ORIGINAL RESEARCH published: 10 January 2020 doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02918 Leisure and Procrastination, a Quest for Autonomy in Free Time Investments: Task Avoidance or Accomplishment? Jose Vicente Pestana* , Nuria Codina and Rafael Valenzuela Department of Social Psychology and Quantitative Psychology, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain The purpose of the research was to analyze procrastination – a problem of time management that negatively affects the autonomy of people – in relation to leisure as a domain of everyday life. Specifically, the dynamics between leisure (activities and time invested – weekly frequency and duration of activity) and procrastination factors were studied. A sample of 185 university students (118 men and 67 women: Mage = 20.77 years, SDage = 2.53) answered a procrastination scale – validated for the Edited by: Spanish population – which refers to four factors of procrastination (dilatory behaviors, Teresita Bernal, Santo Tomás University, Colombia indecision, lack of punctuality, and lack of planning) and an adaptation of the Time Reviewed by: Budget (TB) (a table where the participants were asked to specify “the three activities Antonio Hernández-Mendo, that you prefer to do when you are not studying or doing a paid job”). Results show University of Málaga, Spain that leisure activities are associated with factors of procrastination. As a matter of fact, J. C. Martins, University of Fortaleza, Brazil the different factors of procrastination were related to specific types of leisure activities, Rita Gradaille, depending on the weekly frequency of the activity or its duration. In this sense, there University of Santiago de Compostela, Spain are cases in which the greater frequency of leisure activities (hobbies and computing, *Correspondence: social life and entertainment) seems to contain – control, inhibit – procrastination Jose Vicente Pestana (specifically, affecting its component of indecision) variations in the weekly frequency and jvpestana@ub.edu duration of certain type of activities result in higher or lower scores on certain factors of Specialty section: procrastination. In sum, the time invested in leisure can protect from or inhibit delaying This article was submitted to tasks – which implies enhancing the autonomy of people – a deduction that opens up Educational Psychology, new lines of research to identify optimal time investments for coping with procrastination. a section of the journal Frontiers in Psychology Keywords: leisure, leisure time, procrastination, time budget, time investments Received: 02 July 2019 Accepted: 10 December 2019 Published: 10 January 2020 INTRODUCTION Citation: Pestana JV, Codina N and The problem of time management known as procrastination has generated a large number of Valenzuela R (2020) Leisure publications, due to its potential negative influence on the autonomy of people (Mouratidis et al., and Procrastination, a Quest 2018; Won and Yu, 2018). In fact, in the educational field it has been shown that a controlling for Autonomy in Free Time teaching style – that is, contrary to the promotion of autonomy in the students – is associated Investments: Task Avoidance or Accomplishment? with higher levels of procrastination (Codina et al., 2018b). Even the role of leisure in task Front. Psychol. 10:2918. avoidance has been suggested, in the study of the relations between leisure and procrastination doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02918 certain inconsistencies have been detected. These inconsistencies have to do with what is known Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 1 January 2020 | Volume 10 | Article 2918 Pestana et al. Leisure and Procrastination, a Quest for Autonomy as leisure ambivalence (Munné and Codina, 1996, 2002), given domains, and social life. Therefore, while procrastination has that leisure activities can have negative consequences, or on the mostly been investigated in connection with work and academic contrary, favor personal development characterized by autonomy behavior (Van Eerde, 2003), this does not exclude the possibility (Lochbaum and Jean-Noel, 2016; Balaguer et al., 2018). With the that other contexts or areas of activity have explanatory potential aim of discovering the dynamics of greater or less procrastination with respect to the phenomenon. Thus, the procrastinating in relation to the time invested in leisure activities, the main tendency may be more or less intense depending on the time characteristics of procrastination are described below, and later investment in other activities or fields of activity. For example, the evidence that justifies the analysis of this problem in one may procrastinate over a professional CV update because it conjunction with leisure. is more fun to spend time reading a suspense novel – even when As will be seen, the presence of certain leisure activities in the preparation of the CV is an activity of greater importance, everyday life – or the time dedicated to some of them – can affect urgency (or both). the autonomy of people, who may see their time management negatively influenced due to their procrastination levels. Leisure as a Context for Procrastination The relevance of leisure has been underlined in the analysis of the uses of time made in different contexts (Roberts, 1999; Procrastination, a Problem of Time Huebner and Mancini, 2003; Rojek, 2010; Kofman and Bianchi, Management 2012; Lam and McHale, 2015); in particular, its impact on Procrastination has been defined as the experience of time the well-being of people has been demonstrated in different characterized by habitually – and often counterproductively – contexts (Joulain et al., 2017; Oman, 2019; Zuzanek and postponing the performance of tasks (Procrastination, Hilbrecht, 2019). In fact, leisure can be a source of both well- 2019). This problem, which reveals an inefficient time being (and autonomy: Fattore et al., 2016) and pathological management problem, difficulties or lack of motivation behaviors (Dorn and South, 1989; Rojek, 1999; Francis and when it comes to the performance of certain activities in Kentel, 2008; Codina et al., 2018a). This ambivalence – as it a stipulated time (Pychyl et al., 2000; Steel et al., 2018), has been referred to by Munné and Codina (1996, 2002) – has serious social and personal consequences (Goroshit, lies in the fact that leisure implies free or discretionary time 2018). Expressed in numbers, this problem becomes a that involves behaviors and experiences, which can represent maladaptive lifestyle for 20–25% of healthy adults, whose a benefit, a cost, or even a mixture of the two (Kleiber et al., autonomy can be affected (Harriott and Ferrari, 1996; 2011). In our opinion, studying the relationship between leisure Díaz-Morales and Ferrari, 2015). and procrastination helps to identify contributions concerning Given its importance and incidence, the study of the above mentioned ambivalence of leisure. In this respect, procrastination has generated a large corpus of scientific an important contribution would consist of specifying what knowledge in which two main trends can be distinguished: on amounts of time – dedicated to a certain occupation during free the one hand, the investigation of the nature of procrastination; time – are related to procrastinating habits or tendencies. To and, on the other hand, research on the contexts and variables be precise, the explanatory potential of leisure is increased by associated with procrastination – or which help to cope with it. answering a question such as the following: Is procrastination With respect to the ontology of procrastination, it has been associated with certain time investments in specific types of discussed from very different perspectives, from whether it is a activities, which can negatively affect the autonomy of their personality trait (Ferrari et al., 1995; Steel, 2007; Kim et al., 2017) practitioners? In this research, time investments include two to whether it has an intentional or irrational character (Lay, 1986; variables: frequency (times an activity is performed throughout Steel, 2007; Steel and Klingsieck, 2016). Certainly, procrastination the week) and duration (minutes used each time a given activity is is a problem that affects people’s everyday lives; however, the performed). As we shall see, conceiving time investment in terms assumption that procrastination is only a personality trait is of frequency and duration allows the introduction of certain a limited interpretation. Rather, procrastination appears as an elucidations that can be taken into account in the joint analysis individual tendency that can be influenced by certain contexts of leisure and procrastination. (Codina et al., 2018b). Specifically, this refers to the domains in On the other hand, the relations between the time invested which procrastination is most likely to occur. in leisure and procrastination have been scarcely investigated With regard to the aforesaid contexts, procrastination is one in detail. Already existing approaches include highlighting of the most identified and common mistakes made in time associations between procrastination and reduced life satisfaction management by students at the various different educational across domains like work and leisure time (Beutel et al., 2016), stages (Karatas, 2015; Cerezo et al., 2017), with academic the different relationships between modern and postmodern procrastination being one of the most important domains of values, the priority given to leisure and procrastination procrastination (Ferrari and Scher, 2000; Owens and Newbegin, (Fries et al., 2005), and the suggested complex relationships 2000). In fact, 70% of college students procrastinate in their between motivational interference, school-leisure conflict and learning tasks on a regular basis (Steel and Klingsieck, 2016). procrastination (Hofer et al., 2010). Outside the academic context, Klingsieck (2013) states that As far as time dedication is concerned, one of the procrastination is typical of work settings, healthcare domains, characteristics of procrastinators is that they tend to structure everyday routines and habits, leisure, family life and partnership their time to a lesser degree and tend to interchange the order in Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 2 January 2020 | Volume 10 | Article 2918 Pestana et al. Leisure and Procrastination, a Quest for Autonomy which the activities are carried out (Ferrari, 1993), while people this research was carried out (Codina, 1999, 2004; Codina and who have routines or habits tend to procrastinate less (Steel et al., Pestana, 2009; Codina et al., 2016). 2018). In particular, in the case of students, those who organize As far as procrastination is concerned, its measurement must their academic routines within a limited time frame are less include those factors in the phenomenon that, in general, may inclined to procrastinate since they plan the start of the activity be sensitive to different contexts. In this respect, Díaz-Morales and set a deadline for its accomplishment (Dietz et al., 2007; et al. (2006) validated an instrument, which in its Spanish Shu and Gneezy, 2010). On the contrary, those who have a less language version, includes the General Procrastination Scale (GP: structured time are, in a certain sense, negatively affected with Lay, 1986), the Decisional Procrastination Questionnaire (DP: respect to the autonomy that characterizes whoever is in charge Mann, 1982), and the Adult Inventory of Procrastination (AIP: of their own time. McCown and Johnson, 1989). This instrument contemplates four To our understanding, the above evidence prompts a need factors of procrastination: dilatory behaviors (“a summary of the to analyze procrastination in relation to leisure as a domain of predisposition to manifest intention-behavior gaps”), indecision everyday life. This analysis would make it possible to specify (“putting off making a decision within some specific time frame”), how much time (frequency, duration) needs to be devoted to lack of punctuality (“inability to work diligently on a task in any leisure activity to relate it to procrastination. In other words, order to meet a deadline”), and lack of planning (“lack of self- the accuracy with respect to these time investments can make it discipline needed to stay focused on a target task”). In this possible to assess the degree to which a person can lose autonomy instrument, procrastination is considered as a set of factors when practicing leisure – that is, given that he/she procrastinates. whose presence in people can affect any context of everyday life. In other words, the items in this instrument include the characteristic of procrastination mentioned above: that it is a Approaching the Relationships Between personal tendency sensitive to different contexts and, therefore, Free Time Investments With it changes depending on the activities that a person may perform Procrastination (in his/her leisure time, in the case at hand). In order to operationalize the ambivalence of leisure, the time All told, the evidence suggests the following two hypotheses: dedicated to a leisure activity during a specific period of time has been proposed (Codina, 1999); for example, practicing sport H1 : Time investments (frequency and duration) in certain is usually beneficial for health (U. S. Department of Health and types of leisure activities are positively associated with Human Services, 2008; European Commission, 2014), but not procrastination factors. at levels that could indicate absorption in this leisure activity H2 : Time investments (frequency and duration) in certain in detriment to others (as in the case of sports addictions: types of leisure activities are positively associated with Nogueira et al., 2018). Taking into account the operationalization procrastination factors. of the time variable in the analysis of leisure activities, we have Apart from strengthening the corpus of scientific evidence healthy levels when dedicating a minimum of 150 min per regarding the relationships of procrastination with other aspects week, preferably spread out over 5 days (in moderate-to-intense of life, specifying which leisure activities are more likely to practice: Cavill et al., 2007; Oja et al., 2010). increase procrastination levels (i.e., their factors) allows a In order to measure time investment in leisure activities – in planning and time management that would not diminish the terms of frequency and duration – the study of leisure requires an person’s autonomy and development. instrument that guarantees the organization of data and flexibility when assessing it. Specifically, this research uses the technique known as the Time Budget (TB), in its behavioral-participant approach: “Behavior. . . is defined by the participant. . . on the MATERIALS AND METHODS basis of the activity in which he/she is engaged or the setting or time period in which it is embedded” (Kleiber et al., 2011, Design p. 58). This questionnaire is considered the most viable method In order to evaluate the research hypotheses, a transversal for analyzing people’s daily activities, having been used by various predictive design was carried out – according to taxonomy international organizations in their studies of the use of time in proposed by Ato et al. (2013) – in order to be able to predict different populations (Andorka, 1987; Zuzanek, 2006). In the TB, which of the leisure activities (i.e., their days devoted and/or the activities of life are weighted, which allows the observation of time spent in minutes) has more impact on the aforementioned the different degrees of significance and importance attached to procrastination factors. different areas of life (Steinbach, 2006). In other words, thanks to the use of the TB it was possible to show that each activity Participants has characteristics that need to be examined for their specific A total of 237 university students participated in the research. explanatory potential. Specifically, the TB used here recorded the Cases that did not meet the required age range or presented activities carried out during the 7 days of the week, specifying problems in completing the instruments were ruled out. Finally, the time spent on them, in line with the model developed a group of 185 people – 118 men and 67 women – aged between by Neulinger (1986) and taking into account the adaptations 18 and 30 years old (Mage = 20.77 years, SDage = 2.53) took part and applications of TB developed for the context in which in the study. Participation in the study was voluntary, i.e., the Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 3 January 2020 | Volume 10 | Article 2918 Pestana et al. Leisure and Procrastination, a Quest for Autonomy participants did not receive any payment or academic benefit (15/1999: Jefatura del Estado, 1999) and the Declaration of (such as extra marks for subjects or course credits). Helsinki (World Medical Association, 2013). The activities accomplished during leisure time as mentioned Measures by the participants were classified in line with the standards Data was collected using two instruments, accompanied by the established by the European Union for time use surveys required demographics. (EUROSTAT, 2009). These standards include ten general categories of activities: Personal care (care for own health), Procrastination Employment (work done in paid jobs), Study (studies during The procrastination instrument was the scale validated for the free time), Household and family care (work done for the Spanish population by Díaz-Morales et al. (2006) – see the whole own household), Voluntary work and meetings (working as a scale in pp. 136–137). The validation in the target population volunteer free of charge or for a minor fee), Social life and of this investigation refers to four factors of procrastination entertainment (socializing with friends and relatives, as well (with five response options, ranging from 1 to 5, from “does as being a spectator/listener), Sports and outdoors activities not describe me at all” to “very characteristic”): dilatory (activities for physical exercise), Hobbies and computing (a behaviors, indecision, lack of punctuality, and lack of planning. pursuit outside regular occupation, especially for relaxation and Specifying procrastination in these four factors “contribute to with the computer), Mass media (reading periodicals/books, the conceptualization of procrastination as a multidimensional, watching TV/DVD/videos, listening to the radio/records), and not a [sic] unidimensional, trait” (Díaz-Morales et al., 2006). The Travel and unspecified time (movement between two localities, instrument has shown an adequate Cronbach’s alpha in this study activities that cannot be classified as belonging to any of the (0.88), similar to that of the above mention validation (α = 0.83 – preceding groups). Of these categories, the one corresponding Díaz-Morales et al., 2006). to Employment was not used since the TB used in this study only referred to the time of non-work. The Study category was Leisure only used in the sense of classes out of the formal education Subsequent to the procrastination questionnaire, items about system. Also, there were no cases in which Voluntary work and activities unaffected by academic obligations were added, meetings were carried out, so that of the ten categories only eight following the structure and characteristics of the TB, technique are included in the results analyzed. described in the preceding paragraphs. Specifically, this questionnaire was presented as a table with seven columns – one Analysis for each day of the week – and a total of three rows where the For purposes of processing the data obtained, the following participants were asked to specify “the three activities that you variables were considered: gender of the participants; time prefer to do when you are not studying or doing a paid job.” invested in leisure activities (number of days per week and For each activity, the days of each week in which the activities time spent); and procrastination factors (dilatory behaviors, were performed were marked, indicating the time (in minutes) indecision, lack of punctuality, and lack of planning). As dedicated to them. appropriate, associations between the variables were calculated using Pearson’s r correlation coefficient (for perceptions of time Procedure invested in leisure activities and procrastination factors). Finally, Before collecting data, we contacted the academic office of the to assess the predictive effects of leisure (days devoted and time university whose students had been selected to take part in the spent) on procrastination factors, regression analysis – forward sample. After obtaining the corresponding authorization to apply method – was performed, in line with recent evidence linked to the instruments, discussions were held with the staff in charge of the this research (Chang, 2015; Rosly et al., 2018). each of the groups from which information was to be collected. In all cases it was agreed to complete the instruments at 11.30 am, at the end of a 30-min morning break. RESULTS Once in the classroom, the students participated after agreeing to sign the informed consent – data confidentiality was Among the leisure activities reported (Table 1), sports and guaranteed. The method of completing the two instruments was outdoors activities figured prominently, mentioned by 81.6% explained in detail. During the response process, one of the of the participants. This activity was followed by social life members of the research team remained in the classroom to clear and entertainment, indicated by 63.2% of the participants. up any possible doubts. Behind these two activities came mass media, mentioned by The ethical requirements of the ethics committee of the approximately one in five participants. The rest of the activities – University of [∗∗∗ Anonymized∗∗∗ ] were applied to the current study, household and family care, travel and unspecified time study, which meant that additional approval for the research and personal care – were cited by between 2.2 and 7.6% of was not required since the data obtained did not involve the total number of participants. When analyzing the activities animal or clinical experimentation. Additionally, this study carried out according to gender or age, significant associations complies with the recommendations of the General Council of were not observed. Spanish Psychological Associations (Consejo General de Colegios With regards to weekly rates for the stated activities (Table 1), de Psicólogos), the Spanish Organic Law on Data Protection hobbies and computing (M = 5.27, SD = 2.07) and mass media Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 4 January 2020 | Volume 10 | Article 2918 Pestana et al. Leisure and Procrastination, a Quest for Autonomy (M = 5.23, SD = 1.98) were reported as occurring nearly 5 days realization of an activity leaves unnoticed. These relationships of the week. Observation of time spent doing leisure activities refer, on the one hand, to the times invested in different types showed that the activities on which more minutes per week were of leisure activity, and, on the other hand, to the correlations spent – although with great disparity among the participants with between the frequency and duration of each activity and regards to the time investments – were travel and unspecified procrastination factors (Table 3). time use (M = 1,200.00, SD = 1,647.54) and social life and The significant correlations between frequency and duration entertainment (M = 863.38, SD = 1,116.22). Other values worth of activities are understood in two ways. On the one hand, there highlighting are the minutes spent on activities such as hobbies are the correlations in which the times invested in some activities and computing (M = 500.22, SD = 403.48) and mass media increase simultaneously, and, on the other hand, the cases in (M = 439.57, SD = 353.39). which on increasing the time investment in one activity, the The values obtained for the four factors of procrastination investment in another decreases (either in frequency, duration (Table 2) put into manifest the predominance of dilatory or both). Among the results detailed in Table 3, four examples behaviors (M = 2.77, SD = 0.61) and indecision (M = 2.63, stand out (the first two with directly proportional correlations SD = 0.77) was noted, being followed by the lack of planning and the remaining two with negative correlations). Firstly, (M = 2.55, SD = 0.56). The lack of punctuality (M = 2.37, directly proportional correlations are observed between hobbies SD = 0.86) was the factor with the lowest score (and below the and computing and mass media as regards both frequency midpoint). As regards values of skewness and kurtosis (idem (r = 0.987, p < 0.001) and duration (r = 0.968, p < 0.001). Table 2), all factors were non-normally distributed, Regarding Secondly, dedicating more days to personal care also increases the asymmetry and kurtosis, the four procrastination factors were frequency of sports and outdoors activities (r = 1.000, p < 0.001) distributed in a non-normal way, although the K–S test indicates and mass media (r = 1.000, p < 0.001). Thirdly, the more time a normal distribution for the factor related to dilatory behaviors. spent on personal care, the less is spent on sports and outdoors The time dedicated to leisure activities – frequency and activities (r = −1.000, p < 0.001) and mass media (r = −1.000, duration – brings to light other relationships that the mere p < 0.001). And fourthly, the more frequent household and family care, the less time dedicated to mass media – both as regards frequency (r = −1.000, p < 0.001) and duration TABLE 1 | Leisure activities practiced: Weekly frequency and duration. (r = −1.000, p < 0.001). In respect of the relations between procrastination factors N % Frequency (days) Duration (min) and leisure activities, the higher the frequency of hobbies and computing (r = −0.292, p < 0.050) and social life and M SD M SD entertainment (r = −0.202, p < 0.050), the lower the indecision Personal care 4 2.2 4.75 2.87 180.00 176.63 factor. A greater lack of punctuality is observed when more time Study 14 7.6 3.57 1.65 314.64 239.00 is devoted to study (r = 0.862, p < 0.001). Finally, lack of planning Household and family 10 5.4 3.80 2.65 312.00 274.29 is related to the two variables relative to time devoted to sports care and outdoor activities: either in terms of frequency (r = 0.219, Social life and 117 63.2 3.98 2.09 863.38 1, 116.22 p < 0.001), or dedication to the activity (r = 0.259, p < 0.001). entertainment In order to specify the explanatory potential of these Sports and outdoor 151 81.6 3.96 1.62 419.43 327.02 activities correlations, multiple linear regression analyses (forward Hobbies and 45 24.3 5.27 2.07 500.22 403.48 method) were carried out for each of the factors of computing procrastination considered (Table 4). Indecision was explained Mass media 35 18.9 5.23 1.98 439.57 353.39 by the frequency of hobbies and computing (R2 = 0.08, F = 4.18, Travel and 6 3.2 3.83 2.56 1, 200.00 1, 647.54 p < 0.047, ηp 2 = 0.129; Tolerance = 1.00, VIF = 1.00, Durbin- unspecified time use Watson value = 2.11). As regards lack of punctuality, this factor was explained by the time invested in studying (R2 = 0.74, F = 34,56, p < 0.000, ηp 2 = 0.902; Tolerance = 1.00, VIF = 1.00, TABLE 2 | Means, standard deviations, skewness, kurtosis and Durbin-Watson value = 2.37). Finally, lack of planning was Kolmogorov–Smirnov (K–S) test for procrastination factors. explained by the time invested in sports and outdoor activities Procrastination (R2 = 0.06, F = 11.48, p < 0.001, ηp 2 = 0.411; Tolerance = 1.00, factors Skewness Kurtosis K–S VIF = 1.00, Durbin-Watson value = 1.94). As can be seen, tests to see if the data met the assumption of collinearity indicated M SD Statistic SE Statistic SE Statistic p that multicollinearity was not a concern, as well as that of independent errors. Dilatory 2.77 0.61 0.04 0.18 0.14 0.35 0.05 0.200 behaviors Indecision 2.63 0.77 0.35 0.18 −0.04 0.35 0.11 0.000 Lack of 2.37 0.86 0.50 0.18 −0.33 0.35 0.08 0.004 DISCUSSION punctuality Lack of 2.55 0.56 0.23 0.18 −0.39 0.35 0.07 0.022 Testing our hypotheses has shown that leisure activities are planning associated with factors of procrastination. These associations Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 5 January 2020 | Volume 10 | Article 2918 Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org Pestana et al. TABLE 3 | Intercorrelations between procrastination factors (1–4), frequency and duration of leisure activities (5–20). 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 1. Dilatory behaviors – 2. Indecision 0.495∗∗ – 3. Lack of punctuality 0.524∗∗ 0.292∗∗ – 4. Lack of planning 0.603∗∗ 0.293∗∗ 0.416∗∗ – Personal care 5. Days devoted −0.661 −0.062 −0.305 0.002 – 6. Time spent (min) −0.245 0.136 0.456 0.424 0.072 – Study 7. Days devoted −0.131 0.000 0.247 0.061 – 8. Time spent (min) 0.033 −0.035 0.862∗∗ 0.212 0.532 – Household and family care 9. Days devoted 0.217 0.165 −0.007 −0.099 – 10. Time spent (min) 0.255 0.293 −0.055 −0.125 0.829∗∗ – Social life and entertainment 6 11. Days devoted −0.064 −0.202∗ −0.058 0.005 0.688 0.917∗ 0.208 0.247 −0.061 0.251 – 12. Time spent (min) −0.123 −0.186∗ −0.122 −0.086 −0.101 0.276 −0.030 −0.117 −0.436 0.386 0.423∗∗ – Sports and outdoor activities 13. Days devoted 0.103 0.063 0.011 0.219∗∗ 1.00∗∗ −1.00∗∗ −0.230 −0.738 −0.035 0.042 0.224∗ 0.026 – 14. Time spent (min) 0.101 0.090 0.051 0.259∗∗ −1.00∗∗ 1.00∗∗ −0.116 −0.020 0.728 0.486 0.114 −0.061 0.607∗∗ – Hobbies and computing 15. Days devoted −0.212 −0.292∗ 0.032 0.066 0.289 0.086 0.129 −0.062 – Leisure and Procrastination, a Quest for Autonomy 16. Time spent (min) −0.117 −0.244 −0.046 −0.137 0.174 0.242 −0.103 0.083 0.470∗∗ – Mass media 0.950∗ – 17. Days devoted −0.152 −0.142 0.037 0.024 1.00∗∗ −1.00∗∗ 0.945 0.913 −1.00∗∗ −1.00∗∗ 0.097 −0.007 0.086 0.163 0.987∗∗ January 2020 | Volume 10 | Article 2918 18. Time spent (min) −0.235 −0.023 0.082 −0.141 −1.00∗∗ 1.00∗∗ 0.988 0.825 −1.00∗∗ −1.00∗∗ 0.259 0.264 −0.073 0.151 0.968∗∗ 0.995∗∗ 0.637∗∗ – Travel/unspecified time use 19. Days devoted 0.038 0.119 −0.269 −0.307 −1.00∗∗ −1.00∗∗ 0.818 0.232 0.497 0.570 – 20. Time spent (min) −0.249 −0.062 −0.549 −0.680∗ −1.00∗∗ −1.00∗∗ 0.092 0.976∗ 0.347 0.560 −1.00∗∗ −1.00∗∗ 0.411 – ∗ Significant differences for a probability p < 0.05; ∗∗ significant differences for significant differences for a probability p < 0.01. Pestana et al. Leisure and Procrastination, a Quest for Autonomy 0.001 Each of the activities has two measures: number of days in the week in which the activities are practiced and the minutes allocated each time an activity is practiced. CI = confidence interval for B. Models based on show that the different factors of procrastination were related p to – or appear to be facilitated by – specific types of leisure activities (H1 ), depending on the weekly frequency of the activity 3.339 t or its duration. In this sense, there are cases in which the greater frequency of leisure activities (hobbies and computing) seems 0.259 Lack of planning to contain – control or inhibit – procrastination (specifically, β affecting its component of indecision). [0.000, 0.001] 95% CI This positive aspect of leisure in relation to procrastination contrasts with the duration of sports and outdoor activities, which have a directly proportional relationship with lack of planning (H2 ). This data reflects the negative side of the ambivalence of leisure [as noted, among others, by Munné and 0.000 SE B Codina (1996, 2002), Rojek (1999); Francis and Kentel (2008), and Kleiber et al. (2011)] and also the complexity of leisure itself. 0.000 Other results that should be taken into account are the B relationships between time investments in different types of 0.000 leisure activities, given that investing more time in a leisure p activity can serve both to increase and decrease the time allocated to other activities [in line with what is evidenced 5.880 t by Samdahl and Jekubovich (1993); Patry et al. (2007), Hofer et al. (2009), and Grund and Fries (2012)], also 0.862 Lack of punctuality potentially diminishing practitioners autonomy [which has been β Procrastination factors demonstrated by Gerber et al. (2018)]. In this sense, it is [0.002, 0.005] interesting to observe how personal care and sports and outdoor 95% CI activities are related, since when they are valued – in terms TABLE 4 | Regression analysis summary for frequency and duration of leisure activities predicting procrastination factors. of frequency – both types of activity correlate positively. On the other hand, when duration is valued, the greater the dedication to personal care the less time devoted to sports and 0.001 SE B outdoor activities. It should obviously not be ignored that the presented findings 0.004 are based on a specific sample of individuals – although B participants’ practice of leisure activities is similar to that of 0.047 more general groups with similar demographic characteristics. p To be precise, our student sample is similar to that of other studies (Ministerio de Sanidad, Servicios Sociales e Igualdad, −2.046 2014; Codina et al., 2016) as regards the prevalence of sports t and outdoor activities and social life and entertainment as leisure activities. Likewise, it should be noted that the measure of leisure −0.292 β has taken into account the activities carried out and the time forward method. Only the significant results are included in the table. allocated to them, pending – in future research – the examination Indecision [−0.208, −0.002] of the subjective valuations and experiences linked to leisure activities (Neulinger, 1981; Kleiber et al., 1986, 2011; Lee et al., 95% CI 1994; Carbonneau and Freire, 2017), especially those of linked to well-being (Joulain et al., 2017; Oman, 2019; Zuzanek and Hilbrecht, 2019). The proper functioning of the sample data does not obviate 0.051 SE B its limitations. Although this study has had a target especially sensitive to the issue of procrastination – such as university −0.105 students – future research should consider other sectors of the Sports and outdoor activities B population with different levels of age and their specific time Hobbies and computing management problems. Likewise, a larger sample will allow models and predictor making observations with regards to gender differences related Leisure activities, Min. in whole week Min. in whole week to leisure activities, a reality that has been recently proven in our Days devoted context (Codina et al., 2016, 2018a). variables Future research should also incorporate the latest advances in the measurement of procrastination (Svartal and Steel, 2017), Study together with the use of the TB as an instrument for the study of Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 7 January 2020 | Volume 10 | Article 2918 Pestana et al. Leisure and Procrastination, a Quest for Autonomy leisure, since its qualitative approach provides a wide variety of Committee of the University of Barcelona were applied to distinctions that help to preclude the subjective evaluations of the current study, which meant that additional approval for the researcher (Codina, 1999, 2004). In this study, this qualitative the research was not required because the data obtained did approach brought to light the participants’ perception of their use not involve animal or clinical experimentation. Additionally, of time, but on the other hand, it impedes the characterization this study complies with the recommendations of the General of time investment in activities common to most people. For Council of Spanish Psychological Associations (Consejo General example – and in the case at hand – while the low frequencies de Colegios de Psicólogos), the Spanish Organic Law on observed in habitual activities such as personal care do not imply Data Protection (15/1999: Jefatura del Estado, 1999), and the that people do not carry them out, it does suggest that they do not Declaration of Helsinki (World Medical Association, 2013). have them in mind when thinking about their free time. By specifying in more detail which leisure activities, times of the week and quantities of time are related with procrastinating AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS behaviors, leisure could be used as a predictor variable to protect from or inhibit delaying tasks. In a more general sense, it JP conceived and designed the research and was responsible would make sense to specify, if a person plans the activities for drafting the work and revising it critically for important in an important domain of his or her life, to what extent this intellectual content. NC was responsible for the analysis and planning not only protects against procrastination in this area interpretation of data gathered during the research and revising but also in others, besides being able to generalize this habit to it critically for important intellectual content. RV was responsible the rest of domains. Likewise, our results suggest new research for the analysis of data gathered during the research and revising perspectives that could serve to identify optimal time investments it critically for improving the explanatory potential of the in leisure activities in order to cope with procrastination, as well results obtained. as contributing with well-being and enhancing autonomy. Put differently, taking into account the relationships between leisure and procrastination as a multidimensional construct, FUNDING can be helpful to consider which free time activities – and their temporary investments – are the most appropriate to deal This research was conjointly supported by the projects with procrastination (or, according to case, do not encourage RTI2018-094405-B-100 (co-funded by the Ministry of Sciences, it). Based on the results of this research, psychological, social Innovation and Universities of Spain with the European Regional and educational interventions should address time management Development Fund), REDICE18-2260 (Institut de Ciències outside formal education as a context for the development of the de l’Educació – ICE – University of Barcelona), PsicoSAO- person in terms of their autonomy. Research Group in Social, Environmental, and Organizational Psychology (2017 SGR 564; Secretaria d’Universitats i Recerca del Departament d’Economia i Coneixement, Generalitat DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT de Catalunya), and the financial support for publishing from Vicerectorat de Doctorat i Promoció de la Recerca, The datasets generated for this study are available on request to University of Barcelona. the corresponding author. 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