Original research Global injury morbidity and mortality from 1990 to 2017: results from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017 ►►Additional material is published online only. To view Spencer L James,1 Chris D Castle,1 Zachary V Dingels,1 Jack T Fox,1 Erin B Hamilton,1 please visit the journal online Zichen Liu,1 Nicholas L S Roberts,1 Dillon O Sylte,1 Nathaniel J Henry,1 (http://​dx.​doi.​org/​10.​1136/​ injuryprev-​2019-​043494). Kate E LeGrand,1 Ahmed Abdelalim,2 Amir Abdoli,3 Ibrahim Abdollahpour,4 For numbered affiliations see Rizwan Suliankatchi Abdulkader,5 Aidin Abedi,6 Akine Eshete Abosetugn,7 end of article. Abdelrahman I Abushouk,8 Oladimeji M Adebayo,9 Marcela Agudelo-­Botero,10 Correspondence to Tauseef Ahmad,11,12 Rushdia Ahmed,13,14 Muktar Beshir Ahmed,15 Dr Spencer L James, Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation, Miloud Taki Eddine Aichour,16 Fares Alahdab,17 Genet Melak Alamene,18 University of Washington, Fahad Mashhour Alanezi,19 Animut Alebel,20 Niguse Meles Alema,21 Seattle, WA 98121, USA; ​ spencj@​uw.​edu Suliman A Alghnam,22 Samar Al-­Hajj,23,24 Beriwan Abdulqadir Ali,25,26 Saqib Ali,27 Received 29 September 2019 Mahtab Alikhani,28 Cyrus Alinia,29 Vahid Alipour,30,31 Syed Mohamed Aljunid,32,33 Revised 29 November 2019 Amir Almasi-­Hashiani,34 Nihad A Almasri,35 Khalid Altirkawi,36 Accepted 6 December 2019 Published Online First Yasser Sami Abdeldayem Amer,37,38 Saeed Amini,39 Arianna Maever Loreche Amit,40,41 24 April 2020 Catalina Liliana Andrei,42 Alireza Ansari-­Moghaddam,43 Carl Abelardo T Antonio,44,45 Seth Christopher Yaw Appiah,46,47 Jalal Arabloo,30 Morteza Arab-­Zozani,48 Zohreh Arefi,49 Olatunde Aremu,50 Filippo Ariani,51 Amit Arora,52,53 Malke Asaad,54 Babak Asghari,55 Nefsu Awoke,56 Beatriz Paulina Ayala Quintanilla,57,58 Getinet Ayano,59 Martin Amogre Ayanore,60 Samad Azari,30 Ghasem Azarian,61 Alaa Badawi,62,63 Ashish D Badiye,64 Eleni Bagli,65,66 Atif Amin Baig,67,68 Mohan Bairwa,69,70 Ahad Bakhtiari,71 Arun Balachandran,72,73 Maciej Banach,74,75 Srikanta K Banerjee,76 Palash Chandra Banik,77 Amrit Banstola,78 Suzanne Lyn Barker-­Collo,79 Till Winfried Bärnighausen,80,81 Lope H Barrero,82 Akbar Barzegar,83 Mohsen Bayati,84 Bayisa Abdissa Baye,85 Neeraj Bedi,86,87 Masoud Behzadifar,88 Tariku Tesfaye Bekuma,89 Habte Belete,90 Corina Benjet,91 Derrick A Bennett,92 Isabela M Bensenor,93 Kidanemaryam Berhe,94 Pankaj Bhardwaj,95,96 Anusha Ganapati Bhat,97 Krittika Bhattacharyya,98,99 Sadia Bibi,100 Ali Bijani,101 Muhammad Shahdaat Bin Sayeed,102,103 Guilherme Borges,91 Antonio Maria Borzì,104 Soufiane Boufous,105 Alexandra Brazinova,106 Nikolay Ivanovich Briko,107 Shyam S Budhathoki,108 Josip Car,109,110 Rosario Cárdenas,111 Félix Carvalho,112 João Mauricio Castaldelli-­Maia,113 Carlos A Castañeda-­Orjuela,114,115 Giulio Castelpietra,116,117 Ferrán Catalá-López,118,119 Ester Cerin,120,121 Joht S Chandan,122 Wagaye Fentahun Chanie,123 Soosanna Kumary Chattu,124 Vijay Kumar Chattu,125 Irini Chatziralli,126,127 Neha Chaudhary,128,129 Daniel Youngwhan Cho,130 Mohiuddin Ahsanul Kabir Chowdhury,131,132 Dinh-­Toi Chu,133 Samantha M Colquhoun,134 Maria-­Magdalena Constantin,135,136 Vera M Costa,112 Giovanni Damiani,137,138 Ahmad Daryani,139 © Author(s) (or their Claudio Alberto Dávila-­Cervantes,140 Feleke Mekonnen Demeke,141 employer(s)) 2020. Re-­use Asmamaw Bizuneh Demis,142,143 Gebre Teklemariam Demoz,144,145 permitted under CC BY. Published by BMJ. Desalegn Getnet Demsie,21 Afshin Derakhshani,146 Kebede Deribe,147,148 To cite: James SL, Castle CD, Rupak Desai,149 Mostafa Dianati Nasab,150 Diana Dias da Silva,151 Dingels ZV, et al. Inj Prev Zahra Sadat Dibaji Forooshani,152 Kerrie E Doyle,153 Tim Robert Driscoll,154 2020;26:i96–i114. i96 James SL, et al. Inj Prev 2020;26:i96–i114. doi:10.1136/injuryprev-2019-043494 Original research Eleonora Dubljanin,155 Bereket Duko Adema,156,157 Arielle Wilder Eagan,158,159 Aziz Eftekhari,160,161 Elham Ehsani-­Chimeh,162 Maysaa El Sayed Zaki,163 Demelash Abewa Elemineh,164 Shaimaa I El-­Jaafary,2 Ziad El-­Khatib,165,166 Christian Lycke Ellingsen,167,168 Mohammad Hassan Emamian,169 Daniel Adane Endalew,170 Sharareh Eskandarieh,171 Pawan Sirwan Faris,172,173 Andre Faro,174 Farshad Farzadfar,175 Yousef Fatahi,176 Wubalem Fekadu,90,177 Tomas Y Ferede,178 Seyed-­Mohammad Fereshtehnejad,179,180 Eduarda Fernandes,181 Pietro Ferrara,182 Garumma Tolu Feyissa,183 Irina Filip,184,185 Florian Fischer,186 Morenike Oluwatoyin Folayan,187 Masoud Foroutan,188 Joel Msafiri Francis,189 Richard Charles Franklin,190,191 Takeshi Fukumoto,192,193 Biniyam Sahiledengle Geberemariyam,194 Abadi Kahsu Gebre,195 Ketema Bizuwork Gebremedhin,196 Gebreamlak Gebremedhn Gebremeskel,197,198 Berhe Gebremichael,199 Getnet Azeze Gedefaw,200,201 Birhanu Geta,202 Mansour Ghafourifard,203 Farhad Ghamari,204 Ahmad Ghashghaee,205 Asadollah Gholamian,206,207 Tiffany K Gill,208 Alessandra C Goulart,93,209 Ayman Grada,210 Michal Grivna,211 Mohammed Ibrahim Mohialdeen Gubari,212 Rafael Alves Guimarães,213 Yuming Guo,214,215 Gaurav Gupta,216 Juanita A Haagsma,217 Nima Hafezi-­Nejad,218,219 Hassan Haghparast Bidgoli,220 Brian James Hall,221 Randah R Hamadeh,222 Samer Hamidi,223 Josep Maria Haro,224,225 Md Mehedi Hasan,226 Amir Hasanzadeh,227,228 Soheil Hassanipour,229 Hadi Hassankhani,230,231 Hamid Yimam Hassen,232,233 Rasmus Havmoeller,234 Khezar Hayat,235,236 Delia Hendrie,59 Fatemeh Heydarpour,237 Martha Híjar,238,239 Hung Chak Ho,240 Chi Linh Hoang,241 Michael K Hole,242 Ramesh Holla,243 Naznin Hossain,244,245 Mehdi Hosseinzadeh,246,247 Sorin Hostiuc,248,249 Guoqing Hu,250 Segun Emmanuel Ibitoye,251 Olayinka Stephen Ilesanmi,252 Irena Ilic,155 Milena D Ilic,253 Leeberk Raja Inbaraj,254 Endang Indriasih,255 Seyed Sina Naghibi Irvani,256 Sheikh Mohammed Shariful Islam,257,258 M Mofizul Islam,259 Rebecca Q Ivers,260 Kathryn H Jacobsen,261 Mohammad Ali Jahani,262 Nader Jahanmehr,263,264 Mihajlo Jakovljevic,265 Farzad Jalilian,266 Sudha Jayaraman,267 Achala Upendra Jayatilleke,268,269 Ravi Prakash Jha,270 Yetunde O John-­Akinola,251 Jost B Jonas,271,272 Nitin Joseph,273 Farahnaz Joukar,229 Jacek Jerzy Jozwiak,274 Suresh Banayya Jungari,275 Mikk Jürisson,276 Ali Kabir,277 Rajendra Kadel,278 Amaha Kahsay,94 Leila R Kalankesh,279 Rohollah Kalhor,280,281 Teshome Abegaz Kamil,282 Tanuj Kanchan,283 Neeti Kapoor,64 Manoochehr Karami,284 Amir Kasaeian,285,286 Hagazi Gebremedhin Kassaye,21 Taras Kavetskyy,287,288 Hafte Kahsay Kebede,289 Peter Njenga Keiyoro,290 Abraham Getachew Kelbore,291 Bayew Kelkay,292 Yousef Saleh Khader,293 Morteza Abdullatif Khafaie,294 Nauman Khalid,295 Ibrahim A Khalil,296 Rovshan Khalilov,297 Mohammad Khammarnia,298 Ejaz Ahmad Khan,299 Maseer Khan,300 Tripti Khanna,301,302 Habibolah Khazaie,303 Fatemeh Khosravi Shadmani,304 Roba Khundkar,305 Daniel N Kiirithio,306 Young-­Eun Kim,307 Daniel Kim,308 Yun Jin Kim,309 Adnan Kisa,310 Sezer Kisa,311 Hamidreza Komaki,312,313 Shivakumar K M Kondlahalli,314 Vladimir Andreevich Korshunov,107 Ai Koyanagi,315,316 Moritz U G Kraemer,317,318 Kewal Krishan,319 Burcu Kucuk Bicer,320,321 Nuworza Kugbey,322,323 Vivek Kumar,324 Nithin Kumar,273 G Anil Kumar,325 Manasi Kumar,326,327 Girikumar Kumaresh,328 Om P Kurmi,327,329 Oluwatosin Kuti,330 Carlo La Vecchia,331 Faris Hasan Lami,332 Prabhat Lamichhane,333 Justin J Lang,334 Van C Lansingh,335,336 Dennis Odai Laryea,337 Savita Lasrado,338 Arman Latifi,339 Paolo Lauriola,340 Janet L Leasher,341 Shaun Wen Huey Lee,342,343 Tsegaye Lolaso Lenjebo,344 Miriam Levi,51,345 Shanshan Li,214 Shai Linn,346 Xuefeng Liu,347 Alan D Lopez,1,348,349 Paulo A Lotufo,350 Raimundas Lunevicius,351,352 Ronan A Lyons,353 Mohammed Madadin,354 Muhammed Magdy Abd El Razek,355 Narayan Bahadur Mahotra,356 Marek Majdan,357 Azeem Majeed,358 Jeadran N Malagon-­Rojas,359,360 Venkatesh Maled,361,362 Reza Malekzadeh,363,364 Deborah Carvalho Malta,365 Navid Manafi,366,367 Amir Manafi,368 Ana-­Laura Manda,369 Narayana Manjunatha,370 Fariborz Mansour-­Ghanaei,229 Borhan Mansouri,371 Mohammad Ali Mansournia,372 Joemer C Maravilla,373 Lyn M March,374 Amanda J Mason-­Jones,375 Seyedeh Zahra Masoumi,376 Benjamin Ballard Massenburg,130 Pallab K Maulik,377,378 Gebrekiros Gebremichael Meles,379 Addisu Melese,141 Zeleke Aschalew Melketsedik,380 Peter T N Memiah,381 Walter Mendoza,382 James SL, et al. Inj Prev 2020;26:i96–i114. doi:10.1136/injuryprev-2019-043494 i97 Original research Ritesh G Menezes,383 Meresa Berwo Mengesha,384 Melkamu Merid Mengesha,385 Tuomo J Meretoja,386,387 Atte Meretoja,388,389 Hayimro Edemealem Merie,164 Tomislav Mestrovic,390,391 Bartosz Miazgowski,392 Tomasz Miazgowski,393 Ted R Miller,59,394 GK Mini,395,396 Andreea Mirica,397,398 Erkin M Mirrakhimov,399,400 Mehdi Mirzaei-­Alavijeh,266 Prasanna Mithra,273 Babak Moazen,401,402 Masoud Moghadaszadeh,403,404 Efat Mohamadi,405 Yousef Mohammad,406 Karzan Abdulmuhsin Mohammad,407,408 Aso Mohammad Darwesh,409 Naser Mohammad Gholi Mezerji,410 Abdollah Mohammadian-­Hafshejani,411 Milad Mohammadoo-­Khorasani,412 Reza Mohammadpourhodki,413 Shafiu Mohammed,80,414 Jemal Abdu Mohammed,415 Farnam Mohebi,175,416 Mariam Molokhia,417 Lorenzo Monasta,418 Yoshan Moodley,419 Mahmood Moosazadeh,420 Masoud Moradi,421 Ghobad Moradi,422,423 Maziar Moradi-­Lakeh,424 Farhad Moradpour,422 Lidia Morawska,425 Ilais Moreno Velásquez,426 Naho Morisaki,427 Shane Douglas Morrison,130 Tilahun Belete Mossie,90 Atalay Goshu Muluneh,428 Srinivas Murthy,429 Kamarul Imran Musa,430 Ghulam Mustafa,431,432 Ashraf F Nabhan,433,434 Ahamarshan Jayaraman Nagarajan,435,436 Gurudatta Naik,437 Mukhammad David Naimzada,438,439 Farid Najafi,440 Vinay Nangia,441 Bruno Ramos Nascimento,442 Morteza Naserbakht,424,443 Vinod Nayak,444 Duduzile Edith Ndwandwe,445 Ionut Negoi,446,447 Josephine W Ngunjiri,448 Cuong Tat Nguyen,449 Huong Lan Thi Nguyen,449 Rajan Nikbakhsh,450,451 Dina Nur Anggraini Ningrum,452,453 Chukwudi A Nnaji,445,454 Peter S Nyasulu,455 Felix Akpojene Ogbo,112 Onome Bright Oghenetega,456 In-­Hwan Oh,457 Emmanuel Wandera Okunga,458 Andrew T Olagunju,459,460 Tinuke O Olagunju,461 Ahmed Omar Bali,462 Obinna E Onwujekwe,463 Kwaku Oppong Asante,464,465 Heather M Orpana,466,467 Erika Ota,468 Nikita Otstavnov,438,469 Stanislav S Otstavnov,438,470 Mahesh P A,471 Jagadish Rao Padubidri,472 Smita Pakhale,473 Keyvan Pakshir,474 Songhomitra Panda-­Jonas,475 Eun-­Kee Park,476 Sangram Kishor Patel,477,478 Ashish Pathak,165,479 Sanghamitra Pati,480 George C Patton,481,482 Kebreab Paulos,483 Amy E Peden,191,484 Veincent Christian Filipino Pepito,485 Jeevan Pereira,486 Hai Quang Pham,449 Michael R Phillips,487,488 Marina Pinheiro,489 Roman V Polibin,490 Suzanne Polinder,217 Hossein Poustchi,363 Swayam Prakash,491 Dimas Ria Angga Pribadi,492 Parul Puri,493 Zahiruddin Quazi Syed,96 Mohammad Rabiee,494 Navid Rabiee,495 Amir Radfar,496,497 Anwar Rafay,498 Ata Rafiee,499 Alireza Rafiei,500,501 Fakher Rahim,502,503 Siavash Rahimi,504 Vafa Rahimi-­Movaghar,505 Muhammad Aziz Rahman,506,507 Ali Rajabpour-­Sanati,508 Fatemeh Rajati,421 Ivo Rakovac,509 Kavitha Ranganathan,510 Sowmya J Rao,511 Vahid Rashedi,512 Prateek Rastogi,513 Priya Rathi,514 Salman Rawaf,358,515 Lal Rawal,516 Reza Rawassizadeh,517 Vishnu Renjith,518 Andre M N Renzaho,519,520 Serge Resnikoff,521 Aziz Rezapour,522 Ana Isabel Ribeiro,523 Jennifer Rickard,524,525 Carlos Miguel Rios González,526,527 Luca Ronfani,418 Gholamreza Roshandel,363,528 Anas M Saad,529 Yogesh Damodar Sabde,530 Siamak Sabour,531 Basema Saddik,532 Saeed Safari,533 Roya Safari-­Faramani,534 Hamid Safarpour,535 Mahdi Safdarian,505,536 S Mohammad Sajadi,537 Payman Salamati,505 Farkhonde Salehi,538 Saleh Salehi Zahabi,539,540 Marwa R Rashad Salem,541 Hosni Salem,542 Omar Salman,543,544 Inbal Salz,545 Abdallah M Samy,546 Juan Sanabria,547,548 Lidia Sanchez Riera,549,550 Milena M Santric Milicevic,551,552 Abdur Razzaque Sarker,553 Arash Sarveazad,554 Brijesh Sathian,555,556 Monika Sawhney,557 Susan M Sawyer,558,559 Sonia Saxena,560 Mehdi Sayyah,561 David C Schwebel,562 Soraya Seedat,563 Subramanian Senthilkumaran,564 Sadaf G Sepanlou,363,364 Seyedmojtaba Seyedmousavi,565 Feng Sha,566 Faramarz Shaahmadi,567 Saeed Shahabi,568 Masood Ali Shaikh,569 Mehran Shams-­Beyranvand,570 Morteza Shamsizadeh,571 Mahdi Sharif-­Alhoseini,505 Hamid Sharifi,572 Aziz Sheikh,573,574 Mika Shigematsu,575 Jae Il Shin,576,577 Rahman Shiri,578 Soraya Siabani,579,580 Inga Dora Sigfusdottir,581,582 Pankaj Kumar Singh,583 Jasvinder A Singh,584,585 Dhirendra Narain Sinha,586,587 Catalin-­Gabriel Smarandache,588,589 Emma U R Smith,590,591 Amin Soheili,592,593 Bija Soleymani,237 Ali Reza Soltanian,594 Joan B Soriano,595,596 Muluken Bekele Sorrie,597 Ireneous N Soyiri,598,599 Dan J Stein,600,601 Mark A Stokes,602 Mu’awiyyah Babale Sufiyan,603 Hafiz Ansar Rasul Suleria,604 Bryan L Sykes,605 Rafael Tabarés-­Seisdedos,606,607 Karen M Tabb,608 Biruk Wogayehu Taddele,609 i98 James SL, et al. Inj Prev 2020;26:i96–i114. doi:10.1136/injuryprev-2019-043494 Original research Degena Bahrey Tadesse,197,610 Animut Tagele Tamiru,611 Ingan Ukur Tarigan,255 Yonatal Mesfin Tefera,612,613 Arash Tehrani-­Banihashemi,424,614 Merhawi Gebremedhin Tekle,199 Gebretsadkan Hintsa Tekulu,615 Ayenew Kassie Tesema,616 Berhe Etsay Tesfay,617 Rekha Thapar,273 Asres Bedaso Tilahune,618 Kenean Getaneh Tlaye,142 Hamid Reza Tohidinik,372,572 Roman Topor-­Madry,619,620 Bach Xuan Tran,621 Khanh Bao Tran,622,623 Jaya Prasad Tripathy,624 Alexander C Tsai,625,626 Lorainne Tudor Car,627 Saif Ullah,628 Irfan Ullah,629,630 Maida Umar,631 Bhaskaran Unnikrishnan,273 Era Upadhyay,632 Olalekan A Uthman,633 Pascual R Valdez,634,635 Tommi Juhani Vasankari,636 Narayanaswamy Venketasubramanian,637,638 Francesco S Violante,639,640 Vasily Vlassov,641 Yasir Waheed,642 Girmay Teklay Weldesamuel,197 Andrea Werdecker,643,644 Taweewat Wiangkham,645 Haileab Fekadu Wolde,428 Dawit Habte Woldeyes,646 Dawit Zewdu Wondafrash,647,648 Temesgen Gebeyehu Wondmeneh,415 Adam Belay Wondmieneh,196,649 Ai-­Min Wu,650 Rajaram Yadav,493 Ali Yadollahpour,651 Yuichiro Yano,652 Sanni Yaya,653 Vahid Yazdi-­Feyzabadi,654,655 Paul Yip,656,657 Engida Yisma,658 Naohiro Yonemoto,659 Seok-­Jun Yoon,307 Yoosik Youm,660 Mustafa Z Younis,661,662 Zabihollah Yousefi,663,664 Yong Yu,665 Chuanhua Yu,666,667 Hasan Yusefzadeh,29 Telma Zahirian Moghadam,30,668 Zoubida Zaidi,669 Sojib Bin Zaman,131,670 Mohammad Zamani,671 Maryam Zamanian,34 Hamed Zandian,668,672 Ahmad Zarei,673 Fatemeh Zare,674 Zhi-­Jiang Zhang,675 Yunquan Zhang,676,677 Sanjay Zodpey,678 Lalit Dandona,1,325,349 Rakhi Dandona,1,325 Louisa Degenhardt,1,679 Samath Dhamminda Dharmaratne,1,349, 680 Simon I Hay,1,349 Ali H Mokdad,1,349 Robert C Reiner Jr,1,349 Benn Sartorius,349,681 Theo Vos1,349 Summary violence or road injuries may cause longer term sequelae, and Background Past research in population health trends has shown injuries such as spinal cord injuries or limb amputations can cause that injuries form a substantial burden of population health loss. long-­term disability.1 As a result, injuries are recognised as being Regular updates to injury burden assessments are critical. We report a source of lost health and human capital that could be averted Global Burden of Disease (GBD) 2017 Study estimates on morbidity with improved safety and prevention programmes as well as and mortality for all injuries. ensuring access to care resources.2 Across geographies, certain Methods We reviewed results for injuries from the GBD 2017 study. injuries such as envenomation may be relevant in specific loca- GBD 2017 measured injury-­specific mortality and years of life lost tions where venomous creatures live, while injuries such as those (YLLs) using the Cause of Death Ensemble model. To measure non-­fatal occurring from adverse medical events are an increasing area injuries, GBD 2017 modelled injury-­specific incidence and converted of research in higher income areas of the world.3–5 Bolstering this to prevalence and years lived with disability (YLDs). YLLs and YLDs such programmes, however, requires detailed measurement of were summed to calculate disability-­adjusted life years (DALYs). when, where and to whom injuries are occurring, necessitating Findings In 1990, there were 4 260 493 (4 085 700 to 4 396 138) focused research studies to add insight and context to broader injury deaths, which increased to 4 484 722 (4 332 010 to 4 585 554) geographical trends. Across all domains of injury prevention deaths in 2017, while age-­standardised mortality decreased from 1079 research, it is important to measure the causes of injury, such as (1073 to 1086) to 738 (730 to 745) per 100 000. In 1990, there were road injuries, and the resulting disability, such as fractures, burns 354 064 302 (95% uncertainty interval: 338 174 876 to 371 610 802) or traumatic brain injury, that can occur as a result. Such detailed new cases of injury globally, which increased to 520 710 288 (493 measurement lends perspective for understanding burden and 430 247 to 547 988 635) new cases in 2017. During this time, age-­ anticipating resources needed to care for and hopefully prevent standardised incidence decreased non-­significantly from 6824 (6534 to future injury burden. Detailed measurements and assessments of 7147) to 6763 (6412 to 7118) per 100 000. Between 1990 and 2017, this nature are critical for empowering policy makers and health age-­standardised DALYs decreased from 4947 (4655 to 5233) per system planners to appropriately plan and invest for mitigating 100 000 to 3267 (3058 to 3505). future health loss from injuries. Reducing injury burden is an Interpretation Injuries are an important cause of health loss important component in global efforts such as the Sustainable globally, though mortality has declined between 1990 and 2017. Development Goal 3 to ‘ensure healthy lives and promote well-­ Future research in injury burden should focus on prevention in high-­ being for all at all ages’.6 burden populations, improving data collection and ensuring access to While some research has focused on a certain type of injury medical care. or outcome from injury or specific area of the world,7–10 it has become important in an era of more sophisticated popula- tion health measurement to measure health loss from injuries comprehensively with detailed fatal and non-­fatal estimates Introduction for different ages, sexes, across time periods and accounting Injury burden assessments are a critical component of popula- for multiple different types of morbidity that can occur in an tion health measurement. Across the global landscape of popu- injury. Previously published literature on global injury burden lation health research, injuries are unique in that they are almost through 2015 has provided comprehensive measurements of universally avertable yet can cause death or disability at any age. health loss due to injuries but still require regular updates to Even common injuries such as concussion resulting from falls, help inform research and policy, as new years of estimates are James SL, et al. Inj Prev 2020;26:i96–i114. doi:10.1136/injuryprev-2019-043494 i99 Original research added and as new injuries and injury outcomes are incorpo- Case definition and cause hierarchy rated.11 Comprehensive research of this nature shows how The GBD case definition for an injury death is a death where the injury burden varies dynamically by age, sex, year, area of the injury was the underlying cause of death. For example, if an indi- world and type of injury, and hence, it is important to main- vidual falls on ice and sustains an epidural haematoma and dies tain close monitoring of injury burden every year in all parts of after a seizure, the fall is the underlying cause. If an individual the world. In addition, as new datasets and statistical model- sustains a myocardial infarction and then falls and sustains the ling methods become available, producing regular updates to same epidural haematoma, then the myocardial infarction is the burden estimation also ensures that results are as accurate as underlying cause of death. For non-­fatal injuries, we define a possible. case as an injury that warranted medical care. For example, if an While the burden of injuries is widely studied and moni- individual slips and falls but does not sustain any bodily injury, tored through various methods of research, the Global Burden it is not considered an injury. Online supplementary appendix of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors (GBD) Study is the only table 1 provides the International Classification of Disease (ICD) study framework that routinely provides estimates of morbidity codes used to identify causes of injury. and mortality from an exhaustive list of injuries in all areas of the world across ages and sexes. The most recent update to GBD Cause-specific mortality estimation was published in 2018 and provided morbidity and mortality Cause-­specific mortality from injuries is measured using the estimates for 30 mutually exclusive causes of injury for 195 Cause of Death Ensemble model (CODEm). CODEm is described countries from 1990 to 2017.12–17 As part of this regular update, in more detail elsewhere; a summary of its use for injuries is as new datasets on cause of death and incidence are incorporated follows.18 First, all available data that can be used for cause of into the study, and additional geographical detail is added to death estimation are identified. For injuries, this includes vital better measure heterogeneity in burden estimates at a subna- registration, verbal autopsy, police records, mortuary data and tional level. In addition, updates such as reporting both nature census data. These data are processed for use in the GBD cause of injury and cause of injury (described in more detail below) are and demographic hierarchy via a series of data processing steps incorporated. In this study, we describe key components in the including a process whereby ill-­defined causes of death are reas- GBD injury methodology and provide results from key trends signed to true underlying causes of death, which is described in in injury burden in terms of incidence, prevalence, years lived more detail elsewhere but essentially is the process by which ill-­ with disability (YLDs), cause-­specific mortality, years of life lost defined causes of death are reclassified to causes of death in the (YLLs) and disability-­adjusted life years (DALYs) by country, age GBD cause hierarchy.19 20 Next, a cause-­specific mortality model groups, sex, year and injury type. is developed for each one of the 30 different causes of injury. For example, falls are modelled differently than road injuries, though both use the same CODEm modelling architecture. For each Methods cause of injury, covariates that may be associated with the cause The methods and results in this study are the same as are are identified and added as candidate covariates. CODEm runs provided in GBD capstone publications, and a detailed descrip- different combinations of models using different covariates and tion of GBD data and methods used for all processes related outcome variables, specifically cause fraction models and cause-­ to GBD 2017 is provided in associated studies.12–17 Overall, specific mortality rate models. Ensembles of models are also GBD methods are also summarised in online supplementary conducted to test performance of overall models formed from appendix 1. Below, we summarise the specific methods used submodels. Once all models have been run, the top-­performing for measurement of injuries morbidity and mortality in GBD models are selected based on out-­of-­sample predictive validity, 2017. wherein the model makes predictions on data that were not included in developing the model. The top-­performing models Key components of GBD study design are then weighted according to performance, and the final esti- The GBD study incorporates several key components to allow mates form the penultimate estimate for cause-­specific mortality for internally consistent estimates across all burden measures from that injury. Those estimates are then adjusted to fit within and metrics. First, population is measured to ensure consistent the all-­ cause mortality estimate, so that cause-­ specific deaths denominators for all population-­level measurement. Second, all-­ sum up to the overall mortality estimate for each population and cause mortality is measured using demographic methods. Third, demographic. YLLs are computed as the cause-­specific mortality cause-­ specific mortality for a mutually exclusive, collectively rate at a given age multiplied by the residual life expectancy at exhaustive hierarchy of diseases and injuries is measured, such that age, which is based on the observed maximum global life that every death has one underlying cause of death and such that expectancy. estimates for every possible cause of death are included, which requires the use of residual causes like ‘other transport injuries’. Non-fatal injury estimation This results in the sum of cause-­specific mortality equalling total Non-­fatal injury estimation is also described in more detail in all-­cause mortality. Fourth, non-­fatal health loss is measured for GBD literature. Key components in this process are as follows. individuals living with a disease or injury that detracts from their First, data on incidence of non-­fatal injury causes (eg, road inju- full health status. Fifth, a composite measure of mortality and ries) is obtained from the GBD collaborator network and other morbidity is computed. These steps are conducted within an age, injury research groups and researchers around the world. Data are sex and location hierarchy constructed such that demographic cleaned and organised according to GBD study guidelines. Next, detail is available but where all estimates are internally consistent incidence of each cause of injury is modelled in DisMod-­MR with all other estimates. GBD produces estimates for all causes, 2.1, which is a Bayesian meta-­analysis tool used extensively in ages, sexes, years and locations. Risk factors and attributable GBD research. Incidence estimates of injuries requiring medical burden for different are also measured, but those results are not care for each cause of injury then stream through an analyt- included in this study. ical pipeline. During this process, injury incidence is split into i100 James SL, et al. Inj Prev 2020;26:i96–i114. doi:10.1136/injuryprev-2019-043494 Original research inpatient and outpatient to account for the different severity that meaning that statistically there was no significant difference. is expected to occur. The coefficient that determines this split Online supplementary appendix figures 1–6, show the incidence is derived from locations where both inpatient and outpatient and mortality from transport injuries, unintentional injuries, data are available. After this, we measure the proportion of each and interpersonal violence and self-­harm by country for 2017 as cause of injury that leads to one of 47 different natures of injury well as the percentage change for both incidence and mortality using clinical data where both cause and nature are coded as well between 1990 and 2017. All other results including age-­specific a Dirichlet statistical modelling process. Based on these steps, and sex-­specific results can be viewed and downloaded via freely the incidence of each cause is also split into incidence of each and publicly available tools at g​ hdx.​healthdata.​org. cause-­nature, which is the proportion of a given cause’s inci- dence leading to some specific nature of injury being the most Global trends in overall injury burden severe injury sustained as estimated by the Dirichlet regression. In terms of fatal outcomes, deaths due to all injuries increased from These estimates are then converted to short-­term and long-­term 4 260 493 (4 085 700 to 4 396 138) in 1990 to 4 484 722 (4 332 injuries based on probability of each injury becoming long term, 010 to 4 585 554) in 2017, while YLLs decreased from 232 104 as determined by long-­term follow-­up injury surveys.21–27 For 206 (219 920 058 to 241 973 733) to 195 231 148 (188 807 653 short-­term injuries, incidence is converted to prevalence based to 199 825 464) and age-­standardised mortality rates decreased on multiplying incidence by an expected duration of injury as from 1079 (1073 to 1086) to 738 (730 to 745) per 100 000. determined by physicians and injury experts involved in the In terms of non-­fatal outcomes, all-­injury incidence (new cases) GBD study. For long-­term injuries, incidence is converted to increased from 354 064 302 (338 174 876 to 371 610 802) in prevalence using differential equations that take into account the 1990 to 520 710 288 (493 430 247 to 547 988 635) in 2017, and increased mortality for certain types of injury, for example, trau- YLDs increased from 37 452 031 (27 805 854 to 49 010 103) to matic brain injury.1 Disability weights as derived elsewhere in the 57 174 469 (42 073 855 to 75 427 036), while age-­standardised GBD study are then used to measure disability based on nature incidence rates decreased non-­significantly from 6824 (6534 to of injury.28 These measures are then summed across natures of 7147) to 6763 (6412 to 7118) per 100 000. In terms of DALYs, injury for each cause to calculate YLDs. Each of these steps is age-­standardised DALY rates decreased from 4947 (4655 to 5233) conducted for every cause, age, sex, year and location in the per 100 000 in 1990 to 3267 (3058 to 3505) in 2017. GBD study design. Associated literature provides more detail on Figure 1 shows age-­ standardised DALY rates by country for each of these steps.12–17 2017. While certain countries—specifically, Syria, Central African Republic and Iraq—have much higher DALY rates than most DALY measurement other countries, there still exists considerable heterogeneity across DALYs are calculated by summing YLLs and YLDs for each countries that are not among these countries with the highest cause, age, sex, year and location. burden. South Sudan, Somalia and Yemen have much higher injury burden than much of the rest of the world, for example, with age-­ Uncertainty measurement standardised DALY rates of 7391.51 per 100 000 (6536.44 to Uncertainty is measured at each step of the analytical process 8440.14), 7364.66 per 100 000 (6143.11 to 8960.58) and 7297.88 based on the sample size, SE or original uncertainty interval (UI) per 100 000 (6525.7 to 8438.15), respectively. Papua New Guinea from each input to the study. Uncertainty is propagated through also demonstrates high all-­injury burden with 6803.33 DALYs per each step of the analysis by maintaining distributions of 1000 100 000 (5652.2 to 8040.89) in 2017. draws on which each analytical step is conducted. Final 95% Figure 2 presents deaths as a stacked graph for overall injury UIs are determined based on the 25th and 975th values of the groups and population from 1990 to 2017 with labelled fatal ordered values across draws. discontinuities, defined as changes in deaths due to sudden, unexpected spikes in mortality that depart from the underlying Code and results mortality trend.13 Although population has steadily increased in Steps of the analytical process were conducted in Python version the 28 years of the study, deaths per year due to injuries have 2.7, Stata V.13.1 or R version 3.3. All steps of the analytical remained relatively consistent over time. Natural disasters, such process are available online at ​ghdx.​healthdata.​org. This study as earthquakes, have caused pronounced spikes in unintentional reports a subset of measures and metrics for every cause of injuries deaths, while conflict and genocide have caused spikes in injury. All results and results with additional detail by age, sex, deaths in the interpersonal violence injury category. year and location can be downloaded at g​ hdx.​healthdata.​org. All-injury YLDs and YLLs by country in 2017 Guidelines for Accurate and Transparent Health Estimates Figure 3 shows the percentage of total all-­age, combined-­sex Reporting (GATHER) statement YLDs by country in 2017. This figure shows several geographical This study is adherent with guidelines from the GATHER patterns that help depict the non-­fatal burden of injuries glob- (described in more detail in online supplementary appendix 2).29 ally in terms of their relative contribution to overall disability. First, the percentage of total disability caused by injuries varies Results widely by country. Mauritius experiences only 3.04% (2.79% to Online supplementary appendix table 2 shows age-­standardised 3.29%) of non-­fatal burden from injuries, while Slovenia expe- incidence, prevalence, YLDs, deaths, YLLs and DALYs in 2017 riences 19.11% (17.11% to 21.27%) of non-­fatal burden from by country as well as percentage change and UI from 1990 for injuries. In other words, if all disability in these two popula- each metric. Online supplementary appendix table 3 shows all-­ tions is combined in 2017, there is over sixfold variation in how age numbers (ie, not divided by population) of incidence, prev- much of this disability was caused by injuries. These patterns alence, YLDs, deaths, YLLs and DALYs in 2017 by country as also reflect burden from non-­injury conditions, since locations well as percentage change from 1990 and UI for each metric. with higher burden from communicable disease may have corre- In some instances, the UI for the per cent change crosses zero, spondingly lower proportion due to injuries. As an extension of James SL, et al. Inj Prev 2020;26:i96–i114. doi:10.1136/injuryprev-2019-043494 i101 Original research Figure 1 Age-­standardised DALY rates by country, 2017. DALYs, disability-­adjusted life years. these geographical trends, this map makes it evident that there for example, has a relatively low percentage of non-­fatal health are striking regional patterns in non-­fatal injury burden. Eastern loss due to injuries compared with many other countries. and Central Europe and Central Asia as well as Australasia have Figure 4 similarly shows the percentage of total all-­ age, a notably higher percentage of total non-­fatal burden from inju- combined-­ sex YLLs by country in 2017. This figure inter- ries than countries in other regions, while these percentages are estingly shows how mortality patterns demonstrate different relatively lower in most areas of Africa, the Americas and areas geographical trends than the non-­ fatal burden, as depicted of South, East and Southeast Asia. To some extent, this map also in figure 2, though it should be noted that YLLs will also be reflects the underlying burden from non-­injury causes, too, since disproportionately higher in younger populations, all else being areas of the world with high non-­fatal disability from conditions equal. In particular, the locations with the highest percentage such as anaemia, communicable diseases and other types of health of YLLs due to injuries are in certain countries in North Africa loss could have correspondingly higher percentages of disability and the Middle East, including Syria, where 59.51% (56.59% from these conditions instead of injuries. This map also shows to 62.35%) of YLLs were due to injuries in 2017, and Iraq, examples of positive deviations from global trends; Indonesia, where 41.34% of YLLs were due to injuries in 2017. Areas of Figure 2 Global deaths for level 2 injuries and population from 1990 to 2017 with labelled fatal discontinuities. i102 James SL, et al. Inj Prev 2020;26:i96–i114. doi:10.1136/injuryprev-2019-043494 Original research Figure 3 Percentage of YLDs in all ages due to injuries in 2017. YLDs, years lived with disability. Latin America including Venezuela, Honduras and Belize also certain countries in Africa such as Nigeria and Madagascar have a relatively high percentage of total YLLs due to injuries. have relatively lower percentages, though this also reflects rela- Conversely, certain areas of the world also demonstrate a rela- tively higher mortality from other non-­injury causes in these tively low percentage of total YLLs due to injuries, specifically, countries. Figure 4 Percentage of YLLs in all ages due to injuries in 2017. YLLs, years of life lost. James SL, et al. Inj Prev 2020;26:i96–i114. doi:10.1136/injuryprev-2019-043494 i103 Original research Figure 5 Age-­standardised DALY rates by sex for injuries in level 3 of the GBD cause hierarchy in 2017 and percentage change from 1990 to 2017. DALY, disability-­adjusted life year; GBD, Global Burden of Disease. Cause-specific DALY rates by sex Poisonings is also a cause with an age-­standardised DALY rate Figure 5 shows cause-­specific DALY rates by sex for 17 injuries in that is approximately three SD higher than in other regions. 2017 as well as percentage change from 1990 to 2017 by cause and Positive deviance is seen in high-­income Asia Pacific for road sex. The black and dark blue bars show causes with greater relative injuries, where age-­standardised DALYs are one SD lower than improvement over the time period of this study, while lighter blue, the mean across regions. Conversely, Central sub-­Saharan Africa orange and red show injuries that have had lesser improvements, has age-­standardised DALY rates that are two SD higher than the no improvements or increasing burden over time. mean across regions. This figure also demonstrates how certain In 2017, men experienced higher age-­standardised DALY rates causes have relatively less variation across regions, for example, than women for all injuries except fire, heat and hot substances. most regions do not deviate from the mean age-­standardised The most marked differences, where DALY rates for men are DALY rates across regions for exposure to forces of nature, with more than double those of women, can be seen in self-­harm, the exception of the Caribbean, which had an age-­standardised interpersonal violence, road injuries, other transport inju- DALY rate that was approximately four SD above the mean ries, exposure to mechanical forces, environmental heat and across regions in 2017. Oceania and Eastern Europe stand out as cold exposure, and executions and police violence. Road inju- having higher DALY rates for select injuries than other regions, ries (1272 (1209 to 1331) per 100 000), self-­harm (577 (525 while East Asia, high-­income Asia Pacific, high-­income North to 604)) and falls (550 (462 to 653)) were the causes with the America, Western Europe and Southern Latin America experi- highest DALY rates for men in 2017. Women had the highest enced less than average burden of injuries in 2017. DALY rates due to the same injuries, but at a lesser magnitude, with rates of 467 (432 to 502) per 100 000 for road injuries, 367 (304 to 442) for falls and 282 (268 to 293) for self-­harm. Discussion The causes with the largest decreases in DALY rates for men Measuring, understanding and acting on the global burden of from 1990 to 2017 were exposure to forces of nature (72.4% injuries should be considered a foundational component of (63.8% to 79.1%)), drowning (62.7% (58.8% to 65.4%)) and population health research. While this study has reviewed injury fire, heat and hot substances (43.6% (26.4% to 49.9%)). For burden trends from GBD 2017, it is also evident that these women, exposure to forces of nature (72.8% (63.8% to 79.6%)), trends are sufficiently different by injury type and geography drowning (65.8% (58.6% to 69.2%)) and self-­ harm (50.8% that it becomes difficult to succinctly generalise the findings in (48.2% to 55.9%)) had the largest decreases in DALY rates. The this study. Nevertheless, this study reveals themes and principles only increases in DALY rates were seen in executions and police germane to the state of global injury burden in 2017 that are conflict for both women (298.0% (257.1% to 389.0%)) and relevant to injury burden and prevention research. men (46.4% (31.2% to 173.0%)). First, it should be recognised that despite global popula- tion growth with increases in injury cases and deaths, age-­ Comparative regional DALY rates in 2017 standardised death rates from injuries declined from 1990 to Figure 6 shows a heatmap of the number of standard devia- 2017. More research into successful improvements for specific tions (SD) above or below the mean of a row (ie, a Z-­score) of injuries in specific countries should be more investigated to help age-­standardised DALY rates for select injuries by GBD region guide efforts towards future improvements. In general terms, in 2017. For example, the figure shows that the rate of age-­ the reduction in injury mortality likely represent the combined standardised DALYs in Eastern Europe is approximately three effects of improvements in healthcare systems, investments in SD higher than the across mean age-­standardised DALY rates injury prevention programmes and, in certain circumstances, of environmental heat and cold exposure across all regions. safety improvement such as vehicle safety testing, helmet, seatbelt i104 James SL, et al. Inj Prev 2020;26:i96–i114. doi:10.1136/injuryprev-2019-043494 Original research Figure 6 Heatmap showing the Z-­score of age-­standardised mean DALY rates for select injuries by GBD region in 2017. GBD, Global Burden of Disease. and drinking and driving laws. While burden trends across all a country. Second, in reviewing temporal trends in figure 2, it diseases and injuries vary by geography and time, these improve- becomes evident that war and conflict and environmental disas- ments in injury burden are generally consistent with reporting of ters can cause profound increases in deaths over a short period communicable and non-­communicable disease trends reported of time. This unfortunate and tragic reality should be made more in GBD 2017. broadly visible as issues such as war, conflict and climate change Despite improvements in terms of rates, however, it is continue to threaten the populations of the 21st century. Third, important to consider the impact of absolute injury burden in sex differentials in the burden of different injury types are large, younger and adult ages on the social capital and workforce in with men experiencing significantly higher burden from the four leading causes of injury DALYs in 2017. Preventive research and focused interventions into why this is occurring in road inju- What is already known on the subject ries, falls, self-­ harm, interpersonal violence and drowning is critical. It is also critical to address injuries such as fire, heat ►► Injury burden globally varies across many dimensions but and hot substance and sexual violence where females experience remains as an important component of global health loss. greater burden and to better understand the factors that drive Regular updates in injury burden measurement are critical. sex differences. As a fourth theme, we observed that there are ►► Injuries can be largely preventable, but prevention efforts cases of both positive and negative deviance from cross-­region must be guided by up-­to-­date estimates of injury burden that trends for each injury, as shown in figure 6, which appear to can be used on an age-­specific, sex-­specific, year-­specific, occur even outside of expected differences by income group. location-­specific and injury-­specific basis. For example, understanding why high-­income Asia Pacific and Western Europe are performing better than high-­income North America in road injury burden could help improve road injury burden even in this higher income setting. What this study adds Beyond these four themes, there are evidently a great deal of nuances and specific outcomes to measure and understand ►► This study incorporates updated data and methods that were in future injury research. While every cause of health loss in a used in Global Burden of Disease 2017 with updated burden population is important to measure and understand, injuries are estimates for the year 2017, as well as newly available unique in that understanding burden requires investigation of results in terms of nature of injury. an array of circumstances such as infrastructure, the built envi- ►► Global age-­standardised mortality and disability-­adjusted life ronment, rates of interpersonal violence in a population and years decreased between 1990 and 2017. Decreases in age-­ individual behaviours such as alcohol intoxication or drug use. standardised incidence were not statistically significant. The findings in this paper also demonstrate how it is critical ►► Trends over time vary depending on the specific injury, sex to measure and understand the spectrum of health loss due to and location. injuries ranging from relatively silent injuries to injuries that ►► Injury burden in a population can be radically affected by profoundly affect functional status. An incident as elemental as a war, civil conflict and natural disasters. trip and fall can lead to profoundly disabling health consequences James SL, et al. Inj Prev 2020;26:i96–i114. doi:10.1136/injuryprev-2019-043494 i105 Original research such as spinal cord injury, which can have lifelong disability. The literature.1 11 13 16 Generally, identified limitations include data disability caused by shorter term injuries, such as an arm frac- sparsity and correspondingly greater uncertainty in certain geog- ture, in addition to causing suffering and disability, can cause raphies, limited geographical coverage of data informing long-­ loss of human capital.30 While this study focused more on the term disability estimates and cause–nature relationships, and causes of injury as defined in the GBD cause hierarchy, future potential reporting biases for injuries such as self-­harm and inter- GBD studies should focus also on depicting the distribution of personal violence. These limitations have been discussed in the nature of injury results to better understand how these types of aforementioned literature, and this overview study was addition- disability affect an individual’s functional status. Such analyses ally limited in scope due to the extensive size of the GBD cause become increasingly meaningful as research emerges on, for hierarchy and location hierarchy. Indeed, over 1400 different example, the increased risk of dementia that traumatic brain cause–nature combinations are available for reporting in the injury patients may experience.31 The findings in this paper also GBD cause hierarchy, and future research would benefit from demonstrate how measuring injury burden necessitates review examining results in the detailed cause hierarchy and across the of the population factors that affect injury risk. For example, an detailed location, age and sex hierarchy. The GBD Study plat- event as disastrous as an earthquake may have radically different form and collaborator network provide a constructive collabo- impacts on a population depending on infrastructure and access rative platform on which future assessments can be conducted to care resources. Understanding how populations can protect and published. themselves against future, unanticipated catastrophe could lead to averted death and disability in the future. As was shown in Conclusion figure 2, catastrophic events both in terms of natural disasters Injury burden is complex but foundational in formulating global and war and conflict can significantly add to the death and health loss. We have identified four broad trends in global injury disability experienced by a population in a short period of time. burden that converge on the principle that injuries should be The geographical trends shown in this paper are also critical to considered largely preventable but that detailed burden estimates review and understand by the broader global health community. through recent years are a critical global resource to inform As shown in figure 6, considerable heterogeneity exists across meaningful policy. It will be important accurate measurement to regions for certain causes. While vehicles were driven in nearly continue into the future to guide injury prevention policy. every populated area of earth in 2017, this study shows that different regions of the world have markedly different rates of Author affiliations death and disability resulting from road injuries, underscoring 1 Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, the importance of measuring and understanding the effects of USA 2 specific factors on injury burden.32 It is not necessarily surprising Department of Neurology, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt 3 Department of Parasitology and Mycology, Jahrom University of Medical Sciences, to observe that countries or regions with relatively lower health- Jahrom, Iran care access and quality, less road safety infrastructure and lower 4 Neuroscience Research Center, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran 5 utilisation of vehicles with modern safety standards would 6 Department of Public Health, Ministry of Health, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia have higher rates of road injuries DALYs. The question that Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA extends from this observation, however, is the extent to which 7 Department of Public Health, Debre Berhan University, Debre Berhan, Ethiopia burden from this type of injury cause could be avoided were 8 Cardiovascular Medicine, Ain Shams University, Abbasia, Egypt every country to have the safety and prevention factors avail- 9 Department of Medicine, University College Hospital, Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria 10 able in higher income settings. The injury and safety research School of Medicine Center for Politics, Population and Health Research, National communities should consider future investigation of counter- Autonomous University of Mexico, Mexico City, Mexico 11 Department of Epidemiology and Health Statistics, Southeast University Nanjing, factual analyses to better measure and understand the impact Nanjing, China that road safety legislation, modernisation of roads and vehicles 12 Department of Microbiology, Hazara University Mansehra, Mansehra, Pakistan 13 and improving first response medical care could have on road 14 James P Grant School of Public Health, BRAC University, Dhaka, Bangladesh injury burden, as an example, though parallel examples can be Health Systems and Population Studies Division, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh developed for other injury causes as well. This research could 15 Department of Epidemiology, Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia help cost-­effectiveness analyses and guide investment in safer 16 Higher National School of Veterinary Medicine, Algiers, Algeria infrastructure. 17 Evidence Based Practice Center, Mayo Clinic Foundation for Medical Education and These observations converge on a common theme: much of Research, Rochester, MN, USA 18 the injury burden may be largely preventable and understanding School of Health Sciences, Madda Walabu University, Bale Goba, Ethiopia 19 Department of Computer Sciences, Imam Abdulrehman Bin Faisal University, the success or failure of different prevention efforts should be Dammam, Saudi Arabia a prioritised area of health research. Moreover, it is critical for 20 Department of Nursing, Debre Markos University, Debre Markos, Ethiopia 21 there to be continued engagement across different areas of the 22 Department of Pharmacy, Adigrat University, Adigrat, Ethiopia world for the purposes of discussing effective and ineffective Department of Population Health Research, King Abdullah International Medical Research Center, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia injury prevention strategies. Dialogue focused on findings across 23 Faculty of Health Sciences - Health Management and Policy, American University of injury prevention efforts via forums such as global safety confer- Beirut, Beirut, Lebanon ences as well as studies published in research journals should 24 British Columbia Injury Research Prevention Unit, British Columbia Children’s continue to help policy makers and public health planners make Hospital Research Institute, Vancouver, BC, Canada 25 strategic investments for preventing future injury burden.33 In Medical Technical Institute, Erbil Polytechnic University, Erbil, Iraq 26 Faculty of Pharmacy, Ishik University, Erbil, Iraq addition, more research into the cause of injury and resulting 27 Department of Information Systems, College of Economics and Political Science, bodily injury and environmental and contextual features where Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Oman 28 injuries occur such type of road in a road injury or fires in School of Health Management and Information Sciences, Department of Health factories versus in residences may provide further insight into Services Management, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran 29 Department of Health Care Management and Economics, Urmia University of preventing future injury burden. Medical Science, Urmia, Iran Known limitations of injury burden estimation in the GBD 30 Health Management and Economics Research Center, Iran University of Medical framework have been reported previously in peer-­ reviewed Sciences, Tehran, Iran i106 James SL, et al. Inj Prev 2020;26:i96–i114. doi:10.1136/injuryprev-2019-043494 Original research 31 81 Health Economics Department, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran T H Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University, Boston, MA, USA 32 82 Department of Health Policy and Management, Kuwait University, Safat, Kuwait Department of Industrial Engineering, Pontifical Javeriana University, Bogota, 33 International Centre for Casemix and Clinical Coding, National University of Colombia 83 Malaysia, Bandar Tun Razak, Malaysia Occupational Health Department, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, 34 Department of Epidemiology, Arak University of Medical Sciences, Arak, Iran Kermanshah, Iran 35 84 Physiotherapy Department, The University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan Health Human Resources Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, 36 King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia Shiraz, Iran 37 85 Clinical Practice Guidelines Unit, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia Department of Public Health, Ambo University, Ambo, Ethiopia 38 86 Alexandria Center for Evidence-­Based Clinical Practice Guidelines, Alexandria Department of Community Medicine, Gandhi Medical College Bhopal, Bhopal, India University, Alexandria, Egypt 87 Jazan University, Jazan, Saudi Arabia 39 88 Health Services Management Department, Arak University of Medical Sciences, Social Determinants of Health Research Center, Lorestan University of Medical Arak, Iran Sciences, Khorramabad, Iran 40 Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of the Philippines Manila, 89 Institute of Health Sciences, School of Public Health, Wollega University, Nekemte, Manila, Philippines Ethiopia 41 Online Programs for Applied Learning, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, 90 Department of Psychiatry, Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia USA 91 Department of Epidemiology and Psychosocial Reseach, Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz 42 Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucharest, Romania National Institute of Psychiatry, Mexico City, Mexico 43 Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Health Promotion Research Center, 92 Nuffield Department of Population Health, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK Zahedan, Iran 93 Department of Internal Medicine, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil 44 Department of Health Policy and Administration, University of the Philippines 94 Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Mekelle University, Mekelle, Ethiopia Manila, Manila, Philippines 95 Department of Community Medicine and Family Medicine, All India Institute of 45 Department of Applied Social Sciences, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Medical Sciences, Jodhpur, India Kong, China 96 Department of Community Medicine, Datta Meghe Institute of Medical Sciences, 46 Department of Sociology and Social Work, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science Wardha, India and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana 97 Department of Internal Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, 47 Center for International Health, Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich, Germany Springfield, MA, USA 48 Social Determinants of Health Research Center, Birjand University of Medical 98 Department of Statistical and Computational Genomics, National Institute of Sciences, Birjand, Iran Biomedical Genomics, Kalyani, India 49 Department of Health Promotion and Education, Tehran University of Medical 99 Department of Statistics, University of Calcutta, Kolkata, India Sciences, Tehran, Iran 100 Institute of Soil and Environmental Sciences, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, 50 School of Health Sciences, Birmingham City University, Birmingham, UK Faisalabad, Pakistan 51 Regional Centre for the Analysis of Data on Occupational and Work-­related Injuries 101 Social Determinants of Health Research Center, Babol University of Medical and Diseases, Local Health Unit Tuscany Centre, Florence, Italy Sciences, Babol, Iran 52 School of Science and Health, Western Sydney University, Sydney, New South 102 National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health, Australian National Wales, Australia University, Canberra, ACT, Australia 53 Oral Health Services, Sydney Local Health District, Sydney, New South Wales, 103 Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacology, University of Dhaka, Dhaka, Australia Bangladesh 54 Department of Plastic Surgery, University of Texas, Houston, TX, USA 104 55 Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Catania, Catania, Department of Microbiology, Hamedan University of Medical Sciences, Azad Tabriz Italy University, Iran 105 56 Transport and Road Safety (TARS) Research Department, University of New South Department of Nursing, Wolaita Sodo University, Wolaita Sodo, Ethiopia 57 Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia The Judith Lumley Centre, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia 106 58 Institute of Epidemiology, Comenius University, Bratislava, Slovakia General Office for Research and Technological Transfer, Peruvian National Institute 107 Department of Epidemiology and Evidence Based Medicine, I M Sechenov First of Health, Lima, Peru 59 Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, Russia School of Public Health, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia 108 60 Research Department, Golden Community, Kathmandu, Nepal Department of Health Policy Planning and Management, University of Health and 109 Centre for Population Health Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Allied Sciences, Ho, Ghana 61 Department of Environmental Health Engineering, Hamadan University of Medical Singapore 110 Sciences, Hamadan, Iran Global eHealth Unit, Imperial College London, London, UK 111 62 Public Health Risk Sciences Division, Public Health Agency of Canada, Toronto, Department of Population and Health, Metropolitan Autonomous University, Ontario, Canada Mexico City, Mexico 112 63 Department of Nutritional Sciences, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada Research Unit on Applied Molecular Biosciences (UCIBIO), University of Porto, 64 Department of Forensic Science, Government Institute of Forensic Science, Nagpur, Porto, Portugal 113 India Department of Psychiatry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil 114 65 Department of Ophthalmology, University Hospital of Ioannina, Ioannina, Greece Colombian National Health Observatory, National Institute of Health, Bogota, 66 Institute of Molecular Biology & Biotechnology, Foundation for Research & Colombia 115 Technology, Ioannina, Greece Epidemiology and Public Health Evaluation Group, National University of 67 Biochemistry Unit, Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin, Kuala Terengganu, Malaysia Colombia, Bogota, Colombia 116 68 School of Health Sciences, Univeristi Sultan Zainal Abidin, Kuala Terengganu, Primary Care Services Area, Central Health Directorate, Region Friuli Venezia Malaysia Giulia, Trieste, Italy 117 69 Institute of Health Management Research, Indian Institute of Health Management Department of Medicine (DAME), University of Udine, Udine, Italy 118 Research University, Jaipur, India National School of Public Health, Carlos III Health Institute, Madrid, Spain 119 70 Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA Clinical Epidemiology Program, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, ON, 71 Health Policy And Management Department, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Canada 120 Tehran, Iran Mary MacKillop Institute for Health Research, Australian Catholic University, 72 Department of Demography, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands Melbourne, VIC, Australia 121 73 Population Research Centre, Institute for Social and Economic Change, Bengaluru, School of Public Health, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China 122 India Institute of Applied Health Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK 123 74 Department of Hypertension, Medical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, University of Gondar, Gondar, Ethiopia 124 75 Polish Mothers’ Memorial Hospital Research Institute, Lodz, Poland Department of Public Health, Texila American University, Georgetown, Guyana 125 76 School of Health Sciences, Walden University, Minneapolis, MN, USA Department of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada 126 77 Department of Noncommunicable Diseases, Bangladesh University of Health 2nd Department of Ophthalmology, University of Athens, Haidari, Greece 127 Sciences (BUHS), Dhaka, Bangladesh Ophthalmology Private Practice Office, Independent Consultant, Athens, Greece 78 128 Department of Research, Public Health Perspective Nepal, Pokhara-­Lekhnath Department of Pediatrics, Harvard University, Boston, MA, USA 129 Metropolitan City, Nepal Department of Neonatology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical center, Boston, MA, 79 School of Psychology, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand USA 80 130 Heidelberg Institute of Global Health (HIGH), Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Department of Surgery, Division of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, University Germany of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA James SL, et al. Inj Prev 2020;26:i96–i114. doi:10.1136/injuryprev-2019-043494 i107 Original research 131 188 Maternal and Child Health Division, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Abadan School of Medical Sciences, Abadan University of Medical Sciences, Research, Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh Abadan, Iran 132 189 Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of South Carolina, Department of Family Medicine and Primary Care, University of the Witwatersrand, Columbia, SC, USA Johannesburg, South Africa 133 190 Faculty of Biology, Hanoi National University of Education, Hanoi, Vietnam College of Public Health, Medical and Veterinary Science, James Cook University, 134 Research School of Population Health, Australian National University, Action, ACT, Douglas, QLD, Australia 191 Australia Royal Life Saving Society, Sydney, NSW, Australia 135 192 Department of Dermatology, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Department of Dermatology, Kobe University, Kobe, Japan 193 Bucharest, Romania Gene Expression & Regulation Program, The Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, PA, USA 136 194 2nd Department of Dermatology, Colentina Clinical Hospital, Bucharest, Romania Public Health Department, Madda Walabu University, Bale-­Robe, Ethiopia 137 195 Department of Dermatology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, School of Pharmacy, Mekelle University, Mekelle, Ethiopia 196 USA Department of Nursing and Midwifery, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, 138 Department of Dermatology, University of Milan, Milan, Italy Ethiopia 139 197 Toxoplasmosis Research Center, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Department of Nursing, Aksum University, Aksum, Ethiopia 198 Iran Department of Nursing, Mekelle University, Mekelle, Ethiopia 140 199 Population and Development, Facultad Latinoamericana de Ciencias Sociales School of Public Health, Haramaya University, Harar, Ethiopia 200 Mexico, Mexico City, Mexico Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia 141 201 Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Haramaya University, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia 202 Ethiopia Department of Pharmacy, Wollo University, Dessie, Ethiopia 142 203 Department of Nursing, Woldia University, Woldia, Ethiopia Department of Medical Surgery, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran 143 204 School of Nursing, Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia Occupational Health Department, Arak University of Medical Sciences, Arak, Iran 144 205 School of Pharmacy, Aksum University, Aksum, Ethiopia Department of Health Services Management, Iran University of Medical Sciences, 145 Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Tehran, Iran 146 206 Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, , Iran Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran 147 207 Department of Global Health and Infection, Brighton and Sussex Medical School, Young Researchers and Elite Club, Rasht Branch, Islamic Azad University, Rasht, Brighton, UK Iran 148 208 School of Public Health, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Adelaide Medical School, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia 149 209 Division of Cardiology, Atlanta Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Decatur, GA, USA Center for Clinical and Epidemiological Research, University of São Paulo, Sao 150 Department of Epidemiology, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran Paulo, Brazil 151 210 Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal Department of Dermatology, Boston University, Boston, MA, USA 152 211 Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran Institute of Public Health, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, United Arab 153 School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, Royal Melbourne Institute of Emirates 212 Technology University, Bundoora, VIC, Australia Technical College of Health, Sulaimani Polytechnic University, Sulaimani, Iraq 154 213 Sydney School of Public Health, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia Instituto de Patologia Tropical e Saúde Pública, Federal University of Goias, 155 Faculty of Medicine, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia Goiânia, Brazil 156 214 Public Health Department, Hawassa University, Hawassa, Ethiopia School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, 157 Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia VIC, Australia 158 215 Department of Global Health and Social Medicine, Harvard University, Boston, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, MA, USA China 159 216 Department of Social Services, Tufts Medical Center, Boston, MA, USA Non-­Communicable Diseases (NCD), World Health Organization (WHO), New 160 Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Maragheh University of Medical Delhi, India 217 Sciences, Maragheh, Iran Department of Public Health, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, 161 Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Tabriz University of Medical Netherlands 218 Sciences, Tabriz, Iran Department of Radiology and Radiological Sciences, Johns Hopkins University, 162 National Institute for Health Researches, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Baltimore, MD, USA 219 Tehran, Iran School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran 163 220 Department of Clinical Pathology, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt Institute for Global Health, University College London, London, UK 164 221 Department of Statistics, Debre Markos University, Debre Markos, Ethiopia Global and Community Mental Health Research Group, University of Macau, 165 Department of Public Health Sciences, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden Macao, China 166 222 World Health Programme, Université du Québec en Abitibi-­Témiscamingue, Rouyn-­ Department of Family and Community Medicine, Arabian Gulf University, Noranda, QC, Canada Manama, Bahrain 167 223 Department of Pathology, Stavanger University Hospital, Stavanger, Norway School of Health and Environmental Studies, Hamdan Bin Mohammed Smart 168 Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway University, Dubai, United Arab Emirates 169 224 Ophthalmic Epidemiology Research Center, Shahroud University of Medical Biomedical Research Networking Center for Mental Health Network (CiberSAM), Sciences, Shahroud, Iran Madrid, Spain 170 225 Department of Midwifery, Wolkite University, Wolkite, Ethiopia Research and Development Unit, San Juan de Dios Sanitary Park, Sant Boi de 171 Multiple Sclerosis Research Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Llobregat, Spain 226 Iran Institute for Social Science Research, The University of Queensland, Indooroopilly, 172 Biology Department, Salahaddin University-­Erbil, Erbil, Iraq QLD, Australia 173 227 Biology and Biotechnolaniogy"L Spallanzani", University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy Department of Microbiology, Maragheh University of Medical Sciences, Maragheh, 174 Department of Psychology, Federal University of Sergipe, Sao Cristovao, Brazil Iran 175 228 Non-­communicable Diseases Research Center, Tehran University of Medical Department of Microbiology, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran 229 Sciences, Tehran, Iran Gastrointestinal and Liver Disease Research Center, Guilan University of Medical 176 Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Sciences, Rasht, Iran 230 Iran School of Nursing and Midwifery, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran 177 231 Department of Psychiatry, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Independent Consultant, Tabriz, Iran 178 232 Nursing Department, Hawassa University, Hawassa, Ethiopia Department of Public Health, Mizan-­Tepi University, Tepi, Ethiopia 179 233 Department of Neurobiology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden Unit of Epidemiology and Social Medicine, University Hospital Antwerp, Wilrijk, 180 Division of Neurology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada Belgium 181 234 REQUIMTE/LAQV, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal Department of Clinical Sciences, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, 182 Research Centre on Public Health (CESP), University of Milan Bicocca, Monza, Italy Sweden 183 235 Department of Health Education & Behavioral Sciences, Jimma University, Jimma, Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Ethiopia Lahore, Pakistan 184 236 Psychiatry Department, Kaiser Permanente, Fontana, CA, USA Department of Pharmacy Administration and Clinical Pharmacy, Xian Jiaotong 185 School of Health Sciences, A T Still University, Mesa, AZ, USA University, Xian, China 186 237 Department of Population Medicine and Health Services Research, Bielefeld Medical Biology Research Center, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, University, Bielefeld, Germany Kermanshah, Iran 187 238 Department of Child Dental Health, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-­Ife, Nigeria Research Coordination, AC Environments Foundation, Cuernavaca, Mexico i108 James SL, et al. Inj Prev 2020;26:i96–i114. doi:10.1136/injuryprev-2019-043494 Original research 239 285 CISS, National Institute of Public Health, Cuernavaca, Mexico Hematology-­Oncology and Stem Cell Transplantation Research Center, Tehran 240 Department of Urban Planning and Design, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran 286 China Pars Advanced and Minimally Invasive Medical Manners Research Center, Iran 241 Center of Excellence in Behavioral Medicine, Nguyen Tat Thanh University, Ho Chi University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran 287 Minh City, Vietnam Department of Applied Physics, The John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin, 242 Department of Pediatrics, Dell Medical School, University of Texas Austin, Austin, Lublin Voivodeship, Poland 288 TX, USA Department of Biology and Chemistry, Drohobych Ivan Franko State Pedagogical 243 Kasturba Medical College, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, India University, Drohobych, Ukraine 244 289 Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Dhaka Medical College, Dhaka, Department of Pharmacy, Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia 290 Bangladesh Open, Distance and eLearning Campus, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya 245 291 Department of Pharmacology, Bangladesh Industrial Gases Limited, Tangail, Department of Dermatology, Wolaita Sodo University, Wolaita Sodo, Ethiopia 292 Bangladesh Department of Midwifery, University of Gondar, Gondar, Ethiopia 246 293 Department of Computer Engineering, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran Department of Public Health, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid, 247 Computer Science Department, University of Human Development, Sulaymaniyah, Jordan 294 Iraq Social Determinants of Health Research Center, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of 248 Department of Legal Medicine and Bioethics, Carol Davila University of Medicine Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran 295 and Pharmacy, Bucharest, Romania School of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Management and 249 Clinical Legal Medicine Department, National Institute of Legal Medicine Mina Technology, Lahore, Pakistan 296 Minovici, Bucharest, Romania Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA 250 297 Department of Epidemiology and Health Statistics, Central South University, Department of Physiology, Baku State University, Baku, Azerbaijan 298 Changsha, China Health Care Management, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, zahedan, Iran 251 299 Department of Health Promotion and Education, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Epidemiology and Biostatistics Department, Health Services Academy, Islamabad, Nigeria Pakistan 252 300 Department of Community Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria Faculty of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Jazan University, Jazan, Saudi 253 Department of Epidemiology, University of Kragujevac, Kragujevac, Serbia Arabia 254 301 Department of Family Medicine, Bangalore Baptist Hospital, Bangalore, India Department of Health Research, Indian Council of Medical Research, New Delhi, 255 Center for Health Resource and Services Research and Development, National India 302 Institute of Health Research & Development, Jakarta, Indonesia Centre for Ethics, Jawahar Lal Nehru University, New Delhi, India 256 303 Research Institute for Endocrine Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Department of Psychiatry, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Sciences, Tehran, Iran Kermanshah, Iran 257 304 Institute for Physical Activity and Nutrition, Deakin University, Burwood, VIC, Department of Epidemiology, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Australia Kermanshah, Iran 258 305 Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia Nuffield Department of Surgical Sciences, Oxford University Global Surgery Group, 259 School of Psychology and Public Health, La Trobe University, Bundoora, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK 306 Melbourne, VIC, Australia Research and Data Solutions, Synotech Consultant, Nairobi, Kenya 260 307 School of Public Health and Community Medicine, University of New South Wales, Department of Preventive Medicine, Korea University, Seoul, South Korea 308 Sydney, Australia Department of Health Sciences, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA 261 309 Department of Global and Community Health, George Mason University, Fairfax, School of Medicine, Xiamen University Malaysia, Sepang, Malaysia 310 VA, USA School of Health Sciences, Kristiania University College, Oslo, Norway 262 311 Faculty of Medicine, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran Department of Nursing and Health Promotion, Oslo Metropolitan University, Oslo, 263 School of Management and Medical Education, Shahid Beheshti University of Norway 312 Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran Neurophysiology Research Center, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, 264 Safety Promotion and Injury Prevention Research Center, Shahid Beheshti Hamadan, Iran 313 University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran Brain Engineering Research Center, Institute for Research in Fundamental 265 Department for Health Care and Public Health, I M Sechenov First Moscow State Sciences, Tehran, Iran 314 Medical University, Moscow, Russia Department of Public Health Dentistry, Deemed University, karad, India 266 315 Social Development & Health Promotion Research Center, Kermanshah University CIBERSAM, San Juan de Dios Sanitary Park, Sant Boi de Llobregat, Spain 316 of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran Catalan Institution for Research and Advanced Studies (ICREA), Barcelona, Spain 267 317 Department of Surgery, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK 268 318 Institute of Medicine, University of Colombo, Colombo, Sri Lanka Harvard Medical School, Harvard University, Boston, MA, USA 269 319 Faculty of Graduate Studies, University of Colombo, Colombo, Sri Lanka Department of Anthropology, Panjab University, Chandigarh, India 270 320 Department of Community Medicine, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India Department of Public Health, Yuksek Ihtisas University, Ankara, Turkey 271 321 Department of Ophthalmology, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany Department of Public Health, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey 272 322 Beijing Ophthalmology & Visual Science Key Laboratory, Beijing Tongren Hospital, Department of Family and Community Health, University of Health and Allied Beijing, China Sciences, Ho, Ghana 273 323 Department of Community Medicine, Kasturba Medical College, Manipal Academy Department of Psychology and Health Promotion, University of KwaZulu-­Natal, of Higher Education, Mangalore, India Durban, South Africa 274 324 Department of Family Medicine and Public Health, University of Opole, Opole, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Poland Boston, MA, USA 275 325 School of Health Sciences, Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune, India Public Health Foundation of India, Gurugram, India 276 326 Institute of Family Medicine and Public Health, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia Department of Psychiatry, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya 277 327 Minimally Invasive Surgery Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Institute of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, University of Birmingham, Tehran, Iran Birmingham, UK 278 328 Personal Social Services Research Unit, London School of Economics and Political Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, Science, London, UK Roorkee, India 279 329 Department of Medical Informatics, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Department of Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada 330 Iran Health and Nutrition Section, United Nations Childrens’ Fund (UNICEF), Accra, 280 Social Determinants of Health Research Center, Research Institute for Prevention Ghana 331 of Non-­Communicable Diseases, Qazvin University of Medical Sciences, Qazvin, Department of Clinical Medicine and Community Health, University of Milan, Iran Milano, Italy 281 332 Health Services Management Department, Qazvin University of Medical Sciences, Department of Community and Family Medicine, University of Baghdad, Baghdad, Qazvin, Iran Iraq 282 333 School of Public Health, Department of Health Informatics and Health Innovation, School of Medicine, Deakin University, Geelong, VIC, Australia 334 A C S Medical College and Hospital, Mekelle, Ethiopia Health Promotion and Chronic Disease Prevention Branch, Public Health Agency of 283 Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, All India Institute of Medical Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada 335 Sciences, Jodhpur, India HelpMeSee, New York, NY, USA 284 336 Department of Epidemiology, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, International Relations, Mexican Institute of Ophthalmology, Queretaro, Mexico 337 Iran Disease Control Department, Ghana Health Service, Accra, Ghana James SL, et al. Inj Prev 2020;26:i96–i114. doi:10.1136/injuryprev-2019-043494 i109 Original research 338 391 Department of Otorhinolaryngology (ENT), Father Muller Medical College, University Centre Varazdin, University North, Varazdin, Croatia 392 Mangalore, India Center for Innovation in Medical Education, Pomeranian Medical University, 339 Department of Public Health, Maragheh University of Medical Sciences, Maragheh, Szczecin, Poland 393 Iran Department of Propedeutics of Internal Diseases & Arterial Hypertension, 340 Institute of Clinical Physiology, Italian National Research Council, Pisa, Italy Pomeranian Medical University, Szczecin, Poland 341 394 College of Optometry, Nova Southeastern University, Fort Lauderdale, FL, USA Pacific Institute for Research & Evaluation, Calverton, MD, USA 342 395 School of Pharmacy, Monash University, Bandar Sunway, Malaysia Achutha Menon Centre for Health Science Studies, Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for 343 School of Pharmacy, Taylor’s University Lakeside Campus, Subang Jaya, Malaysia Medical Sciences and Technology, Trivandrum, India 344 396 School of Public Health, Wolaita Sodo University, Wolaita Sodo, Ethiopia Global Institute of Public Health (GIPH), Ananthapuri Hospitals and Research 345 Department of Health Sciences, University of Florence, Florence, Italy Centre, Trivandrum, India 346 397 School of Public Health, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel Department of Statistics and Econometrics, Bucharest University of Economic 347 Department of Systems, Populations and Leadership, University of Michigan, Ann Studies, Bucharest, Romania 398 Arbor, MI, USA President’s Office, National Institute of Statistics Romania, Bucharest, Romania 348 399 School of Population and Global Health, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Faculty of Internal Medicine, Kyrgyz State Medical Academy, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan 400 Australia Department of Atherosclerosis and Coronary Heart Disease, National Center of 349 Department of Health Metrics Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Cardiology and Internal Disease, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan 401 Washington, Seattle, WA, USA Heidelberg Institute of Global Health (HIGH), Faculty of Medicine and University 350 Department of Medicine, University of São Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil Hospital, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany 351 402 Department of General Surgery, Aintree University Hospital National Health Institute of Addiction Research (ISFF), Frankfurt University of Applied Sciences, Service (NHS) Foundation Trust, Liverpool, UK Frankfurt, Germany 352 403 Department of Surgery, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK Biotechnology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran 353 404 Health Data Research UK, Swansea University, Swansea, UK Molecular Medicine Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, 354 College of Medicine, Pathology Department, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal Iran 405 University, Dammam, Saudi Arabia Health Equity Research Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran 355 406 Ophthalmology Department, Aswan Faculty of Medicine, Aswan, Egypt Internal Medicine Department, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia 356 407 Institute of Medicine, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal Research Center, Salahaddin University, Erbil, Iraq 357 408 Department of Public Health, Trnava University, Trnava, Slovakia Ishik University, Erbil, Iraq 358 409 Department of Primary Care and Public Health, Imperial College London, London, Department of Information Technology, University of Human Development, UK Sulaymaniyah, Iraq 359 410 Public Health Research Department, National Health Institute Colombia, Bogota, Department of Biostatistics, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, Colombia Iran 360 411 Faculty of Medicine, El Bosque University, Bogota, Colombia Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Shahrekord University of Medical 361 Health Education and Research Department, SDM College of Medical Sciences & Sciences, Shahrekord, Iran 412 Hospital, Dharwad, India Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Gonabad University of 362 Rajiv Gandhi University of Health Sciences, Bangalore, India Medical Sciences, Gonabad, Iran 363 413 Digestive Diseases Research Institute, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Department of Nursing, Shahroud University of Medical Sciences, Shahroud, Iran 414 Tehran, Iran Health Systems and Policy Research Unit, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria 364 415 Non-­communicable Diseases Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Department of Public Health, Samara University, Samara, Ethiopia 416 Sciences, Shiraz, Iran Iran National Institute of Health Research, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, 365 Department of Maternal and Child Nursing and Public Health, Federal University Tehran, Iran 417 of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine, King’s College London, London, UK 366 418 Department of Ophthalmology, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran Clinical Epidemiology and Public Health Research Unit, Burlo Garofolo Institute for 367 Ophthalmology Department, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada Maternal and Child Health, Trieste, Italy 368 419 Department of Surgery, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA Department of Public Health Medicine, University of KwaZulu-­Natal, Durban, 369 Surgery Department, Emergency University Hospital Bucharest, Bucharest, South Africa 420 Romania Health Sciences Research Center, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, 370 Department of Psychiatry, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Iran 421 Bengaluru, India Research Center for Environmental Determinants of Health, Kermanshah 371 Substance Abuse Prevention Research Center, Kermanshah University of Medical University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran 422 Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran Social Determinants of Health Research Center, Kurdistan University of Medical 372 Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Sanandaj, Iran 423 Sciences, Tehran, Iran Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Kurdistan University of Medical 373 Institute for Social Science Research, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Sciences, Sanandaj, Iran 424 Australia Preventive Medicine and Public Health Research Center, Iran University of Medical 374 Institute of Bone and Joint Research, University of Sydney, St Leonards, NSW, Sciences, Tehran, Iran 425 Australia International Laboratory for Air Quality and Health, Queensland University of 375 Department of Health Sciences, University of York, York, UK Technology, Brisbane, QLD, Australia 376 426 Department of Midwifery-­Reproductive Health, Hamadan University of Medical Gorgas Memorial Institute for Health Studies, Panama City, Panama 427 Sciences, Hamadan, Iran Department of Social Medicine, National Center for Child Health and 377 Research Department, The George Institute for Global Health, New Delhi, India Development, Setagaya, Japan 378 428 School of Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of Gondar, Gondar, 379 Department of Public Health, Mekelle University, Mekelle, Ethiopia Ethiopia 380 429 Department of Nursing, Arba Minch University, Arba Minch, Ethiopia Department of Pediatrics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada 381 430 Division of Epidemiology and Prevention, Institute of Human Virology, University School of Medical Sciences, Science University of Malaysia, Kubang Kerian, of Maryland, Baltimore, MD, USA Malaysia 382 431 Peru Country Office, United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), Lima, Peru Department of Pediatric Medicine, Nishtar Medical University, Multan, Pakistan 383 432 Forensic Medicine Division, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, Dammam, Department of Pediatrics & Pediatric Pulmonology, Institute of Mother & Child Saudi Arabia Care, Multan, Pakistan 384 433 College of Health Science, Department of Midwifery, Adigrat University, Adigrat, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt 434 Ethiopia Knowledge Translation and Utilization, Egyptian Center for Evidence Based 385 Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Haramaya University, Harar, Medicine, Egypt 435 Ethiopia Research and Analytics, Initiative for Financing Health and Human Development, 386 Breast Surgery Unit, Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland Chennai, India 387 436 University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland Research and Analytics, Bioinsilico Technologies, Chennai, India 388 437 Neurocenter, Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland Department of Epidemiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, 389 School of Health Sciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia AL, USA 390 438 Clinical Microbiology and Parasitology Unit, ZoraProfozic Polyclinic, Zagreb, Laboratory of Public Health Indicators Analysis and Health Digitalization, Moscow Croatia Institute of Physics and Technology, Dolgoprudny, Russia i110 James SL, et al. Inj Prev 2020;26:i96–i114. doi:10.1136/injuryprev-2019-043494 Original research 439 490 Experimental Surgery and Oncology Laboratory, Kursk State Medical University of Department of Epidemiology and Evidence-­Based Medicine, Sechenon University, the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Kursk, Russia Moscow, Russia 440 491 Department of Epidemiology & Biostatistics, Kermanshah University of Medical Department of Nephrology, Sanjay Gandhi Postgraduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran Sciences, Lucknow, India 441 492 Suraj Eye Institute, Nagpur, India Health Sciences Department, Muhammadiyah University of Surakarta, Sukoharjo, 442 Hospital of the Federal University of Minas Gerais, Federal University of Minas Indonesia 493 Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil Department of Population Studies, International Institute for Population Sciences, 443 Mental Health Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran Mumbai, India 444 494 Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Manipal Academy of Higher Biomedical Engineering Department, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, Education, Manipal, India Iran 445 495 Cochrane Unit, South African Medical Research Council, Cape Town, South Africa Department of Chemistry, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran 446 496 Department of General Surgery, Carol Davila University of Medicine and College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA 497 Pharmacy, Bucharest, Romania College of Graduate Health Sciences, A T Still University, Mesa, AZ, USA 447 498 Department of General Surgery, Emergency Hospital of Bucharest, Bucharest, Department of Epidemiology & Biostatistics, Contech School of Public Health, Romania Lahore, Pakistan 448 499 Department of Biological Sciences, University of Embu, Embu, Kenya Department of Medicine, University of Alberta, EdmontonAB, Canada 449 500 Institute for Global Health Innovations, Duy Tan University, Hanoi, Vietnam Department of Immunology, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran 450 501 Department of Pharmacology, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Molecular and Cell Biology Research Center, Mazandaran University of Medical Tehran, Iran Sciences, Sari, Iran 451 502 Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany Thalassemia and Hemoglobinopathy Research Center, Ahvaz Jundishapur 452 Public Health Department, Universitas Negeri Semarang, Kota Semarang, University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran 503 Indonesia Metabolomics and Genomics Research Center, Tehran University of Medical 453 Graduate Institute of Biomedical Informatics, Taipei Medical University, Taipei City, Sciences, Tehran, Iran 504 Taiwan Faculty of Medicine, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran 454 505 School of Public Health and Family Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, Sina Trauma and Surgery Research Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, South Africa Tehran, Iran 455 506 Faculty of Medicine & Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South School of Nursing and Healthcare Professions, Federation University Australia, Africa Berwick, VIC, Australia 456 507 Reproductive Health Sciences, Department Obstetrics and Gynecology, University School of Nursing and Midwifery, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia 508 of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria Faculty of Medicine, Birjand University of Medical Sciences, Birjand, Iran 457 509 Department of Preventive Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Dongdaemun-­gu, European Office for the Prevention and Control of Noncommunicable Diseases, South Korea World Health Organization (WHO), Moscow, Russia 458 510 Disease Surveillance and Epidemic Response, Ministry of Health, Nairobi, Kenya Department of Surgery, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA 459 511 Department of Psychiatry and Behavioural Neurosciences, McMaster University, Department of Oral Pathology, Srinivas Institute of Dental Sciences, Mangalore, Hamilton, ON, Canada India 460 512 Department of Psychiatry, University of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria School of Behavioral Sciences and Mental Health, Tehran Institute of Psychiatry, 461 Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, Tehran, Iran 513 ON, Canada Forensic Medicine, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Mangalore, India 462 514 Diplomacy and Public Relations Department, University of Human Development, Kasturba Medical College, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Mangalore, Sulaimaniyah, Iraq India 463 515 Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Nigeria Nsukka, Academic Public Health Department, Public Health England, London, UK 516 Enugu, Nigeria School of Health, Medical and Applied Sciences, CQ University, Sydney, NSW, 464 Department of Psychology, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana Australia 465 517 Discipline of Psychology, University of KwaZulu-­Natal, Durban, South Africa Department of Computer Science, Metropolitan College, Boston University, 466 Applied Research Division, Public Health Agency of Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada Boston, USA 467 518 School of Psychology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada Neurology Department, Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and 468 Department of Global Health Nursing, St Luke’s International University, Chuo-­ku, Technology, Thiruvananthapuram, India 519 Japan School of Social Sciences and Psychology, Western Sydney University, Penrith, 469 Academic department, Unium Ltd, Moscow, Russia NSW, Australia 470 520 Department of Project Management, National Research University Higher School Translational Health Research Institute, Western Sydney University, Penrith, NSW, of Economics, Moscow, Russia Australia 471 521 Department of Respiratory Medicine, Jagadguru Sri Shivarathreeswara Academy of Brien Holden Vision Institute, Sydney, NSW, Australia 522 Health Education and Research, Mysore, India Organization for the Prevention of Blindness, Paris, France 472 523 Department of Forensic Medicine, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, EPIUnit - Public Health Institute University Porto (ISPUP), University of Porto, Porto, India Portugal 473 524 Department of Medicine, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, OttawaON, Canada Surgery Department, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA 474 525 Parasitology and Mycology, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran Surgery Department, University Teaching Hospital of Kigali, Kigali, Rwanda 475 526 Augenpraxis Jonas, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany Research Directorate, Nihon Gakko University, Fernando de la Mora, Paraguay 476 527 Department of Medical Humanities and Social Medicine, Kosin University, Busan, Research Direction, Universidad Nacional de Caaguazú, Coronel Oviedo, Paraguay 528 South Korea Golestan Research Center of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Golestan 477 Research and Evaluation, Population Council, New Delhi, India University of Medical Sciences, Gorgan, Iran 478 529 Indian Institute of Health Management Research University Delhi, Jaipur, India Faculty of Medicine, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt 479 530 Department of Pediatircs, RD Gardi Medical College, Ujjain, India National Institute for Research in Environmental Health, Indian Council of Medical 480 Regional Medical Research Centre, Indian Council of Medical Research, Research, Bhopal, India 531 Bhubaneswar, India Department of Epidemiology, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, 481 Department of Paediatrics, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia Tehran, Iran 482 532 Population Health Theme, Murdoch Childrens Research Institute, Melbourne, VIC, College of Medicine, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates 533 Australia Emergency Department, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, 483 Department of Midwifery, Wolaita Sodo University, Wolaita Sodo, Ethiopia Iran 484 534 School of Public Health and Community Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University Faculty of Public Health, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia Iran 485 535 Center for Research and Innovation, Ateneo De Manila University, Pasig City, Department of Health in Disasters and Emergencies, Shahid Beheshti University of Philippines Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran 486 536 Department of Orthopedics, Yenepoya Medical College, Mangalore, India Department of Neuroscience, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran 487 537 Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China Nanobiotechnology Center, Soran University, Soran, Iraq 488 538 Department of Psychiatry, Department of Epidemiology, Columbia University, New Taleghani Hospital, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran 539 York City, NY, USA Radiology and Nuclear Medicine Department, Kermanshah University of Medical 489 Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran James SL, et al. Inj Prev 2020;26:i96–i114. doi:10.1136/injuryprev-2019-043494 i111 Original research 540 594 Research Deputy, Taleghani Hospital, Kermanshah, Iran Department of Biostatistics, Hamedan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, 541 Public Health and Community Medicine Department, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt Iran 542 595 Department of Urology, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt Hospital Universitario de la Princesa, Autonomous University of Madrid, Madrid, 543 Public Health and Policy, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, Spain 596 UK Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Enfermedades Respiratorias (CIBERES), 544 Global Health Institute, American University of Beirut, Beirut, Lebanon Madrid, Spain 545 597 Health and Disability Intelligence Group, Ministry of Health, Wellington, New Department of Public Health, Arba Minch University, Arba Minch, Ethiopia 598 Zealand Hull York Medical School, University of Hull, Hull City, UK 546 599 Department of Entomology, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt Usher Institute of Population Health Sciences and Informatics, University of 547 Department of Surgery, Marshall University, Huntington, WV, USA Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK 548 600 Department of Nutrition and Preventive Medicine, Case Western Reserve Department of Psychiatry and Mental Health, University of Cape Town, Cape University, Cleveland, OH, USA Town, South Africa 549 Rheumatology Department, University Hospitals Bristol NHS Foundation Trust, 601 South African Medical Research Council, Cape Town, South Africa Bristol, UK 602 Department of Psychology, Deakin University, Burwood, VIC, Australia 550 Institute of Bone and Joint Research, University of Sydney, Syndey, NSW, Australia 603 Department of Community Medicine, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria 551 Institute of Social Medicine, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia 604 Department of Agriculture and Food Systems, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, 552 Centre-­School of Public Health and Health Management, University of Belgrade, VIC, Australia Belgrade, Serbia 605 Department of Criminology, Law and Society, University of California Irvine, Irvine, 553 Health Economics, Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies (BIDS), Dhaka, CA, USA Bangladesh 606 Department of Medicine, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain 554 Colorectal Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran 607 Carlos III Health Institute, Biomedical Research Networking Center for Mental 555 Surgery Department, Hamad Medical Corporation, Doha, Qatar Health Network (CiberSAM), Madrid, Spain 556 Faculty of Health & Social Sciences, Bournemouth University, Bournemouth, UK 608 School of Social Work, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL, USA 557 Department of Public Health Sciences, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, 609 Department of Public Health, Arbaminch College of Health Sciences, Arbaminch Charlotte, NC, USA town sikela, Ethiopia 558 Department of Paediatrics, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia 610 Axum College of Health Science, mekelle, Ethiopia 559 Centre for Adolescent Health, Murdoch Childrens Research Institute, Parkville, VIC, 611 School of Midwifery, University of Gondar, Gondar, Ethiopia Australia 612 School of Public Health, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia 560 School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, UK 613 Department of Environmental Health, Wollo University, Dessie, Ethiopia 561 Faculty member of Education Development Center, Ahvaz Jundishapur University 614 Department of Community and Family Medicine, Iran University of Medical of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran Sciences, Tehran, Iran 562 Department of Psychology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, 615 Department of Pharmacognosy, Mekelle University, Mekelle, Ethiopia AL, USA 616 Institute of Public Health, University of Gondar, Gondar, Ethiopia 563 Department of Psychiatry, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa 617 Department of Public Health, Adigrat University, Adigrat, Ethiopia 564 Emergency Department, Manian Medical Centre, Erode, India 618 Psychiatry Department, Hawassa University, Hawassa, Ethiopia 565 Microbiology Service, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA 619 Institute of Public Health, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Krakow, Poland 566 Center for Biomedical Information Technology, Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced 620 The Agency for Health Technology Assessment and Tariff System, Warszawa, Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, China 567 Poland Department of Health Promotion and Education, Alborz University of Medical 621 Department of Health Economics, Hanoi Medical University, Hanoi, Vietnam Sciences, Karaj, Iran 622 568 Department of Molecular Medicine and Pathology, University of Auckland, Health Policy Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran 569 Auckland, New Zealand Independent Consultant, Karachi, Pakistan 623 570 Clinical Hematology and Toxicology, Military Medical University, Hanoi, Vietnam School of Medicine, Alborz University of Medical Sciences, Karaj, Iran 624 571 Department of Community Medicine, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Chronic Diseases (Home Care) Research Center, Hamadan University of Medical Nagpur, India Sciences, Hamadan, Iran 625 572 Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA HIV/STI Surveillance Research Center, and WHO Collaborating Center for HIV 626 Mbarara University of Science and Technology, Mbarara, Uganda Surveillance, Institute for Futures Studies in Health, Kerman University of Medical 627 Sciences, Kerman, Iran Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 628 573 Centre for Medical Informatics, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK Institute of Soil and Environmental Sciences, A T Still University, Faisalabad, 574 Division of General Internal Medicine, Harvard University, Boston, MA, USA Pakistan 629 575 National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan Gomal Center of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Gomal University, Dera Ismail 576 College of Medicine, Yonsei University, Seodaemun-­gu, South Korea Khan, Pakistan 630 577 Division of Cardiology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA TB Culture Laboratory, Mufti Mehmood Memorial Teaching Hospital, Dera Ismail 578 Finnish Institute of Occupational Health, Helsinki, Finland Khan, Pakistan 631 579 Department of Health Education & Promotion, Kermanshah University of Medical Research Department, National Institute of Population Studies (NIPS), Islamabad, Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran Pakistan 632 580 School of Health, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University Rajasthan, Jaipur, India 633 581 Department of Psychology, Reykjavik University, Reykjavik, Iceland Division of Health Sciences, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK 634 582 Department of Health and Behavior Studies, Columbia University, New York, NY, Argentine Society of Medicine, Buenos Aires, Argentina 635 USA Velez Sarsfield Hospital, Buenos Aires, Argentina 636 583 Department of Forensic Medicine, Kathmandu University, Dhulikhel, Nepal UKK Institute, Tampere, Finland 637 584 Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, Raffles Neuroscience Centre, Raffles Hospital, Singapore 638 USA Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 639 585 Medicine Service, US Department of Veterans Affairs (VA), Birmingham, AL, USA Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy 640 586 Department of Epidemiology, School of Preventive Oncology, Patna, India Occupational Health Unit, Sant’Orsola Malpighi Hospital, Bologna, Italy 641 587 Department of Epidemiology, Healis Sekhsaria Institute for Public Health, Mumbai, Department of Health Care Administration and Economics, National Research India University Higher School of Economics, Moscow, Russia 642 588 2nd Department of Surgery-­SUUB, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Foundation University Medical College, Foundation University, Islamabad, Pakistan 643 Pharmacy, Bucharest, Romania Demographic Change and Ageing Research Area, Federal Institute for Population 589 2nd Surgery Department, Bucharest Emergency Hospital, Bucharest, Romania Research, Wiesbaden, Germany 644 590 Pain Management Research Institute (PMRI), Northern Clinical School, University Center of Population and Health, Wiesbaden, Germany 645 of Sydney, St Leonards, NSW, Australia Department of Physical Therapy, Naresuan University, Meung District, Thailand 646 591 Michael J Cousins Pain Management & Research Centre, Northern Sydney Local Department of Human Anatomy, Histology, Embryology, Bahir Dar University, Health District, St Leonards, NSW, Australia Bahir Dar, Ethiopia 592 647 Department of Medical Surgical Nursing, Urmia University of Medical Science, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Mekelle University, Mekelle, Ethiopia 648 Urmia, Iran Department of Pharmacology, Addis Ababa University, Addis ababa, Ethiopia 593 649 Emergency Nursing Department, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Department of Nursing, Wollo University, Dessie, Ethiopia 650 Iran Department of Orthopaedics, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China i112 James SL, et al. Inj Prev 2020;26:i96–i114. doi:10.1136/injuryprev-2019-043494 Original research 651 Medical Physics Department, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, by the Ministry of Education Science and Technological Development of the Ahvaz, Iran Republic of Serbia through the Grant number OI175014; publication of results 652 Department of Preventive Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA was not contingent upon Ministry’s censorship or approval. Sudha Jayaraman 653 School of International Development and Global Studies, University of Ottawa, acknowledges support from: NIH R21: 1R21TW010439-­01A1 (PI); Rotary OttawaON, Canada 654 Foundation Global Grant #GG1749568 (PI); NIH P20: 1P20CA210284-­01A1 Health Services Management Research Center, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran (Co-­PI); DOD grant W81XWH-16-2-0040 (Co-­I) during the submitted work. Yun Jin 655 Department of Health Management, Policy and Economics, Kerman University of Kim acknowledges support from a grant from the Research Management Centre, Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran Xiamen University Malaysia [grant number: XMUMRF/2018-­C2/ITCM/0001]. 656 Centre for Suicide Research and Prevention, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Kewal Krishan acknowledges support by UGC Centre of Advanced Study (CAS II) China awarded to the Department of Anthropology, Panjab University, Chandigarh, India. 657 Department of Social Work and Social Administration, University of Hong Kong, Manasi Kumar acknowledges FIC/NIH funding from grant K43 1K43MH114320-01. Hong Kong, China Amanda Mason-­Jones acknowledges institutional support from the University of 658 School of Allied Health Sciences, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia 659 York. Walter Mendoza is currently Program Analyst Population and Development Department of Psychopharmacology, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Tokyo, Japan at the Peru Country Office of the United Nations Population Fund-­UNFPA, which 660 Department of Sociology, Yonsei University, Seoul, South Korea not necessarily endorses this study. Mariam Molokhia acknowledges support 661 Department of Health Policy & Management, Jackson State University, Jackson, from the National Institute for Health Research Biomedical Research Center at MS, USA Guy’s and St Thomas’ National Health Service Foundation Trust and King’s College 662 School of Medicine, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China London. Ilais Moreno Velásquez acknowledges support by the Sistema Nacional de 663 Department of Environmental Health, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Investigación (SNI, Senacyt, Panama). Mukhammad David Naimzada acknowledges Sari, Iran support from Government of the Russian Federation (Agreement No – 075-02- 664 Department of Environmental Health, Academy of Medical Science, Sari, Iran 2019-967). Stanislav S. Otstavnov acknowledges the support from the Government 665 School of Public Health and Management, Hubei University of Medicine, Shiyan, China of the Russian Federation (Agreement No – 075-02-2019-967). Ashish Pathak 666 Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China acknowledges support from the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR), New 667 Global Health Institute, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China Delhi, India (Grant number 2013-1253). Michael R Phillips acknowledges support in 668 Social Determinants of Health Research Center, Ardabil University of Medical part by a grant from the National Science Foundation of China (No. 81761128031). Science, Ardabil, Iran Marina Pinheiro acknowledges FCT for funding support through program DL 669 Department of Epidemiology, University Hospital of Setif, Setif, Algeria 57/2016-­Norma transitória. Abdallah M. Samy acknowledges support from a 670 Department of Medicine, School of Clinical Sciences at Monash Health, Monash fellowship from the Egyptian Fulbright Mission Program. Milena Santric Milicevic University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia acknowledges the support from the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological 671 Student Research Committee, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran 672 Development, the Republic of Serbia (Contract No. 175087). Seyedmojtaba Department of Community Medicine, Ardabil University of Medical Science, Ardabil, Iran Seyedmousavi acknowledges support from the Intramural Research Program of the 673 Department of Environment Health Engineering, Gonabad University of Medical National Institutes of Health, Clinical Center, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Sciences, Gonabad, Iran Bethesda, MD, USA. Rafael Tabarés-­Seisdedos acknowledges support in part by 674 Faculty of Medical Sciences, Department of Health Education, Tarbiat Modares the national grant PI17/00719 from ISCIII-­FEDER. Sojib Bin Zaman acknowledges University, Tehran, Iran support from an "Australian Government Research Training Program (RTP) 675 Department of Preventive Medicine, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China Scholarship." Louisa Degenhardt acknowledges support from an Australian National 676 School of Public Health, Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) Senior Principal Research Fellowship China 677 (#1135991) and by a National Institute of Health (NIH) National Institute on Drug Hubei Province Key Laboratory of Occupational Hazard Identification and Control, Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China Abuse (NIDA) grant (R01DA1104470). 678 Indian Institute of Public Health, Public Health Foundation of India, Gurugram, Funding Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation OPP1152504. India 679 Map disclaimer The depiction of boundaries on the map(s) in this article do not National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of BMJ (or any member Sydney, NSW, Australia 680 of its group) concerning the legal status of any country, territory, jurisdiction or area Department of Community Medicine, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka or of its authorities. The map(s) are provided without any warranty of any kind, either 681 Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical express or implied. Medicine, London, UK Competing interests Dr. James reports grants from Sanofi Pasteur, outside the submitted work. Dr. Driscoll reports grants from World Health Organization, during Acknowledgements Syed Aljunid acknowledges the Department of Health Policy the conduct of the study. Dr. Ivers reports grants from National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia, during the conduct of the study. Dr. Jozwiak reports and Management, Faculty of Public Health, Kuwait University and International personal fees from TEVA, personal fees from ALAB, personal fees from BOEHRINGER Centre for Casemix and Clinical Coding, Faculty of Medicine, National University of INGELHEIM, personal fees from SYNEXUS, non-­financial support from SERVIER, non-­ Malaysia and for the approval and support to participate in this research project. financial support from MICROLIFE, non-­financial support from MEDICOVER, outside Alaa Badawi acknowledges support from the Public Health Agency of Canada. Till the submitted work. Dr. Rakovac reports grants from World Health Organization, Bärnighausen acknowledges support from the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation during the conduct of the study. Dr Shariful Islam is funded by National Heart through the Alexander von Humboldt Professor award, funded by the German Foundation of Australia and Institute for Physical Activity and Nutrition, Deakin Federal Ministry of Education and Research. Felix Carvalho acknowledges UID/ University. Dr. Sheikh reports grants from Health Data Research UK, outside the MULTI/04378/2019 support with funding from FCT/MCTES through national submitted work. Dr. Singh reports personal fees from Crealta/Horizon, Medisys, funds. Vera M Costa acknowledges her grant (SFRH/BHD/110001/2015), received Fidia, UBM LLC, Trio health, Medscape, WebMD, Clinical Care options, Clearview by Portuguese national funds through Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia healthcare partners, Putnam associates, Spherix, Practice Point communications, the National Institutes of Health and the American College of Rheumatology, and (FCT), IP, under the Norma Transitória DL57/2016/CP1334/CT0006. Kebede Speaker’s bureau of Simply Speaking, owns stock options in Amarin pharmaceuticals Deribe acknowledges support from a grant from the Wellcome Trust [grant and Viking pharmaceuticals, serves on the steering committee of OMERACT, an number 201900] as part of his International Intermediate Fellowship. Tim Driscoll international organization that develops measures for clinical trials and receives acknowledges the work on occupational risk factors was partially supported by arm’s length funding from 12 pharmaceutical companies, serves on the FDA funds from the World Health Organization. Eduarda Fernandes acknowledges UID/ Arthritis Advisory Committee, is a member of the Veterans Affairs Rheumatology QUI/50006/2019 support with funding from FCT/MCTES through national funds. Field Advisory Committee, and is the editor and the Director of the UAB Cochrane Yuming Guo acknowledges support from Career Development Fellowships of the Musculoskeletal Group Satellite Center on Network Meta-­analysis, outside the Australian National Health and Medical Research Council (numbers APP1107107 submitted work. Dr. Stein reports personal fees from Lundbeck, personal fees from and APP1163693). Sheikh Mohammed Shariful Islam acknowledges funding by a Sun, outside the submitted work. Dr. Degenhardt reports grants from Indivior, Fellowship from National Heart Foundation of Australia and Institute for Physical Seqirus, Reckitt Benckiser, outside the submitted work. Activity and Nutrition, Deakin University.Mihajlo Jakovljevic acknowledges support Patient consent for publication Not required. James SL, et al. Inj Prev 2020;26:i96–i114. doi:10.1136/injuryprev-2019-043494 i113 Original research Provenance and peer review Not commissioned; externally peer reviewed. risks or clusters of risks for 195 countries and territories, 1990–2017: a systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2017. The Lancet 2018;392:1923–94. Data availability statement Availability of input data depends on original 15 Kyu HH, Abate D, Abate KH, et al. Global, regional, and national disability-­adjusted source. Select data are available in a public, open access repository. Select data are life-­years (DALYs) for 359 diseases and injuries and healthy life expectancy (HALE) for available on reasonable request. Select data may be obtained from a third party and 195 countries and territories, 1990–2017: a systematic analysis for the global burden are not publicly available. All results relevant to the study are included in the article of disease study 2017. 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