ORIGINAL RESEARCH published: 16 November 2020 doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.570584 The Influence of Basic Psychological Needs and Passion in Promoting Elite Young Football Players’ Development José L. Chamorro 1*, Rubén Moreno 1, Tomás García-Calvo 2 and Miquel Torregrossa 3,4 1 Departamento de Ciencias del Deporte, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Universidad Europea de Madrid, Madrid, Spain, 2 Department of Didactics of Musical, Plastic and Corporal Expression, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Extremadura, Cáceres, Spain, 3 Departamento de Psicología Básica, Evolutiva y de la Educación, Faculty of Psychology, Universitat Autónoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain, 4 Sport Research Institute, Universitat Autónoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain Edited by: Diogo Monteiro, Motivational variables and cognitive skills have been identified as important in an athlete’s Polytechnic of Leiria, Portugal development. The aim of this study is to explore the influence of each basic psychological Reviewed by: needs satisfaction on player’s development regarding reflection and concentration Diogo Teixeira, Universidade Lusófona, Portugal disruption with the mediation of types of passion in Spanish young elite football players. Juan González Hernández, A total of 487 elite U18 male football players (Mage = 17.43, SD = 0.71) completed University of Granada, Spain measures of basic psychological needs satisfaction, passion for football, reflective thinking, *Correspondence: and concentration disruption. Measurement models were defined using exploratory José L. Chamorro josemaria.lopez2@ structural equation models. The results provide support for the model, where each universidadeuropea.es psychological needs satisfaction prompted reflection and had a negative influence on concentration disruption with the mediation of harmonious passion. In addition, obsessive Specialty section: This article was submitted to passion mediated the positive relationship between competence satisfaction and Movement Science and Sport concentration disruption. Finally, competence and relatedness satisfaction influenced the Psychology, a section of the journal development of reflection directly and positively and, exclusively, relatedness satisfaction Frontiers in Psychology had a negative influence in a direct way on concentration disruption. In sum, our results Received: 08 June 2020 highlight that (a) the environment of young footballers through psychological needs Accepted: 28 October 2020 satisfaction has a positive (i.e., reflection) or negative (i.e., concentration disruption) Published: 16 November 2020 influence on the field, but only with the mediation of harmonious passion, (b) in a competitive Citation: Chamorro JL, Moreno R, environment, the perception of competence can have a positive influence on concentration García-Calvo T and disruption, but only with the development of obsessive passion as a mediator, and (c) Torregrossa M (2020) The Influence of Basic Psychological Needs and relatedness satisfaction plays a key role in distinguishing between reflection and Passion in Promoting Elite Young concentration disruption. Football Players’ Development. Front. Psychol. 11:570584. Keywords: self-determination theory, motivation, self-regulation, concentration disruption, reflective thinking, doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.570584 dualistic model of passion Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 1 November 2020 | Volume 11 | Article 570584 Chamorro et al. Psychological Needs, Passion and Players Development INTRODUCTION an individual occurs in a controlled manner, originating from intrapersonal and/or interpersonal pressure caused by The young athlete’s development could be based on, at least, contingencies associated with the activity (e.g., feelings of two desired goals: continue improving sports skills and becoming social acceptance or self-esteem). Harmonious passion (HP) elite athletes. However, becoming an elite athlete is one of also prompts a strong desire to engage in the activity as OP. the more difficult challenges that young athletes must cope However, HP refers to a strong desire to freely engage in with in their career development. Specifically, in football, the activity without any type of contingency, wherein the Haugaasen and Jordet (2012) suggested that out of the 265 million person regards the activity as a significant (but not people who regularly play football, only 0.04% will play in a overwhelming) part of his/her identity. With HP, the person professional league. Moreover, Green (2009) reports that out is in control of the activity and freely decides whether or of 10,000 youngsters who play in the lower categories of not to engage in the activity under given circumstances. professional English clubs each season, less than 1% will become According to the meta-analytical review by Curran et al. professional players. These data show how difficult it is to (2015), HP is positively related with adaptive intrapersonal become a professional player. outcomes (e.g., life satisfaction, flow, concentration, and vitality), This study is contextualized in the realm of elite U18 male and OP shows positive relationships with adaptive and less football players. This category could be considered as the last adaptive intrapersonal outcomes (e.g., mastery approach goals, step before jumping to professional football (Chamorro et al., burnout, rumination, and negative affects). 2016). According to studies with this type of population (Mills Theoretically, it could be assumed that BPN satisfaction et al., 2012; Drew et al., 2019), motivational variables, as well promotes a better valuation for an activity and, consequently, as cognitive skills, have a key role in the development of more probabilities to develop ongoing passion for this activity young athletes who practice sports. Exploring the relationships in the future. Although the association between BPN and among motivational variables [i.e.. basic psychological needs passion has already been investigated (Forest et al., 2011; Curran (BPN) and passion] and cognitive skills (i.e., reflective thinking et al., 2013; Verner-Filion et al., 2017; Verner-Filion and and concentration disruption) could help us to understand Vallerand, 2018), only a few studies have tested the role of whether the influence of motivational factors in cognitive BPN satisfaction as an antecedent of passion (Alcaraz-Ibañez variables has an impact on the player’s development. et al., 2016; Lalande et al., 2017; Tóth-Király et al., 2019). One of the macro-theories of motivation more used in Studies by Lalande et al. (2017) suggested that the satisfaction sports has been the Self-Determination Theory (SDT; Deci of BPNs determines the type of passion that an individual and Ryan, 1985; Ryan and Deci, 2000; Clancy et al., 2017). experiences toward an activity, even when he or she is already According to SDT, people engage in various activities passionate about it. In that study, BPN satisfaction inside of throughout life in the hope of satisfying BPN for autonomy passionate activity was found as a significant predictor of both (the need to experience volition, self-direction, and choice), HP and OP, although the effect was stronger for HP. In the competence (the need to feel a sense of efficacy), and same way, Alcaraz-Ibañez et al. (2016) found that BPN satisfaction relatedness (the need to feel loved, valued, and connected was a significant predictor of both types of passion for exercise, with significant others). SDT proposes that when an individual and again the effect was strong for HP. In the study by Tóth- has satisfied their BPNs, he or she should experience optimal Király et al. (2019) with screen-based leisure activities, they levels of physical and psychological health. In the field of assessed BPN satisfaction in life, in general, (not inside of physical activity and sports, research has shown that the passionate activity) and showed that general needs satisfaction satisfaction of the three BPNs has been associated with a negatively predicted OP but had no relation to HP. However, wide range of positive outcomes, while the thwarting or it should be noted that these previous studies did not address non-satisfaction of BPNs has been linked to negative outcomes BPN satisfaction as three separate factors. Thus, the influence (Gunnell et al., 2013; Fernández-Ríos et al., 2014; of each BPN satisfaction on passion inside of passionate activity Pulido et al., 2018, 2020; Sheehan et al., 2018). has not been explored enough. According to Vallerand et al. (2003), the satisfaction of On the other hand, Pierce (2018) comments that young psychological needs contributes to better value an activity people learn cognitively, as well as acquire behavioral, intrapersonal, with which an individual has committed. This assessment of and interpersonal skills through sports and put themselves in the activity (i.e., football) could lead to the development of an excellent position to be better athletes. In this sense, the passion for the activity (Vallerand, 2015). The Dualistic Model athlete’s development and, therefore, the development of future of Passion (DMP; Vallerand et al., 2003; Vallerand, 2010, elite athletes, involves, in some way, a continuous learning process 2015) proposes that it is important to differentiate the passion that can allow improvements in the development of the skills not only in terms of quantity, but also in terms of quality. of the sport. Ntoumanis and Cumming (2016) point out that Vallerand et al. (2003) distinguish two types of passion, self-regulation has been identified as fundamental to successful obsessive and harmonious, in terms of how the passionate learning, well-being, and performance and, thus, enables athletes activity is regulated and integrated with other life domains. to realize their potential in sports as well as other life domains. Obsessive passion (OP) refers to a strong and uncontrollable Self-regulated learning implies that individuals assume their own urge to partake in the activity. In this type of passion, the learning tasks proactively from metacognitive and motivational process of internalization of the activity into the identity of strategies (Zimmerman, 2008; Bartels and Magun-Jackson, 2009). Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 2 November 2020 | Volume 11 | Article 570584 Chamorro et al. Psychological Needs, Passion and Players Development Within self-regulated learning (Zimmerman, 2006), reflection of BPNs is necessary for the evaluation of the activity and the (i.e., the extent to which players reappraise what they have subsequent development or maintenance of both types of passion learnt and adapted past knowledge and experience to improve (Vallerand, 2015), this work expects types of passion to play performance) seems to play a significant role in talent, a mediating role between BPN satisfaction and cognitive skills. improvement, and performance (Toering et al., 2009; Gledhill In this study, we also wanted to extend the previous literature and Harwood, 2014; Gledhill et al., 2017; Jonker et al., 2019). identifying antecedents of reflective thinking, because self- Jonker et al. (2019) showed that elite young players with high regulation and its elements have received less research attention scores on reflective thinking (as a self-regulatory skill) were in sports compared to other contexts such as health or education more likely to develop and, thus, reach the level of professional (Ntoumanis and Cumming, 2016). football. This study found that players who achieved professional Thus, the aim of this study is to explore the influence of football status increased their levels of reflection in the process each BPN satisfaction on players’ development through reflection of transitioning to professional clubs, while reflection levels in and concentration disruption with the mediation of types of semi-professional or non-professional players remained stable. passion in Spanish young elite football players. Based on the Thus, reflection could be considered as an adaptive cognitive aforementioned literature, we hypothesize that each psychological skill regarding an athlete’s development that needs the promotion needs satisfaction would predict positively and directly reflection, of metacognitive and motivational strategies (Zimmerman, 2008; and positively with the mediation of HP. In turn, each psychological Bartels and Magun-Jackson, 2009). needs satisfaction would predict negatively and directly In this sense, it could be inferred that, for a process of concentration disruption, and also negatively with the mediation reflection on a given action or set of actions to be more likely, of HP. Also, we hypothesize that OP would facilitate concentration the athlete should be focused on such action. Consequently, disruption but, due to controversial findings regarding the it might not be compatible with a reflective process to occur influence of satisfaction of BPNs on OP, no hypothesis was after an action in which it has been deconcentrated. Concentration established about the mediator role of OP in the model. disruption was defined by Grossbard et al. (2009) as the athlete’s difficulty in focusing on the key aspects of the task to be performed that impedes clarity of thought during the MATERIALS AND METHODS competitive situation. In the sporting context, concentration disruption and worry were included by Smith et al. (1990) as Participants a cognitive component of pre-competitive anxiety. Unlike The elite young football players who are in the position, where reflection, concentration disruption has been linked to undesired they have to cope with the transition from junior to senior variables for athletes. McCarthy et al. (2013) suggest that in a short time is a specific population within the practice of concentration disruption in young athletes is related to displeasing youth sports. For this reason, the main selection criterion of emotions such as dejection, anxiety, and interfering thoughts. the participants was players who belonged to Spanish teams Thus, concentration disruption could be considered as a of Liga División de Honor Juvenil, considered as the last maladaptive cognitive skill with a negative influence on an category before jumping into professional football. Specifically, athlete’s development. players who belonged to clubs whose senior teams played in Motivational variables and cognitive skills are fundamental the Spanish First or Second Division were eligible. Finally, in the promotion of an athlete’s development (Knight et al., study participants were 478 young male elite football players 2019). Among adaptive cognitive skills, reflective thinking as (Mage 17.42, SD = 0.705, range = 16–19) of 27 academy teams a component of self-regulated learning has been identified as of the highest Under-18 category in Spain. This category is a key variable of an athlete’s development and sports performance. divided into seven competition groups with 16 teams, each Successful self-regulated learnings occur when individuals are classified by the geographical regions of Spain. The teams motivated and determined to use their cognitive and metacognitive assessed in the study compete in 6 of the 7 groups, with one strategies (Bilde et al., 2011). In fact, more determined forms exception from the Canary Islands group. It is also necessary of motivation have been related to higher levels of self-regulated to point out that all the teams that participated in the study learning (Bilde et al., 2011). Motivational variables, such as finished the league within the top six rankings of their groups. psychological needs satisfaction and passion, could be candidates to precede the self-regulated learning and, thus, also reflective Measures thinking. In previous studies, psychological needs and passion All questionnaires were administered in the Spanish language. have also been identified as antecedents of other adaptive Coefficients Omega (McDonald, 1970) for each scale are shown cognitive skills, such as goal-setting experiences, concentration, in Table 1. flow, or rumination (Curran et al., 2015; Gledhill et al., 2017). Satisfaction of BPN was measured using Spanish adaptions In addition, the inclusion of both factors in a model testing of the (a) autonomy satisfaction scale by Standage et al. (2005) the mediator role of types of passion between the influence and Alcaraz et al. (2013), (b) competence satisfaction by of each BPN satisfaction as antecedents on cognitive skills (i.e., McAuley et al. (1989) and Balaguer et al. (2008), and (c) refection and concentration disruption) has not been explored the relatedness satisfaction by Richer and Vallerand (1998) enough. Following other studies (Alcaraz-Ibañez et al., 2016; and Balaguer et al. (2008). Following the stem “In soccer…” Lalande et al., 2017) and understanding that the satisfaction five items measured autonomy satisfaction (i.e., “I can decide Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 3 November 2020 | Volume 11 | Article 570584 Chamorro et al. Psychological Needs, Passion and Players Development TABLE 1 | Descriptive statistics, omega coefficients and disattenuated correlations among variables measures in the study. Scale Range M (SD) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1. Autonomy satisfaction 1–7 4.95 (1.13) 0.73 2. Competence satisfaction 1–7 5.45 (0.91) 0.27* 0.84 3. Relatedness satisfaction 1–7 5.85 (1.14) 0.39** 0.30** 0.90 4. Harmonious passion 1–7 5.94 (0.86) 0.34** 0.42** 0.52** 0.83 5. Obsessive passion 1–7 4.33 (1.33) 0.02 0.21* 0.01 0.41** 0.80 6. Reflection 1–7 6.04 (0.82) 0.31** 0.37** 0.45** 0.68** 0.26* 0.87 7. Concentration disruption 1–4 1.40 (0.43) −0.01 -0.20* −0.39** −0.34** 0.26* −0.32** 0.77 The table presents correlations between factors (i.e., disattenuated correlations). Omega coefficients are listed in italics in the diagonal. *p < 0.01; **p < 0.001. which activities I want to practice”) and relatedness satisfaction manager and each coach, all participants attended and voluntarily (i.e., “I feel understood”) and six items measured competence participated in the study. They were informed about the satisfaction (i.e., “I think I am pretty good at soccer”). The objectives, guaranteed anonymity, and confidentiality and gave three scales were assessed on a 7-point Likert scale (1 = do informed consent. All participants signed a consent form in not agree at all, 7 = very strongly agree). Previous research which they were informed that they participated voluntarily has shown that these scales possess adequate internal structure and that their data were confidential. and internal consistency (Standage et al., 2005). A Spanish version (Chamarro et al., 2015) of the Passion Data Analysis Scale (adapted for soccer; Marsh et al., 2013b) with six items Preliminary Analysis and Measurement Models measuring HP (e.g., football allows me to live a variety of Preliminary analyses included the study of missing values, data experiences) and six items measuring OP (e.g., I cannot live distribution, and scale internal consistency. In order to identify without soccer) was applied to measure the athletes’ passion the general passion of participants, the data of passion criteria for soccer. Also, general passion for football in each participant were included. Using as reference other works (e.g., Moeller was assessed using five items of the general passion criteria et al., 2015; Vallerand, 2015), we used the midpoint of the (e.g., “This activity is important for me”). The scale was assessed response scale in the general passion criteria score to distinguish on a 7-point Likert scale (1 = do not agree at all, 7 = very passionate individuals (i.e., mean score 4 or higher) from strongly agree). non-passionate individuals (i.e., mean score below 4). In addition, A Spanish version of the 5-item Reflective Learning all measurement models were estimated using the weighted Continuum (RLC), developed by Peltier et al. (2006) and least squares means and variance (WLSMV) adjusted estimator adapted to football (Toering et al., 2013), was used to measure with the MPLUS 7.0 software, because this estimator is adequate the extent to which respondents could appraise what they have for categorical data (Muthén and Muthén, 2012). Model fit learned and adapted their past knowledge and experiences to was assessed with the fit indexes χ2/gl root mean square error improve performance. An example question is “I often reappraise of approximation (RMSEA), comparative fit index (CFI), Tucker- my experiences so I can learn from them.” Items were rated Lewis Index (TLI), and standardized root mean squared residual on a 7-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) (SRMR). Regarding the χ2/gl values, ratios from 2 to 1 and to 7 (strongly agree). 3 to 1 are indicative of an acceptable fit to the data (Carmines A Spanish version of the concentration disruption subscale and McIver, 1981). Furthermore, based on the criterion of Hu of the Sport Anxiety Scale-2 by Smith et al. (2006) and Ramis and Bentler (1999), CFI and TLI values >0.95 and RMSEA et al. (2010) was used to assess the degree to which participants <0.06 are seen as indicative of an excellent fit to the data. experienced concentration disruption before and during sports CFI y TLI values >0.90 and SRMR and RMSEA <0.08 are competitions. Participants were instructed to respond to each seen as indicators of acceptable fit (Marsh et al., 2004; Kline, 2011). of the five items (e.g., “It is hard for me to focus on what On the one hand, to evaluate the factorial structure of the I am supposed to do”), concerning how they felt during their questionnaires in which only one factor was expected (reflection most recent sporting encounter on a 4-point scale (1 = not and concentration), a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) model at all, 2 = a little, 3 = pretty much, and 4 = very much). was tested. On the other hand, to evaluate the factorial structure of those questionnaires with more than one expected factor Procedures (BPN satisfaction and passion), an exploratory structural equation First, ethical approval for the study was granted by the authors’ model (ESEM) was tested. This decision was made following university Ethics Committee. At the beginning of the the suggestion of Marsh et al. (2013a) to use the model with investigation, clubs were contacted by phone and the study the best psychometric properties according to the fit indices and its objectives were explained. Once they agreed to participate, of each model and the interpretability of the factors obtained the dates were determined for the first author to travel to all (Alcaraz et al., 2015). Furthermore, the use of ESEM as clubs within a short period of time. All clubs were visited confirmatory structural analysis is at least as optimal as the and surveyed within 1 month. The measuring occurred at the use of CFA based on strong theoretical assumptions regarding end of the season. With the permission of each youth academy the expected factor structure (Guay et al., 2015). Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 4 November 2020 | Volume 11 | Article 570584 Chamorro et al. Psychological Needs, Passion and Players Development Mediation Models Thus, 99.4% of the participants were considered as passionate The analyses of the mediation models were also conducted for football. Second, the measurement models for each instrument using MPLUS 7.0 software (Muthén and Muthén, 2012). Before in the study were analyzed. Regarding instruments with a testing the models, the disattenuated correlations between factors single-factor structure, measurement models showed good fit were estimated according to the measurement models obtained for reflection except for RMSEA: X2 (df) = 28.609 (5), p < 0.001, previously. Also, the descriptive statistics and the coefficient RMSEA = 0.099 (90% CI [0.066, 0.136]), CFI = 0.993, omega of all variables were estimated. Correlation coefficients TLI = 0.986, SRMR = 0.062; and excellent fit for concentration were interpreted following the criteria of Safrit and Wood disruption: X2 (df) = 7.097 (5), p = 0.001, RMSEA = 0.030 (1995) in terms of non-correlation (0–0.19), low correlation (90% CI [0.000, 0.075]), CFI = 0.998, TLI = 0.996, SRMR = 0.035. (0.20–0.39), moderate correlation (0.40–0.59), moderate to high For instruments whose structure was made up of more than correlation (0.60–0.79), and high correlation (≥0.80). Next, it one factor, an ESEM approach was used. In this way, the was explored how HP and OP mediated the relationships of measurement models showed acceptable fit for passion: X2 autonomy (A), competence (C), relatedness (R), satisfaction, (df) = 351.340 (72), p < 0.001, RMSEA = 0.080 (90% CI and reflection (RE) and concentration disruption (CD). According [0.111, 0.135]), CFI = 0.938, TLI = 0.905, SRMR = 0.059; and to MacKinnon (2008), a mediating variable “is intermediate for BPN satisfaction: X2 (df) = 345.958 (75), p < 0.001, in the causal path from an independent variable to a dependent RMSEA = 0.079 (90% CI [0.018, 0.96]), CFI = 0.967, TLI = 0.947, variable” (p. 8). The possibility of mediation was tested using SRMR = 0.058. three different models (see Alcaraz et al., 2015). The first model (i.e., Model Partial Mediation; MPM) was tested for partial Mediation Model mediation (i.e., direct and indirect effects), the second model Table 1 shows the correlations between factors obtained with (i.e., Model Complete Mediation; MCM) was tested for complete the measurement models mentioned above (i.e., disattenuated mediation (i.e., only indirect effects), and the third model (i.e., correlations) as well as the mean, standard deviations, and Model Direct Effects; MDE) was tested for the absence of coefficient omega of the study factors. Except for OP-autonomy/ mediation (i.e., only direct effects). We hypothesized that relatedness satisfaction and autonomy satisfaction-concentration relations between athletes’ BPN satisfaction and reflection and disruption, all correlations were significant. Both PA and reflection concentration disruption would be partially mediated by showed low and moderate positive correlations with all study HP and OP. variables except concentration disruption, whose correlations We tested all three structural equation models using the were low and negative. OP correlated positively with both WLSMV estimator for categorical data. Following the guidelines competence satisfaction and reflection and, concentration of Marsh et al. (2013a), the comparison between models was disruption. The other correlations were consistent with our based on a chi-square difference test and CFI, TLI, and RMSEA expectations. Also, coefficient omega (ω) of McDonald (1970) differences. Although chi-square is sensitive to sample size, ranged from 0.73 to 0.90. some authors have suggested that the more parsimonious model Both Model Partial Mediation (MPM) and Model Complete can be accepted if it presents equal or better fit indexes as Mediation (MCM) exhibited excellent fit to the data (see the more restrictive model (Chen, 2007; Marsh et al., 2013a; Table 2). However, as shown in Table 2, MPM fit slightly Ramis et al., 2017). The factors included in all three structural better than MCM (X2 (df) = 1144.309 (608), p < 0.001, models were defined according to the measurement models RMSEA = 0.043 (90% CI [0.039, 0.047]), CFI = 0.962, described in the previous step of our data analysis. Mediated TLI = 0.956, SRMR = 0.038), and therefore the partial mediation effects were obtained using the Model Indirect command and role of type of passion in the paths from BPN satisfaction to the VIA instruction under the Delta parameterization as defined concentration disruption and reflection was supported. in MPLUS. In Figure 1, we present the results of the MPM and total and indirect effects for the MPM are presented in Table 3. The amount of variance explained in MPM is RESULTS R2Concentration disruption = 0.34, R2Reflection = 0.48. Regarding the significant effects of MPM, we observed that Preliminary Analysis and Measurement (a) satisfaction of players’ autonomy was indirectly and positively Models related to reflection (A → HP → RE [95% CI] = 0.06 [0.006, First, the data distribution was explored. Overall, data tended 0.119]) and indirectly and negatively to concentration disruption to demonstrate high values for autonomy, competence, and (A → HP → CD [95% CI] = −0.05 [−0.091, −0.003]), both relatedness satisfaction, both types of passion, and reflection through HP, and directly and positively related to concentration (i.e., ceiling effects). In contrast, concentration disruption values disruption (A → CD = 0.25), (b) satisfaction of need for tended to be low (i.e., floor effect). Also, the levels of skewness competence presented an indirect positive effect on reflection (−1.94 to 2.05) and kurtosis (−0.98 to 5.20) were explored. (C → HP → RE [95% CI] = 0.16 [0.099, 0.213]) and indirect These results suggested the non-normality of the observed data negative effect on concentration disruption (C → HP → CD and, consequently, were treated as categorical data in subsequent [95% CI] = −0.18 [−0.712, −0.061]), both through HP, a analyses (Alcaraz et al., 2015). Regarding the general passion positive indirect effect on concentration disruption through of participants, only three of them scored below 4 points. OP (C → OP → CD [95% CI] = 0.09 [0.040, 0.143]) and a Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 5 November 2020 | Volume 11 | Article 570584 Chamorro et al. Psychological Needs, Passion and Players Development TABLE 2 | Fit statistics and standardized coefficient estimates for mediation structural models. Model X2 (df) X2/df RMSEA (CI90) CFI TLI Δχ2 (Δdf) ΔRMSEA ΔCFI ΔTLI 1. Model Partial med (MPM) 1144.309* (608) 1.882 0.043 (0.039–0.047) 0.962 0.956 2. Model Complete med (MCD) 1119.766* (614) 1.824 0.045 (0.041–0.048) 0.959 0.953 34.877* (6) 0.002 −0.003 −0.003 3. Model Direct eff (MDE) 1815.335* (612) 2.966 0.064 (0.061–0.068) 0.915 0.903 197.707* (4) 0.021 −0.047 −0.053 1. Model Partial Med: Model 1, partial mediation model; 2. Model Complete Med: Model 2, complete mediation model; 3. Model Direct Eff: Model 3, direct effects model. *p < .05. FIGURE 1 | Structural equation model MPM presenting partial mediation of players’ types of passion in the relationship between satisfaction psychological needs, and reflection and concentration disruption. Note. For presentation simplicity purposes, only standardized statistically-significant paths. Dashed lines indicate negative paths. *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01. positive direct effect on reflection (C → RE = 0.08), and (c) directly and positively, and relatedness satisfaction has a negative satisfaction of players’ relatedness showed a negative indirect influence directly on concentration disruption. Reflective thinking positive effect on reflection (R → HP → RE [95% CI] = 0.22 as an adaptive cognitive skill (Ntoumanis and Cumming, 2016) [0.150, 0.289]) and an indirect negative effect on concentration was hypothesized as incompatible with concentration disruption disruption (C → HP → CD [95% CI] = −0.16 [−0.233, −0.096]), and the negative correlation between reflection and concentration both through HP, a positive direct effect on reflection disruption could partially support this assumption. (R → RE = 0.11) and a negative direct effect on concentration The findings also support the main hypothesis that the disruption (R → CD = −0.24). mediation of HP discriminates the kind of partial relationship that is established among the influence of each BPN satisfaction on reflection (i.e., positive) and concentration disruption DISCUSSION (i.e., negative). These results agree with DMP (Vallerand, 2015), which postulates that the quality of passion influences This study aimed to explore the influence of each BPN satisfaction how cognitive processes occur. DMP proposes that with on player’s development through reflection and concentration HP, adaptive integrative self-processes are at play, leading disruption with the mediation of types of passion in Spanish the person to fully partake in the activity with an openness young elite football players. The results provide a support for that is conducive to mindful attention, concentration, and the partial mediation model, where each psychological needs flow. Instead, with OP ego-invested processes are involved satisfaction prompt reflection and concentration disruption with and such processes lead individuals to share task attention the mediation of types of passion. Specific findings show that with other external elements, such as the outcomes and psychological needs satisfaction has a positive influence on other participants. Thus, OP should lead to cognitive processes reflection and a negative influence on concentration disruption, of lesser quality than those that originate from HP, in our both with the mediation of HP. In addition, OP mediated the findings, prompting concentration disruption. In the meta- positive relationship between competence satisfaction and analytical review of passion developed by Curran et al. concentration disruption. Finally, competence and relatedness (2015), HP also showed a positive influence in adaptive satisfaction influence the development of reflective thinking cognitive skill as concentration or flow and as a negative Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 6 November 2020 | Volume 11 | Article 570584 Chamorro et al. Psychological Needs, Passion and Players Development TABLE 3 | Standardized total and indirect effects for the model partial mediation. Total effects Indirect effects Estimate 95% CI Estimate 95% CI Autonomy → reflection 0.063* 0.006 to 0.119 Harmonious passion 0.063* 0.006 to 0.119 Obsessive passion 0.000 −0.003 to 0.002 Competence → reflection 0.158** 0.104 to 0.211 Harmonious passion 0.156** 0.099 to 0.213 Obsessive passion 0.002 −0.021 to 0.025 Relatedness → reflection 0.219** 0.148 to 0.291 Harmonious passion 0.219** 0.150 to 0.289 Obsessive passion 0.000 −0.005 to 0.005 Autonomy → CD −0.056* −0.108 to −0.004 Harmonious passion −0.047* −0.091 to −0.003 Obsessive passion −0.009 −0.053 to 0.035 Competence → CD −0.025 −0.082 to 0.031 Harmonious passion −0.117** −0.172 to −0.061 Obsessive passion 0.091** 0.040 to 0.143 Relatedness → CD −0.184** −0.254 to −0.113 Harmonious passion −0.164** −0.233 to −0.096 Obsessive passion −0.019 −0.062 to 0.024 CD, concentration disruption; CI, confidence intervals. Italics refer to indirect effects of the model. *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01. influence with anxiety or rumination. Conversely, in this his nearest environment (i.e., coach, family, and friends). study OP showed a positive influence on less or maladaptive These reasons are more controlled than autonomous, and cognitive skills as rumination and anxiety. he could develop an ego-invested process, more characteristic Ertmer and Newby (1996) identified reflection as the key of OP than HP (Vallerand, 2015). Later, OP prompts the process to expert learning, due to the translation of knowledge cognitive skill-less adaptive, in this case, concentration into action, making it possible to gain strategy knowledge disruption (Curran et al., 2015). In addition, it seems that from specific activities. According to the existing literature BPNs satisfaction (i.e., with the exception of relatedness (Toering et al., 2009; Gledhill and Harwood, 2014; Gledhill satisfaction) does not have a negative influence on concentration et al., 2017; Jonker et al., 2019), reflective thinking is desirable disruption through OP either. In other contexts, other studies in an athlete’s development. For example, Jonker et al. (2019) have suggested that it is possible that, while psychological showed that elite young players with higher values toward needs satisfaction facilitates HP, needs frustration would imply reflective thinking were more likely to succeed and, also, Toering an impact on the development of OP (Alcaraz-Ibañez et al., et al. (2009) found that a high score in reflection seemed to 2016; Tóth-Király et al., 2019). In any case, future studies be associated with a high-performance level. Theoretical should be addressing this relationship in young athletes. assumptions as well as other studies have proposed that Moreover, relatedness satisfaction was the only BPN motivation is essential to develop self-regulation learning and satisfaction that discriminated directly between a positive reflective thinking in individuals (Zimmerman, 2006, 2008; influence in reflective thinking and a negative influence in Bartels and Magun-Jackson, 2009; Bilde et al., 2011). Within concentration disruption. According to our results, to feel loved, motivation, our findings support the role of BPN satisfaction valued, and connected with significant others in a passionate and types of passion in prompting reflective thinking and activity influences the quality of the cognitive process. In this protecting against other less desirable cognitive processes, such sense, the importance of relatedness satisfaction as a strong as concentration disruption. Thus, the development of HP predictor of positive intrapersonal outcomes (i.e., positive affect through an athlete’s perception of autonomy, competence, and or subjective vitality) has been stated in past research relatedness supported by the environment, should facilitate a (Alcaraz et al., 2015; Perez-Rivases et al., 2017). positive athlete’s development. In this line, it was OP, rather than HP, that mediated the Limitation, Future Research, and relationship between competence satisfaction and concentration Implications disruption. The environment of the sample used in this study Although the present study yields important findings, certain is extremely competitive, characterized by internal (i.e., beliefs limitations and avenues for future research need to about the self-performance and performance compared to be considered. First, only elite U18 male football players other teammates and do not disappoint the significant others) were studied in the present research. Future studies should and external pressures (i.e., family, coaches, and organizations) include the model proposed in other sports, competitive levels, to reach senior levels (Drew et al., 2019) and performance. and female athletes. Second, although all the teams assessed If a young football player feels competent, he may feel more had similar competitive characteristic (i.e., club level, pressure to be better than his teammates and not disappoint competitive level, and the final rank of the team), some Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 7 November 2020 | Volume 11 | Article 570584 Chamorro et al. Psychological Needs, Passion and Players Development variables such as games played of each player could have a through to BPN satisfaction, and the development or ongoing moderator effect. Third, it is highly recommended to carry of HP for football has a positive influence in the development out longitudinal research to analyze how these variables and of reflective thinking and a negative influence on concentration the relationship between them has developed during the whole disruption. Among BPN satisfaction, in particular relatedness season. Fourth, a model with the BPN thwarting or behavioral satisfaction plays a key role in distinguishing between reflective regulations, as a level more inside of the proposed model, thinking and concentration disruption. Practitioners should could be interesting. monitor the competence satisfaction in a competitive This research is contextualized in elite U18 male football environment, due to it would be possible that it had a positive players, considered as the last step before jumping to impact on maladaptive cognitive variables (i.e., concentration professional football (Chamorro et al., 2016). Drew et al. disruption) along with OP. (2019) showed that motivational variables, as well as cognitive skills, facilitate the athlete’s development and their progression to professional sports. Our results can help practitioners DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT take into account several issues when working with young The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will athletes who are in a competitive phase of their athletic be made available by the authors, without undue reservation. careers. Also, the results of our study support the role of motivational variables to promote cognitive processes in young elite athletes. Those results have implications for the ETHICS STATEMENT athletes’ environment on developing a healthier passion for sport and the use of more adaptive cognitive strategies for The studies involving human participants were reviewed and athletes. For example, coaches or coaching staff are essential approved by Comisión de investigación Universidad Europea in supporting the BPNs of athletes. Previous studies have de Madrid. Written informed consent to participate in this identified strategies that help coaches to support athletes’ study was provided by the participants’ legal guardian/ BPNs (Hancox et al., 2018; Hook and Newland, 2018). The next of kin. implementation of these strategies would have an impact on the development of HP, the promotion of the athlete’s reflective thinking and, consequently, promoting the athlete’s AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS positive development. JC contributed to this work following these tasks: conceptualization, data curation, formal analysis, investigation, methodology, writing – CONCLUSION original draft, and writing – review and editing. RM contributed to this work following these tasks: conceptualization, formal The athlete’s development involves a continuous learning process analysis, investigation, methodology, writing – original draft, and of skills in sport. Enhancing reflection and preventing writing – review and editing. TG-C contributed to this work concentration disruption can have a positive effect in that following these tasks: data curation, formal analysis, investigation, continuous learning process. With a sample of elite young methodology, and writing – review and editing. MT contributed football players, this study focuses on how motivational variables to this work following these tasks: conceptualization, data curation, (i.e., BPN satisfaction and passion) can influence the development formal analysis, investigation, methodology, visualization, and of those cognitive skill simplicated in athlete’s development. writing – review and editing. 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(2010). “On passion for life activities: the dualistic model of License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, passion” in Advances in experimental social psychology. eds. J. M. Olson provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that and M. P. Zanna (Amsterdam: Elsevier), 97–193. the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic Vallerand, R. J. (2015). The psychology of passion: A dualistic model. New York: practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply Oxford Universiy Press. with these terms. Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 10 November 2020 | Volume 11 | Article 570584