight other despite age-related reduction in their brain sizes. Read more elements that agree with previous evidence quoted in this about the results of the Cambridge cohorts here: https://www. section, for instance, the benefits of meaningful relationships and lifebrain.uio.no/publications/e-newsletters/midlife.html.” maintaining a sense of purpose and belonging in life. The quantitative evidence could be explored inside the link attached, which includes a reference to the research publication The Use of Machine Learning Algorithms Improves where the results are available. the Accuracy of Mental Health Predictions Meaningful leisure-time interactions also have an impact on The last project selected is PRONIA, funded by the FP7 project brain health: of the European Commission, which focused on research on “Leisure activities count for your brain health! Frequently personalized prognostic tools for early psychosis management. engaging in social and intellectually stimulating activities, One of the aspects of well-being research is to prevent such as meeting friends or family, playing board games, mental illness and promote people’s well-being. In this sense, and reading, are linked to better brain health in old age. this research team shows how well-trained machine learning This is a finding from a current review performed by algorithms better predict mental health outcomes because the Lifebrain researchers at the Department of Psychiatry, data offered are based on evidence. The following example of University of Oxford. Read more about the impact of leisure quantitative evidence reveals this type of accuracy: activities on brain health in the latest Lifebrain e-newsletter: “PRONIA Project @PRONIA_EU · 14 Nov 2018 https://www.lifebrain.uio.no/publications/e-newsletters/leisure. #PRONIA managed to show in a #MultinationalStudy html.” that #MachineLearning algorithms perform better than For women, there is an interesting piece of evidence reported doctors at predicting #MentalHealth outcomes, with by this project. Researchers found that women have healthier up to 82% accuracy. Listen to the radio interview with brains in gender-equal countries; thus, equality affects their well- @koutsouleris & @StephenWood8 on @abcnews! ∼ being as well: https://www.abc.net.au/radio/programs.” “Women have healthier brains in gender equal countries. This last example shows how effective early treatment of In countries that promote women’s equality and participation youths can prevent mental health problems later in life: in society, women have a better chance of keeping their “Exactly!! Choosing where & when to invest precious dollars brains healthy in later life, according to new research from in #mentalhealth care is not a zero-sum game. Effective treatment the Norwegian Institute of Public Health. Read our monthly for #youth can bend the life curve positively AND prevent e-newsletter here: http://mailchi.mp/95211d178033/lifebrain- #disability when older. It pays off in multiple ways! #onhealth horizon2020-project-e-newsletter.” #cdnhealth https://t.co/Gxdq22BGzA.” Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 9 February 2020 | Volume 11 | Article 135 Pulido et al. SISM and Well-Being DISCUSSION The limitations of this study are mainly due to the data restrictions, which were updated by the General Data Protection The European research projects selected are mostly ongoing Regulation (EU) 2016/679 (GDPR). Twitter and Facebook have projects, but since their very beginning, they have been sharing correctly updated their data protection under this law. Programs evidence of social impact in their social media channels. This such as the one used by NVivo respect these updates. The result could be due to the current evaluation system of the information extracted respects this legal framework because European Framework Programme (van den Besselaar et al., it derives from the public data that users have consented to 2018), where social impact is one of the crucial criteria for being share, and any private data remains private according to the funded and evaluated. The other two research projects selected ethical guidelines in social media data research. Therefore, our that contain a lot of evidence of social impact are research projects dataset collects permissible public information, and anonymity with a long trajectory of conducting research in the same field, is guaranteed. It is important to note that some tweets and and this is one of the reasons that they have more evidence. Fb/posts are not collected because they are not provided by However, one of the common criteria is that all the projects the platforms due to privacy reasons. In this sense, we are selected have research goals related to societal goals. Therefore, aware that there are more tweets and Fb/posts, although the all the projects address, for instance, priorities defined by the dataset collected already displays evidence that social impact SDG3 Health and Wellbeing for All (UNDP, 2017), one of the is shared in social media despite these limitations. Another sustainable development goals defined by the United Nations. limitation included in the study is that the data collected should The topics covered are in line with the most common issues be contrasted to avoid the possibility of manipulation or misuse. investigated by the academic community, according to Kapoor For this reason, all evidence of social impact found is checked et al. (2018). The difference with this previous study is that we for a reference of scientific evidence that guarantees that is not have focused on that evidence that contributes to improving false information. people’s lives. Thus, merely descriptive research results are out of Finally, we would like to highlight one finding that was not the scope of this paper. mentioned before. Some of the social media channels of the Another detail observed in this study is critical for the research projects not only shared their own evidence of social improvement of the living conditions of citizens. We observed impact but also shared evidence from the research of other in some tweets and Fb/posts by citizens that they highlight the colleagues who are also providing key contributions in the same evidence of social impact that guarantees an improvement in field. This detail is of note because when scientists prioritize their life and encourage others at the same time to implement bringing together findings that can improve the well-being of the changes supported by the evidence in their daily lives. This people, science can advance faster and better. finding could be related to the evidence founded by Park and Min Baek (2018), where users’ abilities and emotions indirectly influenced psychological well-being. But this finding also needs CONCLUSION other contributions to understand why users encourage others when they find evidence for improving their lives. For instance, Considering the research questions elaborated in this study, Hooker et al. (2019) provide evidence of the direct impact of we can conclude with the following results. The application of being engaged in meaningful activities on psychological well- SISM in the analysis of 10 competitive research projects on being. One possible explanation is that social media users well-being research confirms that this type of research produces that have interacted with evidence of social impact created a evidence of social impact that is shared in social media. We meaningful understanding that needs to be shared with others. have obtained more real social impact evidence than potential This is an important finding, since fake news affects the evidence; this fact implies that the research selected is already health of many people, according to Merchant and Asch (2018). contributing to improving people’s lives. The main contributions Spreading evidence of how to improve well-being, which directly identified are those on how the quality of relationships has a affects health, is crucial for guaranteeing the achievement direct impact on the quality of health over a lifetime and that of SDG3: Health and Well-being for All. This approach is engagement in meaningful social and intellectual interactions particularly significant with regard to the evidence found in P7. supports brain health. Moreover, the positive self-rating of When citizens get to know that science contributes to improving one’s own mental health promotes future mental health, so their lives, they tweet, post, like, share, and comment. This result this is an important variable for the treatments in this field. is an indicator that researchers have connected with citizens Technology is used to prevent mental health problems, such as due to the relevance of their findings, which guarantees an through early depression detection and more accurate detection improvement in people’s lives. of mental problems. Both improve treatment and prevention, The research projects analyzed show the relevance of well- which promotes well-being and better health. These results being research in our times. Nonetheless, the projects face one relate to SDG 3, Health and Wellbeing for All, which is large obstacle. This obstacle is the fact that in this field, there one of the priorities of the Sustainable Development Goals of are many non-evidence-based assertions. One way to deal with the United Nations, and have already achieved social impact. them is to share evidence of social impact in social media to Regarding the methodology proposed, we have demonstrated reach out to more people who are not normally familiar with the that SISM contributes to focusing on extracting the evidence academic environment. of the social impact of well-being research and makes more Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 10 February 2020 | Volume 11 | Article 135 Pulido et al. SISM and Well-Being visible how the research results provided improve people’s lives, the data analysis and results sections. L-CM and CP wrote the obtaining social impact. Knowing these results allows advances first draft of the manuscript. TS-M reviewed the final version of on how to define future research proposals and on how to the manuscript and the contributions. collect data on the social impact of current research. 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Sci. 9, 81–86. Conflict of Interest: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the Plunz, R. A., Zhou, Y., Carrasco Vintimilla, I. M., Mckeown, K., Yu, T., Uguccioni, absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a L., et al. (2019). Twitter sentiment in New York city parks as measure of well- potential conflict of interest. being. Landsc. Urban Plann. 189, 235–246. doi: 10.1016/j.landurbplan.2019.04. 024 The reviewer JC declared a shared affiliation, with no collaboration, with one of the Pulido, C. M., Redondo-Sama, G., Sordé-Martí, T., and Flecha, R. (2018). Social authors, VI, to the handling Editor at the time of review. impact in social media: a new method to evaluate the social impact of research. PLoS One 13:e0203117. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0203117 Copyright © 2020 Pulido, Mara, Ionescu and Sordé-Martí. This is an open-access Reale, E., Avramov, D., Canhial, K., Donovan, C., Flecha, R., Holm, P., et al. article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (2018). A review of literature on evaluating the scientific, social and political (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided impact of social sciences and humanities research. Res. Eval. 27, 298–308. doi: the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original 10.1093/reseval/rvx025 publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. Robinson, D., Moore, N., and Harris, C. (2019). The impact of books on No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with social inclusion and development and well-being among children and these terms. Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 12 February 2020 | Volume 11 | Article 135