Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2020) 12: 40 https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-019-00988-0 REVIEW Livestock faecal indicators for animal management, penning, foddering and dung use in early agricultural built environments in the Konya Plain, Central Anatolia Marta Portillo 1,2,3 & Aroa García-Suárez 2,4 & Wendy Matthews 2 Received: 15 March 2019 / Accepted: 24 October 2019 / Published online: 18 January 2020 # The Author(s) 2020 Abstract Livestock dung is a valuable material for reconstructing human and animal inter-relations and activity within open areas and built environments. This paper examines the identification and multi-disciplinary analysis of dung remains from three neighbouring sites in the Konya Plain of Central Anatolia, Turkey: Boncuklu (ninth–eighth millennium cal BC), the Çatalhöyük East Mound (eighth–sixth millennium cal BC), and the Late Neolithic occupation at the Pınarbaşı rockshelter (seventh millennium cal BC). It presents and evaluates data on animal management strategies and husbandry practices through the simultaneous examination of plant and faecal microfossils and biomarkers with thin-section micromorphology and integrated phytolith, dung spherulite, and biomolecular analyses, together with comparative reference geo-ethnoarchaeological assemblages. Herbivore dung and other coprogenic materials have been identified predominantly in open areas, pens and midden deposits through micromorphology and the chemical signatures of their depositional contexts and composition. Accumulations of herbivore faecal material and burnt remains containing calcitic spherulites and phytoliths have provided new information on animal diet, fodder and dung fuel. Evidence from phytoliths from in situ penning deposits at early Neolithic Çatalhöyük have provided new insights into foddering/ grazing practices by identifying highly variable herbivorous regimes including both dicotyledonous and grass-based diets. This review illustrates the variability of dung deposits within early agricultural settlements and their potential for tracing continuity and change in ecological diversity, herd management strategies and foddering, health, energy and dung use, as well as the complexity of interactions between people and animals in this key region during the early Holocene. Keywords Neolithic . Central Anatolia . Husbandry . Coprolite . Biomarker . Geoarchaeology Introduction This article is part of the Topical Collection on Coprolite Research: There is a growing recognition of the value of animal dung for Archaeological and Paleoenvironmental Potentials reconstructing ecological and socio-cultural practices in archae- ology. Livestock dung materials found within built environments * Marta Portillo and open settlement areas bear important information regarding mportillo@imf.csic.es environment, herd management and ecology, foddering and sub- 1 sistence strategies, energy and fuel use, interactions between Department of Archaeology and Anthropology, Archaeology of people and their animals, health and risk of zoonotic diseases, Social Dynamics (2017SGR 995), Institució Milà i Fontanals, Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), Barcelona, Spain and socio-economic relations and cultural practices more widely. 2 Livestock penning practices often provide a regular and predict- Department of Archaeology, School of Archaeology, Geography and Environmental Sciences, University of Reading, Reading, UK able supply of animal products, including dung, that can be sub- 3 sequently used in multiple ways, such as fuel, fertilizer—either in Department of Prehistory, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Bellaterra, Spain its organic form or after being burned—and as temper in building 4 materials (e.g. Kramer 1982; Miller 1984; Anderson and Ertuğ- Oriental Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK Yaras 1998; Reddy 1999; Sillar 2000; Shahack-Gross et al. 2004; 40 Page 2 of 15 Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2020) 12: 40 Milek 2012; Bogaard et al. 2013). The use of dung and a varied several decades of archaeological and palaeoenvironmental re- range of secondary herd products marks a broader exploitation of search, including field survey, high-resolution coring, excava- resources derived from livestock. The contribution of this archae- tions and extensive spatial sampling of early settlements (e.g. ological resource since at least the domestication of animals and Baird 1996, 2005; Baird et al. 2012, 2018; Martin et al. 2002; its role in the so-called ‘secondary products revolution’ (Sherratt Russell et al. 2005; Evershed et al. 2008; Bogaard et al. 2017; 1983), however, have not been fully evaluated from a local per- Roffet-Salque et al. 2018). This review focuses on a selection spective in light of the emergence and spread of farming. of sites in this core region in which a range of dung deposits The accurate identification of dung remains in the field is not have been found: the early agricultural settlement of Boncuklu straightforward and it frequently requires laboratory-based ana- (8300–7800 cal BC), the Çatalhöyük East Mound (7100– lytical techniques, such as calcitic spherulite studies and biomo- 5950 cal BC) and the Late Neolithic occupation of the lecular analyses of sterols and bile acids. This is mostly due to the Pınarbaşı rockshelter (6500–6000 cal BC) (e.g. Matthews many different forms in which archaeological dung occurs, for et al. 1996; Matthews 2005a, b; Shillito et al. 2011; García- instance as charred aggregates, trampled layers in pens, and dung Suárez 2017; García-Suárez et al. 2018). It aims to evaluate the ashes and disaggregated inclusions in construction materials, contribution of interdisciplinary sampling strategies and ana- which demands a multi-disciplinary approach in order to meet lytical advances to the development of high-resolution studies the challenges associated with detecting these materials. In addi- of livestock dung using integrated micromorphological, phy- tion, methodological issues related to the use of routine sampling tolith and dung spherulite analyses, and organic biomarker techniques such as sieving and flotation result in faecal materials analyses, coupled with comparative ethnoarchaeological refer- and their contents being irreversibly disaggregated or mixed with ences from the Central Anatolian plateau (Anderson and other organic and inorganic components of different origin. Over Ertuğ-Yaras 1998; Yalman 2005; Portillo and Matthews the last three decades a variety of geoarchaeological, accepted). This paper further highlights the value of interdisci- archaeobotanical, biochemical, as well as comparative plinary analytical methods in geoarchaeology, archaeobotany ethnoarchaeological and experimental methodological ap- and biochemistry and comparative geo-ethnoarchaeological proaches have enabled the identification and interpretation of data enabling robust identification and interpretation of dung dung in the archaeological record (Shahack-Gross 2011, and assemblages and their archaeological significance for explor- references therein). Among these multiple and diverse lines of ing the emergence and developments of early farming life- evidence, the strength of high-resolution integrated micro- ways. contextual approaches to animal faecal matter lies in their ability This paper, therefore, provides a timely review of the de- to examine its contents and signatures within its depositional and velopment of integrated high-resolution approaches to the socio-economic contexts. These methods contribute to under- study of animal dung. This review begins with an introduction standing the depositional pathways and taphonomic histories of to the regional environment, modern husbandry, grazing and dung, critical for the identification of activity areas and practices dung use, followed by a brief evaluation of the nature of these related to animal management (e.g. penning, dung burning, archaeological sites and early farming. It then summarizes the discarding/dumping, and construction/plastering) and their ar- key methodologies and techniques used in the study of mod- chaeological implications for site formation processes, concepts ern and archaeological dung in the study area, and reviews and uses of space within a settlement, and health. Comparative their potential applications, abilities and challenges, and con- geo-ethnoarchaeological and experimental research on dung as- tribution to interdisciplinary studies of faecal remains. semblages provides an important framework for examining the Discussion focuses on current debates on early farming devel- significance of dung indicators and their contextual associations, opment and resilience, concepts of space and health of early as well as the ecological and anthropogenic factors influencing settled life, and the complexity of relationships between peo- these (e.g. Brochier et al. 1992; Canti 1999; Shahack-Gross et al. ple and livestock across territories in Central Anatolia during 2003, 2004; Macphail et al. 2004; Milek 2012; Portillo et al. the early Holocene. 2014, 2017; Elliott et al. 2015; Friesem 2016; Prost et al. 2017; Égüez et al. 2018). This review presents and evaluates interdisciplinary data on The Konya plain research conducted on the dung of livestock found within early Holocene built environments and open spaces from the Konya Physical environment Plain, an extensive area of south-central Anatolia, Turkey (Fig. 1). The Konya Plain is currently recognized as a region The Konya Basin occupies an extensive inland drainage pla- of key importance for understanding the development and teau in south-central Anatolia that extends over 1,000,000 ha spread of Neolithic innovations. These included the adoption with an average altitude of about 1000 m a.s.l. (Kuzucuoğlu of animal domestication and the development of dairying ac- et al. 1999). The Konya Plain is located towards the west of tivities and use of livestock for secondary purposes, based on the basin and is surrounded by the Taurus Mountains to the Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2020) 12: 40 Page 3 of 15 40 Fig. 1 Map of the Konya Plain in Central Anatolia (Turkey) showing the archaeological sites mentioned in the text south and the Anatolides to the north and west. The Çarşamba The archaeological sites and early husbandry alluvial fan covers an area of approximately 474 km2 that hosts a number of early Neolithic settlements, including The settlement mound of Boncuklu, with an occupation span- Çatalhöyük and Boncuklu (Roberts et al. 1999) (Fig. 1). The ning c. 8300–7800 cal BC, has provided evidence of the early Konya Basin is a closed pluvial basin that has actively appearance of agriculture in the Konya Plain during the second responded to changes in climate and precipitation, with a half of the ninth millennium cal BC (Baird et al. 2012, 2013, highly variable landscape in time and space (Ayala et al. 2018). The site extends over approximately 1 ha and includes 2017). The results from high-resolution coring conducted sub-oval domestic buildings with mudbrick superstructures since 2007 indicate increased wetness during the last stages surrounded by open spaces where midden deposits accumulated. of the Pleistocene and the early Holocene with localized The later settlement mound at Çatalhöyük (7100–5950 cal BC) pockets of wetter conditions, interpreted as characteristic of (Bayliss et al. 2015), is > 13 ha in size with extensive mudbrick a humid anabranching channel system. During the Neolithic architecture and middens/open areas. The site has been the focus occupation on the Çatalhöyük East Mound the fluvial regime of pivotal debates regarding Neolithic innovations, agricultural shifted from humid to dryland anabranching conditions, and practices defined broadly here as plant cultivation and animal infilling of the undulating topography of the eroded marl of herding, and responses and resilience to environmental change the former Pleistocene palaeolake continued (Ayala et al. in the early Holocene (Hodder 2006, 2007, 2013; Ayala et al. 2017). This model differs from previous palaeoenvironmental 2017; Bogaard et al. 2017). The Late Neolithic occupation at the reconstructions that argued that the site was ‘largely Pınarbaşı rockshelter (c. 6500–6000 cal BC), with a maximum surrounded by backswamp-type soils’ and that its vicinity extent of 400 m2, displays sub-oval built environments with was subject to seasonal flooding conditions (Roberts et al. wattle and daub superstructures and multiple evidence of pastoral 1996, 1999, 2007; Boyer et al. 2006). activities, including a high proportion of herded sheep in the The present-day climate is dominated by cold semi-arid/ faunal assemblage, which comprises abundant foetal and neonate steppe conditions, characterized by hot, dry summers and remains (Baird et al. 2011). cold, wet winters. The average annual precipitation is The Konya Plain was home to contemporary sedentarising 350 mm and the area experiences considerable seasonal tem- communities in the late ninth and early eighth millennium cal perature fluctuations of over 20 °C between the warmest and BC with quite distinctive cultural identities and contrasting eco- coolest months, including a period of drought between July nomic strategies (Baird 2012; Baird et al. 2018). The Boncuklu and September (Fontugne et al. 1999; Ayala et al. 2017). This community practiced low-level crop cultivation with sheep and climate regime currently gives rise to predominantly semi-arid goat faunal remains occurring in very low proportions with an steppe vegetation that has also been impacted by human set- uncertain wild/domestic status based on bone morphometrics tlement and agro-pastoral production, especially by long-term (Baird et al. 2012, 2018). By contrast, wild caprines are present grazing pressure. Traditionally, pastoral grazing of sheep and in high numbers at ninth millennium Pınarbaşı. There is evidence cattle has been fundamental to the livelihoods of local com- for a more substantial mixed-farming economy at the contempo- munities, a practice that has led to heavy grazing disturbance rary central Anatolian site of Aşıklı Hüyük, in Cappadocia, with on rangeland vegetation over the last three decades a range of crops and the occurrence of caprine management by (Fırıncıoğlu et al. 2007). 8200 cal BC (van der Zeist and Roller 1995, 2003; Özbaşaran 40 Page 4 of 15 Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2020) 12: 40 2012; Stiner et al. 2014; Abell et al. 2019). Large-scale mixed datasets (Anderson and Ertuğ-Yaras 1998; Portillo and farming including both the cultivation and management of fully Matthews accepted). Contrary to other sampling procedures domestic cereals, legumes, and caprines are attested by at least such as flotation and sieving in which dung and its contents 7100 cal BC on the Konya Plain at Çatalhöyük, followed by the may be disaggregated, irreversibly mixed or lost, integrated adoption of domesticated cattle (Bos taurus) and use of second- sampling strategies allow the high-resolution examination of ary animal products such as milk in the Late Neolithic (Russell undisturbed stratigraphy and the simultaneous study of di- et al. 2005, 2013; Evershed et al. 2008). verse organic, inorganic and microartefactual components in situ within their depositional context (e.g. Matthews et al. 1996; Matthews 2005a). For a review on materials and Methodology methods for identification and techniques used in the study of modern and archaeological dung along with their potential Ethnoarchaeology and modern livestock dung applications, research rationale and limitations see Table 1 in Shahack-Gross (2011) and Table 1 in Portillo and Matthews Ethnographic surveys of modern husbandry practices and ethno- (accepted). botanical studies were conducted during the 1990s in two rural In the field, dung samples were collected by cutting sedi- villages: Pınarbaşı, a small settlement located on the edge of the ment blocks and collecting high-resolution spot samples from Taurus Mountains in the Karaman district, and Kizilkaya, a larger stratigraphic sequences suspected to contain faecal remains at village on the Melendiz Plain, in Aksaray district (Ertuğ-Yaras the macroscale. Dung was identified where possible in the 1996, 1997; Anderson and Ertuğ-Yaras 1998). The particular field laboratory by microscopic examination of related spot focus of the later work was the examination of foddering prac- samples through the presence of calcitic spherulites tices, animal dung or tezek (the generic Turkish name for dung) displaying a cross of extinction under crossed polarized light. and the manufacture of dung cakes, fuel storage and burning, and These microfossils form in the digestive system of many an- choices and taboos regarding the use of dung as fuel, as well as imals, particularly ruminants, and can be identified in varying the study of the macro-botanical composition of fodder and dung proportions in their faeces (Canti 1999). Calcitic spherulites materials (mostly from sheep and cattle). The manufacture of have been found to be common in modern livestock materials dung cakes made from mixed cow and sheep pellets was further from the study region, including dung cakes and fuel ashes reported in ethnoarchaeological research in the small village of (Portillo and Matthews accepted). Archaeological spot sedi- Türkmencamili, in the Çumra Plain, in the Konya province ment samples were firstly examined under the optical micro- (Yalman 2005). Anderson and Ertuğ-Yaras recorded different scope by mounting non-permanent slides with clove oil to types of dung cakes, mainly manufactured during spring and provide rapid feedback during excavation on the presence or summer: unprocessed dung or droppings collected from the field absence of dung spherulites and other plant microfossils such or enclosures, trampled dung dug out from pens, cattle dung as phytoliths and ash pseudomorphs (resulting from the burn- compacted and moulded by hand into rounds (yapma), and cattle ing of wood to at least 450 °C) and for a pilot scanning of dung compressed into a wooden mould (kepiç). A variety of their vegetal components (e.g. Matthews 1999, 2005a; firing installations were reported including the so-called tandir, Matthews and Portillo 2017). In situ penning at Neolithic a ventilated underground oven similar to Near Eastern tannurs Çatalhöyük was identified firstly in the field by a distinctive used for cooking and fuelled with tezek cakes. Comparative in- laminar microstructure of trampled herbivore dung with par- tegrated phytolith and dung spherulite analyses from micromor- allel oriented articulated phytoliths, and confirmed in the field phological thin-sections of modern dung samples collected by laboratory by microscopic spot smear slide identification of Anderson and Ertuğ-Yaras (1998), have been recently used to abundant spherulites (Matthews and Portillo 2017; Portillo provide further information on dung morphology and microfossil et al. 2019). This high-resolution spot sampling was conduct- dung content in a selection of contexts from all three ed for suspected coprolitic materials collected during field- neighbouring settlements (Fig. 2) (Portillo and Matthews work at all three sites (e.g. Matthews 2005a; Shillito et al. accepted). 2011; García-Suárez et al. 2018). In addition, a method of ‘microsampling’ block sub-samples from thin-section blocks Archaeological dung sampling and analytical before impregnation enabled direct comparisons between de- methods tailed quantitative microfossil contents and micromorpholog- ical observations (Matthews et al. 2004; Shillito 2011, 2017; Archaeological dung remains have been examined through García-Suárez et al. 2018). Further information was then ob- both spot and block sediment samples for contextual micro- tained on the defecator’s diet and food regime by the identi- morphological and integrated geochemical, mineralogical, fication of a varied range of faunal and vegetal remains in bioarchaeological, and biomolecular analyses, and compara- thin-section and in spot samples. The identification of tive ethnobotanical and geo-ethnoarchaeological modern defecators was investigated through biomolecular analyses Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2020) 12: 40 Page 5 of 15 40 Fig. 2 Modern dung (tezek) cakes and fuel ashes from Central Anatolia multi-celled or anatomically connected phytoliths of dicotyledonous leaf collected by Anderson and Ertuğ-Yaras (1998). a Scan of a resin- tissues, PPL; d detail of the same sheep dung cake (image c) composed of impregnated thin section showing the macroscopic laminar structure of calcitic spherulite-rich assemblages, XPL; e detail of a cattle dung cake compacted trampled cattle dung within an enclosure, dominated by displaying multicelled or anatomically connected phytoliths from the organic matter but containing mineral inclusions; b scan of a thin leaves and culms of grasses, PPL; f grass-dominated phytolith section of a dung cake including intact sheep faecal pellets and mineral assemblages from cattle dung fuel ashes, PPL inclusions; c detail of a sheep dung cake manufactured in winter showing by Gas Chromatography Mass Spectroscopy (GC/MS) layers and components that are difficult to resolve in the field, targeting both sterols and bile acids to discriminate between making the application of integrated micro-contextual animal and human coprolitic materials (Bull et al. 2005; methods highly relevant to the investigation of their complex Shillito et al. 2011, 2013a, b; Ledger et al. 2019). Further depositional and post-depositional pathways (Baird et al. evidence from the analysis of intestinal parasites in coprolites 2012; Shillito and Matthews 2013; García-Suárez et al. by Ledger et al. (2019) has enabled new insights on the health 2018). In the field and in thin-section, omnivore faecal mate- conditions of the inhabitants of Çatalhöyük. rials may be identifiable as a distinctive orange/yellow fine material with inclusions such as embedded bone fragments and plant remains such as hackberry pericarps. GC/MS anal- Archaeological significance yses in a range of cases have indicated that some of these are of human, rather than pig or dog, at the sites examined with Dung remains have been found to represent important archae- significant implications for human diet and health and con- ological materials at Çatalhöyük, particularly in open areas cepts of space for early settled life (Matthews et al. 1996; including midden and penning deposits, as identified through Matthews 2005a; Shillito et al. 2011; Bull et al. 2005; the micromorphological observation of their depositional con- Shillito et al. 2011, 2013a, b). texts and composition by microfossil and biomarker signa- To aid in the identification of animal dung and animal tures (Matthews et al. 1996; Matthews 2005a; Rosen 2005; management practices, ethnographic research has been con- Shillito 2011, 2017; Shillito et al. 2008, 2011; Shillito and ducted in these areas, resulting in comparative samples and Matthews 2013; García-Suárez et al. 2018, accepted-a; reference datasets of livestock dung remains and dung- Portillo et al. 2019). Faecal remains have been more recently products from site vicinities in the central Anatolian plateau investigated in middens at the earlier settlement of Boncuklu (Anderson and Ertuğ-Yaras 1998; Yalman 2005; Portillo and and the Late Neolithic occupation of the Pınarbaşı rockshelter Matthews accepted). These integrated approaches to this core by applying similar integrated micromorphological and mi- region for understanding the origins and spread of agriculture crofossil methodological approaches (García-Suárez et al. provide an ideal case-study for high-resolution investigations 2018, accepted-b). Midden deposits in all three sites are char- of dung material aimed at exploring continuity and change in acterized by depositional sequences with finely stratified animal management strategies and early husbandry. 40 Page 6 of 15 Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2020) 12: 40 Penning and animal management of the wider landscape (Pearson et al. 2007, 2015; Pearson 2013; Russell et al. 2013; Larsen et al. 2013; Matthews Recent studies focusing on the analysis of integrated mi- 2018; Middleton 2018). Penning deposits have also been cromorphological and plant and faecal microfossil evi- identified within buildings, such as in Space 470 in the dence from dung assemblages in open areas from the South Area, although these are generally less substantial and study sites have contributed to understanding animal man- more short-lived than those observed in open areas. Here, agement strategies in this region, providing new insights superimposed thin layers of trampled herbivore dung ob- into early farming in the Konya Plain through time (Baird served through micromophology attest the occasional use of et al. 2018; García-Suárez et al. 2018). At Boncuklu and this built environment as a pen, possibly temporarily to host Pınarbaşı micro-contextual studies have not identified in birthing or sick animals, given the low amounts of faecal situ penning locations, although herbivore dung remains matter observed in thin-section (Barański et al. 2015). This have been documented at both sites associated with fire- overall patterning suggests that from c. 7000–6700 BC some related activities. Thin-section micromorphology detected animals were penned within the site of Çatalhöyük. Isotopic direct evidence of in situ penning in the early and middle analyses of animal bone indicate that later in the Neolithic occupation levels at Çatalhöyük (Matthews et al. 1996, occupation, coincident with an increased population size and 2014; Matthews 2005a; Cessford 2007; Matthews and greater mobility for herding and acquiring food and other Portillo 2017; García-Suárez et al. accepted-a; Portillo resources, animals were kept further away from the site et al. 2019). These deposits were identified by their dis- (Pearson et al. 2007; Henton 2012, 2013; Larsen et al. tinctive laminar microstructure oriented parallel to the pen 2019). Significantly, this isotopic evidence pointing to the surface, caused by physical compaction as a result of in- herding of animals at greater distances from the site corre- tense animal trampling and from the presence of fodder sponds with a decrease in the amount of dung that was and animal faeces (Macphail et al. 2004; Shahack-Gross discarded in open areas, as the micromorphological evidence 2017; Portillo and Matthews accepted). Observations in from the final levels of occupation in the East Mound suggests micromorphological thin-sections from modern reference (García-Suárez et al. 2018). ethnoarchaeological materials from herbivorous herds The identification of animal penning has important impli- from the research area (Fig. 2a and b) show that penning cations for studies on continuity and change in animal man- deposits may include amorphous organic matter and or- agement patterns, site organization and concepts of space, as ganic phosphate staining, commonly pale to dark brown well as on early settled life conditions and health challenges under plane light (PPL). These commonly include partial- associated with early farming and food production (Portillo ly digested to undigested plant tissues and seeds, plant et al. 2019). Futher, the presence of pens for domestic animals microfossils such as phytoliths and calcium oxalates, cel- and refuse areas cointaining animal dung and human copro- lulose displaying interference colours under crossed po- lites in close proximity to crowded living spaces bears critical larized transmitted light (XPL), and other distinctive dung implications regarding hygiene, health and well-being in the microfossils such as calcitic spherulites and spores, al- community and an increased exposure to pathogenic microor- though their composition may vary significantly accord- ganisms including parasites, bacteria, and viruses and the po- ing to animal producers and their diet (Anderson and tential spread of diseases within the settlement (Larsen et al. Ertuğ-Yaras 1998; Portillo and Matthews accepted). 2019). The parasites identified in two human coprolites to date At Çatalhöyük, the identification of penning areas distrib- from Çatalhöyük, however, are geohelminths that spread from uted in the South and North Areas of the East mound provides human to human rather than from animals to humans (Ledger direct evidence of animal management within the settlement et al. 2019). These coprolites are from the late levels of the site (Matthews et al. 1996; Matthews 2005a; Cessford 2007; from miden deposits in Space 329, Level South P, dating to c. Matthews and Portillo 2017; García-Suárez et al. accepted-a; 6410–6150 BC (Ledger et al. 2019), a time when isotopic Portillo et al. 2019). In the early occupation of the South Area, evidence suggests that animals were grazed and kept further two penning areas were identified, the first one in the deep away from the settlement, as discussed above (Pearson et al. sounding excavated in the late 1990s, and the second one 2007; Henton 2012, 2013). Further analyses of coprolites may during the last field season of the Stanford project in 2017 reveal evidence of zoonotic parasites that spread from animals (Fig. 3 in Matthews and Portillo 2017). In the North Area, a to humans, as commonly identified on Neolithic sites in the penning sequence was also discovered in this last field season Mediterranean (Anastasiou and Mitchell 2013) and other (Matthews and Portillo 2017; García-Suárez et al. accepted-a; traces of disease. The presence of animal pens within the set- Portillo et al. 2019). These new penning areas provide direct tlement from at least c. 7000–6700 BC, discussed here, sug- evidence for the management of herds in enclosures within the gests that there would have been greater risk of zoonotic dis- boundaries of the site immediately prior to a period of settle- eases during these earlier periods of occupation when humans ment expansion in the South Area, and increased exploitation and animals lived in greater proximity. Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2020) 12: 40 Page 7 of 15 40 Fig. 3 Dung occurrences in multiple contexts at the study sites: a detailed aggregate embedded in dung ashes at the Pınarbaşı rockshelter, XPL view of micromorphological thin-section 367 comprising omnivore (distinguishable spherulites are circled); c trampled charred faecal coprolite accumulations in an open area at Boncuklu; b aggregate embedded in discarded fuel materials within hearth/oven photomicrograph of calcitic spherulites in a charred herbivore faecal rake-out context in Building 114 at Çatalhöyük, PPL Animal diet, foddering/grazing, seasonality 2003). Diatom silica frustules are found in water and in and ecological diversity conditions where moisture is present, including deposits and soils, and can also be found in animal faeces resulting The nature of livestock diet varies according to a range of from drinking water and ingested matter, as illustrated in factors including ecological and seasonal variability in food geo-ethnoarchaeological studies (Brochier et al. 1992; sources, sex/age-based dietary requirements, selection of feed Portillo and Albert 2011; Portillo et al. 2012; Portillo and by animals and humans, and management practices, as illus- Matthews accepted). Although very few traces of herbi- trated by ethnographic and ethnobotanical research in the vore dung have been identified to date at Boncuklu in study area (Anderson and Ertuğ-Yaras 1998). Most of the comparison to omnivore coprolitic remains, the micromor- reported archaeological information on animal diet comes phological identification of charred dung pellets in hearth from microfossil evidence such as phytoliths in thin-section, fills has significant implications for the study of early an- which enables observations of dung materials and their com- imal management strategies at this site (García-Suárez ponents in situ in an undisturbed form, rather than et al. 2018, accepted-b). In support of this, although cap- macrobotanical remains that are commonly disaggregated or rines only comprise 4.9% of the identified animal species mixed through flotation or sieving. Whilst dietary practices at Boncuklu (Baird et al. 2012, 2018; Middleton 2018), have been investigated by isotopic signatures of crops and stable isotope data show a high δ15N value in some caprine both animal bone and teeth from several sites in the Konya bones from the site, similar to the later caprines from Plain (Pearson et al. 2007, 2015; Henton 2012; Pearson 2013; Çatalhöyük, which appears to indicate an increased con- Bogaard et al. 2013; Wallace et al. 2015; Middleton 2018; sumption of plants growing in the more arid, saline marsh Baird et al. 2018), isotopic analyses of faeces are currently areas of the plain, rather than vegetation from the natural an under-developed area of study and a promising field for habitat of caprines in the surrounding hills. This has been future research (e.g. Codron et al. 2005; Shahack-Gross 2011). interpreted as the result of human management and small- At Boncuklu, faecal remains from midden deposits (Fig. scale experimentation with caprine herding in the vicinity 3a) display very low spherulite content in thin-section, and of the site (Baird et al. 2018), and is supported by the highly variable phytolith types and abundance (García- micromorphological identification of dung from animals Suárez et al. 2018). These mainly derive from Pooideae that are likely to have been proximate to the site. grasses and, to a lesser extent, from reeds and sedges, In contrast to Boncuklu, numerous faecal deposits charac- which are common in wetland environments; few assem- teristic of herbivores have been identified in later middens at blages are particularly rich in multicelled phytoliths from seventh millennium Pınarbaşı, with abundant phytolith and the husks of these plants (Fig. 4a). Some of these coprolites calcitic spherulite assemblages (Figs. 4c and 5a). These faecal also contain abundant digested bone remains, with mor- remains are likely derived from ovicaprines, as the faunal phologies suggesting a microfaunal origin, possibly birds record includes a substantial proportion of herded sheep and amphibians. Preliminary GC/MS results point towards (Baird et al. 2011). Of particular interest to animal manage- a possible human origin for these faecal materials (I. Bull, ment practices, the zooarchaeological remains included sheep pers. comm.; García-Suárez et al. 2018). Additional bio- foetuses and neonates from spring birthing, suggesting at least genic microfossils such as diatoms and, to a lesser extent, a seasonal presence of herds during the Late Neolithic occu- sponge spicules were also common in many of the phyto- pation of the site. The micromorphological observations are lith slides (Fig. 4b), and may potentially serve as indicators predominantly from dung burnt as fuel, and indicate that this of well-watered environmental conditions (Wilding and was a readily available energy supply, concomitant with the Drees 1971; Schwandes and Collins 1994; Coil et al. presence of these herds. The burnt fuel deposits include 40 Page 8 of 15 Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2020) 12: 40 Fig. 4 Photomicrographs of phytoliths and other microfossils identified culms of reeds and Pooideae grasses from burnt-herbivore dung deposit in archaeological samples from Boncuklu (BK, Area M), Pınarbaşı (PB, (PB); d dicotyledonous epidermal leaf tissues from penning deposits Area B) and Çatalhöyük (CH, South Area) (400× or 200×). a Multi-celled (CH); e tracheid phytoliths from dicotyledonous leaves from penning or anatomically connected phytoliths derived from the husks of grasses deposits (CH); f clusters of calcitic dung spherulites from penning from omnivore faecal contexts (BK); b diatom from faecal contexts (BK); deposits (CH) c multicelled or anatomically connected phytoliths from the leaves and abundant dung spherulites and phytoliths from wild grasses, Dung burning and the use of dung in construction and leaves and culms of reeds suggested to derive from fodder materials and fuel sources (García-Suárez et al. 2018). Direct evidence for herd foddering/grazing practices at Fire-installations such as hearths and ovens fuelled with a Çatalhöyük comes from the in situ compacted dung deposits range of materials including animal dung have long played a from penning discussed above (Matthews et al. 1996; vital role in many societies creating living places and Matthews 2005a; Cessford 2007; Matthews and Portillo impacting landscapes and life-ways (e.g. Matthews 2016, 2017; García-Suárez et al. accepted-a; Portillo et al. 2019). and references therein). In the Central Anatolian plateau, dung Integrated micromorphological and microfossil analyses sug- (tezek) has long been used as a fuel resource, either in its air- gest that there was significant variation in animal diet, includ- dried organic form as unprocessed droppings, as compacted ing both grass-based and dicotyledonous diets (Matthews and dung deposits dug out from enclosures, or through the manu- Portillo 2017; Portillo et al. accepted). A diet enriched in di- facture of dung cakes as outlined below (Anderson and Ertuğ- cotyledonous matter may suggest human management of herd Yaras 1998; Portillo and Matthews accepted). When dung is fodder, or it may also relate to possible selection by obligate burnt as fuel, faecal materials may also be distributed within browsers, such as caprines and, possibly may reflect some the built environment as rake-out adjacent to fire installations degree of seasonality (Rasmussen 1993; Macphail et al. and in middens with discarded hearth/oven rake-out. Dung 1997; Halstead and Tierney 1998; Rosen 2005; Tsartsidou material of suspected herbivore origin has been identified in et al. 2008). Phytolith-rich assemblages from dicotyledonous the form of charred and partially calcined aggregates with epidermal leaf tissues have been also observed in modern abundant burnt plant materials in accumulated deposits from sheep dung cakes manufactured in winter pointing to a diet all the study sites. Contexts include open areas/middens and that is either based on or includes a component of dicotyle- buildings, comprising in situ fuel in hearths and ovens, and donous fodder (Fig. 2c) (Portillo and Matthews accepted). adjacent rake-outs or refuse deposits when buildings are aban- These findings reveal highly variable diets among herbivorous doned (Fig. 6a). Dung fuel has been widely identified at foddering/grazing practices within the boundaries of the early Çatalhöyük in micromorphological thin-sections and is also occupation of the site, although with an important input of attested in macro-botanical charred plant assemblages through grasses and reeds through the settlement lifetime. the occurrence of charred dung pellets as well as the presence Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2020) 12: 40 Page 9 of 15 40 a Phytoliths 1 g of sediment (million) Spherulites 1 g of sediment (million) 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 12-ss4 12-ss1 13-ss1 13-ss2 13-ss3 13-ss4 367-ss1 367-ss2 367-ss3 367-ss4 394-ss4 394-ss1 394-ss5 Midden deposits with omnivore coprolites Midden deposits with herbivore dung Boncuklu Pınarbaşı b Sample number Phytoliths 1 g of sediment (million) Sample number Spherulites 1 g of sediment (million) 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 22834-s3-ss4 22834-s3-ss2 22834-s3-ss3 23616-s1-ss1 23616-s1-ss3 23616-s1-ss6 30852-s1-ss2 30852-s1-ss3 30852-s1-ss4 30855-s1-ss2 30855-s1-ss4 30855-s1-ss5 30855-s1-ss6 23616-s1-ss5 23616-s1-ss4 23214-s10-ss3 23214-s10-ss5 23214-s10-ss7 23214-s11-ss1 23214-s11-ss2 23214-s11-ss6 23214-s10-ss4 23214-s10-ss6 23214-s11-ss3 23214-s11-ss4 23214-s11-ss5 232616-s1-ss2 Midden deposits Herbivorous penning deposits In-situ burning of mixed dung Fig. 5 Plot showing absolute concentrations of phytoliths vs. dung locations (South Area, North Area, GDN and TPC). Sample extraction spherulites obtained from micromorphological block sub-samples. a and quantitative analyses followed the methods of Katz et al. (2010) and Boncuklu (Area M) midden deposits with abundant omnivore coprolite Canti (1999), respectively. For sample description, contextual field re- inclusions and Pınarbaşı (Area B) late middens composed of herbivore cords, and full quantitative data see García-Suárez et al. 2018 and dung; b Çatalhöyük midden and penning deposits from different Portillo et al. 2019 of wild seeds commonly consumed by animals (Matthews In thin-section, burnt faecal aggregates generally vary in 2005a; Rosen 2005; Fairbairn et al. 2005; Ryan 2011; colour (PPL) from yellowish, dark brown, to pale greyish Shillito 2011; Bogaard et al. 2013, 2014). Wood fuel was also brown or greyish white, depending on burning temperatures widely used at Çatalhöyük (Asouti 2005; Kabukcu 2018). (Fig. 3c). At Çatalhöyük, plant inclusions embedded in herbi- Integrated archaeobotanical and micromorphological samples vore dung remains often include abundant phytoliths, some of of in situ fire installations have concluded that fuel sources which may show evidence of partial melting, indicating the comprising dung and plant resources such as wood and reeds/ potential of dung fuel to reach high temperatures exceeding c. grasses were frequently mixed, a pattern that seems common 750–850 °C (Canti 2003). At this site, partially melted at all the study sites through time. phytoliths derive from a range of plants including reeds, 40 Page 10 of 15 Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2020) 12: 40 Fig. 6 Photomicrographs from thin sections from the Çatalhöyük deep organic matter, PPL; d thick calcitic ashy layers (~ 3–1 mm) rich in sounding sequence excavated in the late 1990s in the South Area. For charred plant remains, multi-celled phytoliths with stomata (mc) from sample provenance and micromorphological descriptions see Matthews reeds, and calcitic spherulites indicative of dung ashy rake-out, PPL; e (2005a, b). a Scan of a resin-impregnated thin section showing the penning sequence formed by compacted dung deposits from unit 4710 location of photomicrographs from Space 181 midden sequence (unit particularly rich in articulated or multicelled (mc) bulliform phytoliths (b) 5290), including organic deposits (b), coprolitic materials (c) and rake- and epidermal tissues from the leaves and stems of reeds oriented sub- out (d); b organic-rich midden deposits with charred plant material and parallel, and dung spherulites, indicative of herbivorous grass-rich diets, shells (sh), taken at 40× under PPL; c omnivorous coprolite containing PPL; f the same view of the penning deposit under XPL abundant bone inclusions embedded within amorphous orange/yellow sedges and Pooid grasses, as the morphologies of most orig- manufacturing see e.g. Sillar 2000). In addition, dung fuels inal cells were preserved and, in most case-studies, identifi- can be re-used for several firing events and later stored for able (e.g. García-Suárez et al. 2018; Portillo et al. 2019). The secondary uses such as manuring, all of which points to the partial melting of phytoliths is also noted in modern reference value of dung-products and their potential sustainability in the samples of dung fuel ashes, resulting from the burning of dung present day (e.g. Portillo et al. 2017). cakes composed of grass-dominated assemblages. Further, With regard to the use and recycling of dung and its by- partially melted phytoliths have been identified in association products, in the Central Anatolian plateau Anderson and with darkened dung spherulites, a frequent alteration of these Ertuğ-Yaras (1998) reported that cattle dung was collected microfossils when exposed to temperatures between 600 and from enclosures and then dried and sieved to create a residue 700 °C (Canti and Nicosia 2018). Evidence of these high locally called kön, which is a dung by-product used as bedding firing temperatures has provided insights into a range of fire- for pens as well as fertilizer. At Neolithic Çatalhöyük, high related activities at Çatalhöyük, including cooking and lime- stable isotope nitrogen values in crop plants indicate that live- burning (Matthews 2005a; Matthews et al. 2013; García- stock dung was used to fertilize cultivated plots and maintain Suárez et al. 2018, accepted-a; Portillo et al. 2019). High soil fertility (Bogaard 2005). Fuel rake-outs with some dung burning temperatures can be reached rapidly in closed or inclusions were used in building materials such as mortars, walled firing installations such as ovens when well ventilated. possibly due to the hygro-phobic properties of ash (Matthews Temperatures as high as 850 °C were reached within a few et al. 1996; Matthews 2010), and in mudbricks, introduced minutes after lighting in modern traditional mud ovens oper- either deliberately or accidentally during the manufacturing ated with dung-dominated fuels, as reported in geo- process, as reported ethnographically (Matthews 2010; Love ethnoarchaeological studies from different geographical re- 2012; Portillo et al. 2014). In addition, the frequent deposition gions (Gur-Arieh et al. 2013; Portillo et al. 2014, 2017). of fuel refuse composed of calcitic plant and dung ashes within Dung fuels can sustain temperatures for longer than wood open spaces has been suggested to relate to sanitation practices sources, remaining hot several hours after the end of the ac- to reduce odours and insect breeding (Pawłowska 2014). In tivity (e.g. cooking, baking, and boiling; for pottery buildings, dung matter has only been rarely documented as part Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2020) 12: 40 Page 11 of 15 40 of floor construction materials in thin-section, mainly in the anthropogenic pathways affecting their deposition and preser- form of amorphous aggregates, randomly dispersed and less vation. In future research, a range of issues remains to be ad- than a millimetre in size. The nature, frequency, distribution dressed more systematically, including use of dung and dung- and size of these dung aggregates questions the intentional contents as indicators for paleoenvironment and seasonality, use of this material as stabilizers, pointing towards its acciden- and of dung markers for exploring both livestock and human tal transfer into the plasters at the place of manufacture, likely health and life conditions. middens and open spaces, where occupation refuse accumulat- Dung remains have been found to represent important ar- ed (García-Suárez 2017). chaeological materials for investigating human-animal inter-re- At the Late Neolithic campsite of Pınarbaşı open spaces lations and the developments of early farming communities of have also been found to display accumulations of herbivore the early Holocene Anatolian plateau. These have provided dung deposits interpreted to derive from repeated dung- important insights into continuity and change in herd manage- burning events (García-Suárez et al. 2018). These were com- ment strategies and early husbandry, ecological diversity and posed of high quantities of well-preserved dung spherulites foddering/grazing practices, showing a significant variation in and phytoliths from wild grasses, in addition to leaves and livestock diet, including direct evidence from both grass-based culms interpreted as the remains of fodder and fuel sources. and dicotyledonous regimes from recently discovered penning The occurrence of charred and partially calcined faecal matter areas at early Neolithic Çatalhöyük (Matthews and Portillo strongly associated with calcitic ashes and darkened spheru- 2017; Portillo et al. 2019). The nature of animal dung deposited lites in thin-section points to the extensive use of dung as fuel and accumulated in open areas appears to be directly associated at seventh millennium Pınarbaşı, along with other woody with the scale of pastoral activities at the sites investigated. At sources such as Pistacia and Amygdalus, which were likely the early agricultural settlement of Boncuklu, where isotopic available in the vicinity according to the charred wood data on faunal bones suggest possible experimentation with datasets (Asouti 2003). The good preservation conditions of caprine herd management (Middleton 2018; Baird et al. these microfossils, and particularly dung spherulites, that are 2018), dung remains have been identified through micromor- susceptible to dissolution when organic matter degrades in phology within the fills of open hearths, attesting the presence acidic burial environments and under calcination (Canti of ruminants near the site (García-Suárez 2017; García-Suárez 1999), have been related to low/moderate firing temperatures et al. 2018). The substantial penning deposits identified at the as well as to rapid disposal and/or burial of used fuel at the site early occupation of the long-lived site of Çatalhöyük (García-Suárez et al. 2018). (Matthews 2005a, b; Portillo et al. 2019) indicate the occur- Overall, the reported case-studies illustrate the vital role of rence of pastoral activities within the settlement. However, livestock as providers of a range of dung-products and their micro-stratigraphic data point to a decline in the accumulation sustainable applications, such as a fuel source, in this key of dung matter within the settlement corresponding to a period region through time. Therefore, dung as an archaeological of site expansion, and a later period of increased human and material deserves to be considered in syntheses on the emer- animal mobility (García-Suárez et al. 2018; Henton 2012, 2013; gence and spread of Neolithic innovations including the sec- Pearson et al. 2015). By contrast, the seventh millennium pas- ondary products revolution (Sherratt 1983) more widely. toral campsite of Pınarbaşı, contemporary at this time with the late occupation of Çatalhöyük, displays abundant accumula- tions of re-deposited herbivore dung, most likely as a result of Conclusions the use of this rockshelter as a herding location (Baird et al. 2011; García-Suárez et al. 2018). This review illustrates the strength of interdisciplinary studies Overall, integrated micro-contextual approaches reveal of dung as a highly valuable archaeological material, especially considerable chronological and contextual variation in if conducted in comparison to modern reference datasets from human-animal inter-relations within and between these com- the same research area using an ethnoarchaeological approach. munities through time. Nonetheless, common patterns The integration of micromorphology, plant and faecal micro- pointing to shared practices emerge from these data, such as fossils, and biomolecular analyses, combined with reference the proximity of domestic animals and the use of dung as a ethnoarchaeological approaches, has provided a powerful suite secondary product (e.g. Matthews 2005a; Rosen 2005; Ryan of evidence for identifying and understanding the archaeologi- 2011; Shillito 2011; García-Suárez et al. 2018). The use of cal significance of livestock dung and other coprolitic materials dung fuel sources has been reported in all investigated sites, within agricultural built environments across territories in particularly in open contexts, a practice which is still in use Central Anatolia during the early Holocene. This review also among local communities in the present day. However, the highlights the value of comparative ethnoarchaeological intentionality of this practice at the early site of Boncuklu still datasets in providing models on factors concerning animal dung needs to be explored further, due to the low amounts of this characteristics and uses, as well as the natural and material identified so far in fire contexts. 40 Page 12 of 15 Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2020) 12: 40 Furthermore, this paper shows the ways in which high- Anastasiou E, Mitchell PD (2013) Simplifying the process for extracting parasitic worm eggs from cesspool and latrine sediments: a trial precision identification and interpretation of dung remains can comparing the efficacy of widely used techniques for disaggrega- be used to address key archaeological questions in current de- tion. Int J Paleopathol 3:204–207 bates in the Neolithic, not only on the origins and spread of Anderson S, Ertuğ-Yaras F (1998) Fuel fodder and faeces: an ethnograph- farming, but also regarding the use and organization of space, ic and botanical study of dung fuel use in Central Anatolia. Environ patterns of co-habitation of humans with animals and livestock Archaeol 1:99–109 Asouti E (2003) Woodland vegetation and fuel exploitation at the prehis- dung, as well as well-being and health challenges associated toric campsite of Pınarbaşı, south-Central Anatolia, Turkey: the ev- with early farming and food production. Animal penning in idence from the wood charcoal macro-remains. J Archaeol Sci 30: the earlier occupation of Çatalhöyük represents an increased 1185–1201 exposure to pathogens and spread of diseases in living areas, Asouti E (2005) Woodland vegetation and the exploitation of fuel and timber at Neolithic Çatalhöyük: report on the wood-charcoal macro- with critical implications for health conditions of early settled remains. In: Hodder I (ed) Inhabiting Çatalhöyük, reports from the life. As such, the contribution of this important archaeological 1995–1999 seasons. McDonald Institute for Archaeological material, deserves to be more systematically approached and Research Cambridge, and British Institute at Ankara, London, pp fully considered in syntheses on the emergence and spread of 213–258 Ayala G, Wainwright J, Walker J, Hodara R, Lloyd JM, Leng M, Doherty early farming systems, particularly since the domestication of C (2017) Palaeoenvironmental reconstruction of the alluvial land- herds, and its role in the secondary products revolution. scape of Neolithic Çatalhöyük, central southern Turkey: the impli- cations for early agriculture and responses to environmental change. Acknowledgments We are grateful to all the archaeological team mem- J Archaeol Sci 8:30–43 bers and to the project directors Prof. Ian Hodder and Prof. Douglas Baird Baird D (1996) The Konya plain survey: aims and methods. In: Hodder I for their support and helpful discussions, as well as to the government (ed) On the surface Çatalhöyük 1993–1995. McDonald Institute for representatives and the General Directorate for Cultural Heritage and Archaeological Research/BIAA, Cambridge, pp 41–46 Museums and the Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism Baird D (2005) The history of settlement and social landscape in the Early for permission to export samples and support. Special thanks are due to Holocene in the Çatalhöyük area. In: Hodder I (ed) Çatalhöyük Dr. Seona Anderson and Dr. Füsun Ertuğ for the samples for micromor- perspectives: reports from the 1995-1999 Seasons. McDonald phological analysis from their ethnographic research. MP’s work has been Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge, pp 55–74 funded by the European Union’s MICROARCHEODUNG project. The Baird D (2012) The Late Epipaleolithic, Neolithic and chalcolithic of the project has received funding from the EU Horizon 2020 research and Anatolian Plateau, 13,000-4,000 BC. In: Potts DT (ed) A compan- innovation programme under the Marie Sklodowska-Curie grant agree- ion to the archaeology of the ancient Near east, Volume I. Wiley- ment No H2020-MSCA-IF-2015-702529. AGS is a Wainwright Early Blackwell, Hoboken, pp 431–465 Career Fellow at the Oriental Institute, University of Oxford. Her research Baird D, Carruthers D, Fairbairn A, Pearson J (2011) Ritual in the land- has been supported by an Arts and Humanities Research Council scape: evidence from Pınarbaşı in the seventh-millennium cal BC (AHRC) doctoral grant, a University of Reading Research Studentship Konya plain. Antiquity 85:380–394 and Travel Award, a British Institute of Archaeology at Ankara (BIAA) Baird D, Fairbairn A, Martin L, Middleton C (2012) The Boncuklu pro- study grant, and a John Templeton Foundation Award (No 52003, P.I.: I. ject; the origins of sedentism, cultivation and herding in Central Hodder) that also supported research conducted by W. Matthews on Anatolia. In: Özdoğan M, Başgelen N, Kuniholm P (eds) Çatalhöyük. The GC/MS analyses referred to briefly here and more fully Neolithic in Turkey; new excavations, new discoveries, Central elsewhere and in forthcoming publications, were supported by NERC Turkey. Arkeoloji ve Sanat Yayınları, Istanbul, pp 219–244 LSMSF grant BRIS/86/1015, and we are very grateful to Dr. Ian D. Baird D, Fairbairn A, Bar-Yosef O, Mustafaoğlu G (2013) The Boncuklu Bull for all his support. project: the spread of farming and the antecedents of Çatalhöyük. Heritage Turkey 3:21–23 Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Baird D, Fairbairn A, Jenkins E, Martin L, Middleton C, Pearson J, Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adap- Asouti E, Edwards Y, Kabukcu C, Mustafaoğlu G, Russell N, Bar- tation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as Yosef O, Jacobsen G, Wu X, Baker A, Elliott S (2018) Agricultural you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, pro- origins on the Anatolian plateau. Proc Natl Acad Sci 115:e3077 vide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were Barański MZ, García-Suárez A, Klimowicz A, Love S, Pawłowska K made. The images or other third party material in this article are included (2015) The architecture of Neolithic Çatalhöyük as a process: com- in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a plexity in apparent simplicity. 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