ORIGINAL RESEARCH published: 24 July 2020 doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01731 A Systematic Observation of Early Childhood Educators Accompanying Young Children’s Free Play at Emmi Pikler Nursery School: Instrumental Behaviors and Their Relational Value Jone Sagastui 1* , Elena Herrán 1 and M. Teresa Anguera 2 1 Department of Developmental and Educational Psychology, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Leioa, Spain, 2 Faculty of Psychology, Institute of Neurosciences, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain A significant number of literature documents young children’s innate interest in discovering their surroundings and gradually developing more complex activities and thoughts. It has been demonstrated that when environments support young children’s innate interest and progressive autonomy, they help children acquire a self- determined behavior. However, little is known about the application of this evidence Edited by: in the daily practice of early childhood educational settings. This study examines Pei Sun, Emmi Pikler Nursery School, a center that implements an autonomy-supportive Tsinghua University, China educational approach. We conducted a systematic observation of two experienced Reviewed by: David Sobel, Pikler educators while they accompanied young children’s free play. Our objective was Brown University, United States to assess: if educators’ instrumental action follows a systematic behavioral sequence, Elisabetta Sagone, University of Catania, Italy if specific relational behaviors support each instrumental action, and if educators *Correspondence: display differentiated intervention levels concerning children’s free play through the Jone Sagastui adaptation of the relational dimension. We conducted a lag sequential analysis to find jone.sagastui@ehu.eus behavioral patterns and concurrences between the observed behaviors. Our findings Specialty section: indicate that educators perform systematic action sequences and that each of the This article was submitted to instrumental actions of those sequences has a specific relational value. We conclude Educational Psychology, that educators display three differentiated intervention levels depending on the child a section of the journal Frontiers in Psychology and the circumstances of the moment, providing appropriate autonomy support and Received: 08 April 2020 reinforcing children’s self-determination. Accepted: 23 June 2020 Keywords: early childhood, free play, lag sequential analysis, Pikler–Lóczy educational approach, self- Published: 24 July 2020 determination theory, systematic observation Citation: Sagastui J, Herrán E and Anguera MT (2020) A Systematic INTRODUCTION Observation of Early Childhood Educators Accompanying Young It is well known that play is one of the most important activities for early development and learning. Children’s Free Play at Emmi Pikler Nursery School: Instrumental According to Wallon’s (1974) psychogenetic and dialectic theory, the simplest form that precedes Behaviors and Their Relational Value. play is sensomotor activity, considered the root of thinking, one of the components of intelligence. Front. Psychol. 11:1731. Its origin was defined as explosive (Wallon, 1980), as it takes the form of an internal need that doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01731 suddenly wakes up and begins from simple movements, caused by the investigatory or orienting Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 1 July 2020 | Volume 11 | Article 1731 Sagastui et al. Free Play Accompanying: Systematic Observation reflex (Pavlov, 1960). It evolves from subjective forms to more It facilitates healthy and integrated functioning (Deci and Ryan, objective actions toward the external world (Wallon, 1980): 1985, 1991, 2000). Moreover, it has been shown that when children explore the objects around them, while they try to environments are autonomy-supportive, they tend to support discover all their interactive possibilities, and through the competence and relatedness needs, too (Ryan and Deci, 2011). functional integration of those discoveries, they develop more Given that it is the adults’ responsibility to manage the complex and autonomous activities and thoughts (Wallon, 2008). environment that enables child development and to ensure that In fact, following this author, the specific conduct that a children relate with it, we have reviewed some studies concerning young child performs is a result of a combination of his adults’ role. Many research works have been carried out in current competence, the circumstances – physical and human – schools, given the fact that there cannot be learning without surrounding it and the child’s capacity to relate himself with volition (Ryan and Deci, 2011). Their findings demonstrate those precise circumstances (Wallon, 1980). In this sense, it is that, when teachers are autonomy-supportive, elementary school important to understand that, from the child’s perspective, they students are more intrinsically motivated, perceive themselves to do not actually play, but they live; they live very seriously and be more competent, and have higher self-esteem (Deci et al., 1981; get all their functions and emotions involved in every single act Deci, 1995). Furthermore, Ryan and Deci (2000) posited that that they perform from the moment they are born (White, 1959; when teachers harness intrinsic motivation instead of attempting Tardos and Szanto-Feder, 2018). Moreover, playful activity gives to promote development through external factors, the results in children the possibility to recreate previously lived experiences terms of persistence and quality of learning can be profound. (Wallon, 2008), develop their imagination (Vygotsky, 2000), and Some other studies have focused on earlier developmental learn culture-specific behavioral norms (Tomasello, 2000). stages due to the importance of social supports for intrinsic In the same line, self-determination theory (Deci and Ryan, motivation to arise (Deci and Ryan, 2000; Ryan and Deci, 2000, 2000) explains the human need to be the origin of their own 2011). Studies carried out with infants and young children in conduct and the source of that behavior: intrinsic motivation. their family contexts have concluded that parental autonomy When it comes to children, they are intrinsically motivated support is associated with higher odds of children being globally to play from a very early age, as they are innately curious, well adjusted (Joussemet et al., 2005). Maternal autonomy interested creatures who possess a natural love for learning support was found to be a predictor of toddlers’ security of and a desire to internalize the gained knowledge (Niemiec attachment (Whipple et al., 2011) and later executive functioning and Ryan, 2009). Although intrinsic motivation is innate, it (Bernier et al., 2010). is influenced by the three basic psychological needs presented This is particularly important as executive function, together through self-determination theory (Deci, 1975; Deci and Ryan, with self-regulation skills (Kochanska et al., 2001), are considered 2000): autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Autonomy refers vital in today’s world (Yogman et al., 2018) and play has to the organismic desire to self-organize experience and behavior, been demonstrated to enable their emergence. Studies have and to perform self-endorsed, volitional activities, concordant demonstrated that successful educational programs are the ones with one’s integrated sense of self (Deci and Ryan, 2000); it that support playful learning, in which children are actively refers to feeling that one is the origin of one’s actions (Joussemet engaged in meaningful discovery (Hirsh-Pasek et al., 2009). et al., 2005). Competence was defined by White (1959) as an However, we found fewer investigations focusing on autonomy- energy source that takes the form of an inclination to have an supportive educational approaches toward babies, toddlers, and effect on the environment and to attain valued outcomes in it. young children at nursery schools. This is especially alarming Finally, although relatedness is less central to intrinsic motivation today, as we live in a society where early schooling (0–3 years) (Deci and Ryan, 2000), this motivation is more likely to flourish has become a generalized trend, so early childhood education in contexts characterized by some sense of secure relatedness professionals have the challenge of offering babies, toddlers, and (Ryan and La Guardia, 2000). young children optimal conditions for their development in those Thus, intrinsic motivation and, together with it, self- increasingly formalized environments (Hewes, 2014), which is determination require the emergence of the self to develop, which not yet occurring (European Commission, 2019). is intimately related to proactivity or own action, accompanied In light of this matter, the purpose of the present paper is by the need to influence in one’s environment favorably as well as to scientifically examine an educational setting that has proven a satisfactory bonding relationship. Even if intrinsic motivation to be autonomy-supportive and, concurrently, to suggest it as a is child-centered, children would not be able to satisfy their recommendable solution to harness babies’, toddlers’, and young psychological needs on their own. Precisely, adults have to children’s healthy development and self-determination. ensure that children’s basic psychological needs are satisfied and An early-childhood-oriented educational approach based on support their autonomous development (Deci and Ryan, 2000). the family context but applied and developed in a collective Specifically, adults’ intervention needs to be particularly delicate institution – a foster home on its origins and a nursery school when it comes to babies, toddlers, and young children, as their nowadays – that has proven to be autonomy-supportive is the one early experiences will determine their future performance. To proposed through Pikler–Lóczy education. The four main pillars make sure that young children’s psychological needs are satisfied, of this educational approach are (David and Appell, 1986, 2010): adults have to be autonomy-supportive and, consequently, avoid the knowledge and recognition of babies’ and toddlers’ early being controlling. Autonomy support means being able to take capacities, the establishment of a privileged affective relationship the other person’s perspective and work from there (Deci, 1995). (Falk, 2018a) between each toddler and his or her primary Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 2 July 2020 | Volume 11 | Article 1731 Sagastui et al. Free Play Accompanying: Systematic Observation educator, the need to favor each child’s awareness of himself and than 70 years of favorable experience in the original center his surroundings, and the importance of a healthy state, which where this pedagogy arose – the foster home – (Pikler, 1940, is the origin as well as a consequence of a proper application of 1968, 1969, 1988, 1998; Pikler and Tardos, 1968; Tardos, 1964, the previous principles. They give a special value to everyday life 1967, 1972) contributed to a better understanding about early and recognize daily care routines as the most suitable moments child capacities. Nowadays, since they opened in 2006, Emmi to ensure a healthy and harmonious development as well as an Pikler Nursery School follows the same principles with toddlers adjusted, progressive, and child-driven learning: caregiving is and children living with their families. Specifically, they ensure education (Herrán, 2013). that each child has a privileged affective relationship with his From Pikler–Lóczy educational approach, when young or her primary educator during the daily care routines and children have an emotionally stable relationship with their that they have the opportunity to act autonomously and play educators, they are happy during the time spent together, but they freely during the rest of the time, under the educators’ attention do not wish to have someone at their side permanently (Szöke, and adapted help. To ensure the quality of their interventions, 2016; Falk, 2018b; Tardos, 2018a). During free play episodes, educators are trained when they join the institution; they conduct children have a space designed according to their security and continuous observations and reflect about them together with the exploration needs (Tardos and David, 2018), which arouses pedagogical team of the nursery school (Kelemen, 2016) which a continually renovated pleasure and favors playful activity, makes their professional intervention specific to this model and, if children are developmentally ready and open to it (David therefore, ensures children’s well-being. and Appell, 1986, 2010; Kálló and Balog, 2013; Tardos, 2014). Thus, based on their pedagogical positioning, Pikler–Lóczy This kind of activity permits toddlers to live rich experiences, education would meet the ideas presented through self- and at the same time, it ensures a psychological space where determination theory (Deci and Ryan, 2000) due to the they can act following their own internal needs (Tardos and autonomy-supportive nature of its educational approach. The David, 2018). By performing their own actions and observing management of the daily care routines and the free play episodes their impacts, babies, toddlers, and young children live an is adapted to every child, and the circumstances of the moment, essential learning experience and begin to regulate their conduct which would ensure children’s basic psychological needs are autonomously: they learn to learn (Tardos, 2010, 2018a; Tardos covered. This justifies our interest in discovering the details that and Szanto-Feder, 2018). Therefore, this educational approach orient the educational activity of Pikler educators. ensures that young children have the three psychological needs To deepen in our knowledge about this educational approach, proposed by self-determination theory (Deci, 1975; Deci and it is basic to get to know the educators’ actions throughout the Ryan, 2000) satisfied in the context of the nursery school: everyday life of the nursery school, in this case, during children’s autonomy, competence, and relatedness. The privileged affective free play episodes. The best way to accomplish this goal is by relationship promotes toddlers’ relatedness in each of their observing their educational activity while they create, maintain, developmental stages and everyday life moments: daily care and manage the optimal conditions for spontaneous free play routines or free play episodes; at the same time, the physical and to happen in a natural setting: the regular classroom. For this psychological environment around children is adapted to their purpose, we opt to carry out an observational study (Anguera, needs, so they can attain desired outcomes and have an effect on 2003) due to its numerous possibilities to analyze human their surroundings, thus, living their current competence (Pikler, interaction in natural contexts, like this one. Observational 2018) and finally, they can be autonomous in all circumstances, methodology has a low degree of internal control, as it aims according to their level. to discover spontaneous behavior in natural settings and, To ensure that they are autonomy-supportive and adaptive therefore, is considered to be the most suitable for studying it to children, educators have to follow the stages of their (Sánchez-Algarra and Anguera, 2013). Previous observational development. From this perspective, the essential condition for studies have demonstrated the existence of structured behavioral an efficient educational activity consists of getting to know patterns in observed educators’ activity during daily care the children in the group well (Tardos, 2018b). Also, the tool routines such as giving breakfast (Belza et al., 2019a,b) and to accomplish this purpose is the observation of the children dressing toddlers (Belasko et al., 2019). Our challenge now is (Mózes, 2016) during the different moments of everyday life in to study the educational activity of educators accompanying the nursery school. Educators perform a participant observation children’s free play. of children’s action, which translates into a psychological At first sight, while children are playing, educators’ positioning toward them (Mózes, 2016). Precisely, the attention intervention is minimal compared with that in the daily that does not intervene while children are autonomously acting care routines. Children’s autonomous activity seems to be little is a basic instrument of Pikler–Lóczy education and sends a organized by educators, who come to the play area to tidy up significant message to them: “you’re important, what you’re objects or to provide children with new toys, apparently, without doing is interesting” (Mózes, 2016). following an established order. This study aims to discover if the In fact, it was babies’ and toddlers’ observation the tool educational activity of experienced Pikler educators, while they that gave this educational approach the profound knowledge accompany children’s free play, does have an internal structure or about early development they nowadays have. The observation if their behavior is an effect of chance. Their educational activity of babies’ and toddlers’ development that enabled thorough and is formed by the educators’ physical or instrumental and human comprehensive longitudinal studies carried out during the more or relational behaviors that intend to guarantee young children’s Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 3 July 2020 | Volume 11 | Article 1731 Sagastui et al. Free Play Accompanying: Systematic Observation active role in their activity and their interest, initiative, and work. The authors’ university’s ethics committee had previously progress. That is, what educators do, and how they do it is basic approved the protocol. All procedures were following the to promote children’s autonomy, competence, and relatedness ethical standards of this ethics committee and the 2000 while they are playing freely. Declaration of Helsinki. The purpose of our study was three-fold: firstly, to assess if We analyzed the educators’ interactive activity toward educators’ instrumental action follows a systematic behavioral everything that happened in the play area, inside the regular sequence, adapted to the circumstances of the moment; secondly, classroom, during children’s free play episodes. Each of the to analyze if each instrumental action by the educator is educators necessarily interacted with her group of children and, supported by one or more specific relational behaviors; and also, with different adults who came to the classroom during the thirdly, to discover if the potential sequences of children’s free direct observation sessions, such as children’s family members or play accompanying have different levels and characteristics, other nursery school staff. reflecting an evolving relational adaptation by the educator to the They were both 2- to 3-year-old children groups. Educator 1 activity of the child at a given time. had a younger group (average age = 31 months), with a total of 10 We hypothesize that the educational activity of the observed children, 5 girls and 5 boys. Educator 2 had older children in her educators is not random but that the instrumental dimension group, 12 in total, 8 girls and 4 boys (average age = 35 months). of their educational activity supports children’s free play Written, informed consent was obtained from the parents of through intentional and sequential behavior. We also expect minors, too, as they were also video-recorded and involved in the that educators adapt the relational dimension of their action purpose of the study. to adjust it to the physical and human circumstances of each moment, providing children with proper autonomy support. Instruments Consequently, we expect that their educational activity displays Observation Instrument differentiated intervention levels, always adapted to the children The observation and assessment of educators’ spontaneous and their circumstances. behavior in a natural context and other variables around it required the use of an observational tool that was created ad hoc. Specifically, we designed a field format (Anguera, 2001, MATERIALS AND METHODS 2003) “Accompanying free play in Emmi Pikler Nursery School” (Table 1) that was validated in a previous study (Ormaza, 2016). Design A field format is a multidimensional, open system that can be In this study, we applied a systematic observation to analyze the codified in multiple, flexible, and self-regulating ways (Anguera, educational activity of free play accompanying. It is a mixed- 2003). Its construction begins with the establishment of some methods approach that combines the benefits of qualitative and general dimensions or criteria related to the observed reality quantitative methodologies (Anguera and Izquierdo, 2006); as a that can unfold more specific subdimensions, under which the mixed-methods approach, our proposal consists on organizing qualitative data in a systematized structure (matrix of codes), which is qualitative, but that can be quantitatively analyzed TABLE 1 | “Accompanying free play in Emmi Pikler Nursery School” field format. considering the temporal organization of the behaviors. Precisely, observational methodology allows the analysis of spontaneous Dimension Level I subdimension Level II Code behavior in natural settings and everyday contexts (Anguera, subdimension 2003); therefore, it enables us to obtain rich information Instrumental behavior Participants (adults) Educator H1 by capturing the part of the reality we are interested in Other adults H2 (Anguera, 2010). Participants (children) Main child(ren) H3 The observational design (Anguera et al., 2011) of this study Other children H4 was (N/F/M): nomothetic because two educators were observed; Physical elements Space A1 follow-up, given that we analyzed sessions recorded in a 3-month Instrumental action A2 time period; and multidimensional because several dimensions of Materials/toys A3 the educational activity were evaluated. Recipients A4 The approach of this study was scientifically rigorous because Relational behavior Verbal Verbal P1 the observer had a nonparticipatory role in the class and Paraverbal Paraverbal P2 the behaviors observed in the study are fully perceivable Proxemics Static/alone P3 (Bakeman and Quera, 2011). Static/with child P4 Movement P5 Participants Kinetics Visual gestures P6 The participants of this study were two experienced Pikler Facial gestures P7 educators. The selection of the participants was made between Hand gestures P8 the professional team and the nursery school manager. The Emblems P9 chosen educators provided written, informed consent to be Illustrators P10 video-recorded and for those recordings to be part of research Regulators P11 Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 4 July 2020 | Volume 11 | Article 1731 Sagastui et al. Free Play Accompanying: Systematic Observation observer elaborates a list of the conducts related to each of them, of the sample using HOISAN program on its 1.6.3.3.6 version and that achieve the requirement of mutual exclusivity (Anguera, (Hernández Mendo et al., 2012). 2003; Anguera et al., 2007). The educational activity during children’s free play combines Procedure two dimensions (Wallon, 1985): the physical/instrumental, The sample used in this study – the video-recordings of free play related to the instrumental behaviors that educators perform accompanying – was part of wider research and was collected in while children are playing and the physical space where these are a 3-month time period. The sessions were delimited respecting developed, and the interactive/relational, the one they establish two main requisites: within- and between-session consistency through verbal and nonverbal behavior. Therefore, these two (Portell et al., 2015). For this study, a total of 27 sessions were levels were selected as the two main dimensions of the field recorded (16 for educator 1 and 11 for educator 2), in which format. The next step was to specify the subdimensions that the educators were accompanying children’s free play. The total would come under each of them. video-recording time was 4 h 50’ 44". When it comes to the physical/instrumental aspects that Once the data collection was done, we conducted a descriptive influence educators’ behavior, we decided to define three recording of all sessions. The main purpose was to divide subdimensions that were later divided into a more specific level. the video-recordings into behavioral units, which contain the Therefore, the instrumental dimension includes three level I minimum amount of information that has its own meaning subdimensions and eight level II subdimensions. First, the adults (Anguera, 2003). The behavioral units were delimited by the present in each particular moment, which includes two level II round-strolls (Wallon, 2008) that educators take around the play subdimensions: educator (H1) and other adults (H2). Second, area and in a differentiated way while they tidy up, pick up the children involved in each action, including another two toys, offer materials, or intervene, depending on the situation level II subdimensions: children in the foreground (H3) and of the play area and the child or group of children in each the background (H4) of educators’ attention. Third, the physical particular moment. We counted with 553 behavioral units on the elements that define each moment, divided into four level II educators’ free play accompanying (370 for educator 1 and 183 subdimensions: space (A1), the educators’ instrumental action for educator 2). itself (A2), materials/toys (A3), and recipients (A4). It is a total Then, we proceeded to develop the systematized recording of three level I subdimensions and eight level II subdimensions, of the behavioral units through the codes specified in the which include 157 behaviors that enabled us to describe the observation instrument. This led us to a codification of the instrumental aspect of the educational activity. observed reality showing concurrent or simultaneous behaviors The development of the relational dimension was more that correspond to the subdimensions of the field format, complex and challenging but yet very important due to our resulting in a record that takes the format of a code matrix. interest in discovering this side of the educators’ behavior. The columns that form the matrix correspond to the 19 level This led us to take the contributions of important theorists II subdimensions included in both dimensions of the field into account as a starting point for the construction of format. The rows show the codes of the different behaviors – the subdimensions under the relational aspect. These define one for each subdimension – that occur simultaneously. Every the communicative flow of the educational activity, which time that one of the behaviors specified on a row changes, accompanies their instrumental action. Specifically, there are 4 a new row starts, showing the specific behaviors of that level I subdimensions and 11 level II subdimensions regarding particular moment. The succession of the rows that form the educators’ relational behavior: verbal behavior (P1); paraverbal matrix illustrates the diachronic development of each session behavior (P2); proxemics (Hall, 1966), divided into static alone (Anguera, 2010). Its content reveals the enormous complexity (P3), static with child (P4), and movement (P5); and kinetics of information contained within the human communicative flow (Ekman and Friesen, 1969; Ekman, 1976; Poyatos, 1986), divided (Anguera and Izquierdo, 2006). into visual gestures (P6), face gestures (P7), hand gestures (P8), emblems (P9), illustrators (P10), and regulators (P11). These Quality of the Data include a total of 104 behaviors. The quality of the data was measured using HOISAN 1.6.3.3.6 The resulting field format can be defined as a very program (Hernández-Mendo et al., 2014), by calculating molecularized one (Schegloff, 2000) due to the complexity of the canonical concordance of Krippendorff (2013) both the observed activity. Specifically, it has unfolded four levels, interobserver and intraobserver. So, 10% of the total sample successively included in the field format: dimensions, level I was recorded by an external researcher, and one of the authors subdimensions, level II subdimensions, and behaviors. These of this study recorded it again a time after recording the whole create a hierarchical system that gives an extremely detailed sample. Both calculations were satisfactory, with a value of 0.83 picture of the educational activity of free play accompanying. and 0.84 (0–1). Recording Instruments Data Analysis The sessions were video-recorded in the play area using a The quantification is particularly robust in observational SONY DCR-SR37 video camera. Following the principles of the methodology, and we opted to apply lag sequential analysis Declaration of Helsinki, participants were informed that they (Bakeman and Gottman, 1997), a technique used to obtain were being filmed. We conducted the systematized recording regularities and behavioral patterns in the observed participants. Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 5 July 2020 | Volume 11 | Article 1731 Sagastui et al. Free Play Accompanying: Systematic Observation TABLE 2 | Behaviors under the instrumental action (A2) subdimension of TABLE 3 | Behaviors under the emblems (P9), illustrators (P10), and regulators the field format. (P11) subdimensions of the field format. A2 – Instrumental action A200 – None P9 – Emblems P900 – No emblem A201 – Opens/closes door, cupboard P901 – Points/shows A202 – Passes from top P902 – Opens hand to ask for A203 – Picks up materials, toys P903 – Tilts her head A204 – Tidies up materials, toys P904 – Announces her departure A205 – Transports materials, toys P905 – “I see that” A206 – Tidies up spaces P906 – Strokes/looks after toy A207 – Dresses dolls P907 – Strategic position A208 – Offers materials, toys P908 – Waits, gives time A209 – Looks for materials, toys P909 – Verifies, does it again A210 – Gives material, toy to a child P910 – Overtakes hand (secures) A211 – Distributes to children P911 – Asks by lifting head A212 – Accompanies complex activity P912 – Asks by opening hands A213 – Throws away (to the paper bin) P913 – Raises hand (says hi) A214 – Folds (blanket, clothes) P10 – Illustrators P1000 – No illustrator A215 – Moves/drags recipients with toys on the floor P1001 – Nods A216 – Other P1002 – Shakes her head (“no”) A217 – Accepts toy from child P1003 – Tilts her head A218 – Holds materials, toys P1004 – Arms crossed/centripetal P1005 – Arms open/centrifugal P1006 – Changes gaze to another target Specifically, it identifies patterns and associations between the P1007 – Focused gaze observed behaviors and reveals the possible associations between P1008 – Mediates with arm (in conflict) these behaviors through the calculation of observed and expected P11 – Regulators P1100 – No regulator probabilities (Bakeman and Quera, 2011). Specifically, the data P1101 – Marks beginning used for this analysis were type II: event-based and concurrent P1102 – Her action is before child’s next (Bakeman, 1978). To perform data analysis, we used GSEQ v. 5.1 P1103 – Makes child do computer program (Bakeman and Quera, 2011). P1104 – Lets child do, and she continues her action Starting from a certain behavior (criterion behavior), selected P1105 – Lets child do, and she stops her action based on the objectives of the study, it allows us to know what P1106 – Follows child’s action other behaviors (conditioned behaviors) precede and follow it, P1107 – Marks ending through retrospective (lags −1, −2, −3, etc.) and prospective P1108 – Accepts child’s “no” (lags +1, +2, +3, etc.) lag sequential analyses. The results P1109 – Last touch obtained are adjusted residuals, which show the likelihood of appearing of each conditioned behavior in every negative and positive lag that is studied. Depending on the adjusted residual the observation instrument, 19 in total, were first subjected to obtained, we can assess if the likelihood of appearing is higher lag sequential analysis. All of them were selected as criterion and than the effects of chance, with a significance level of p< 0.05 conditioned behaviors, as we wanted to discover the relationship (adjusted residual > 1.96). The concurrence of behaviors can be between them. We conducted retrospective and prospective lag studied, too, considering the adjusted residuals obtained in lag 0. sequential analyses (lags −5 to +5) to obtain information about We first used this analytical technique to study if educators’ what happens before and after each of the criterion behaviors. The instrumental action followed specific behavioral patterns, so the same analyses were done with both educators’ recordings. Due behaviors under this particular subdimension were included in to the complexity of educators’ behavior and the molecularity the analysis (Table 2). of our observation instrument, we found that some behaviors Then, we calculated the concurrences between the had significant results in adjacent lags. Therefore, patterns of instrumental actions that were part of the behavioral patterns interest were highlighted in the following tables, according to the and the relational behaviors under the emblems, illustrators, and aims of the study. regulators subdimensions (see Table 3). For educator 1, we found two behavioral patterns: “looks for a toy/material” and “transports toy/material.” The first pattern – looks for toy/material – (see Table 4) is formed by four behaviors RESULTS that can shape four different pattern combinations. It always starts with her looking for a toy or material and finishes by giving The first aim of this study was to discover behavioral patterns in it to a child. It can be a simple succession of just these behaviors the educators’ instrumental action. Therefore, all the behaviors or become more complex, in case she also transports, offers, or under the instrumental action subdimension (A2) included in performs both behaviors, as shown in Figure 1. Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 6 July 2020 | Volume 11 | Article 1731 Sagastui et al. Free Play Accompanying: Systematic Observation TABLE 4 | Significant adjusted residuals of the lag sequential TABLE 5 | Significant adjusted residuals of the lag sequential analysis for analysis for educator 1. educator 1. Lag 0 Lag +1 Lag +2 Lag +3 Lag -2 Lag -1 Lag 0 Lag +1 A205 – Transports toy/material 8.5 A203 – Picks up 5.51 11.63 2.71 A208 – Offers to a child 8.72 9.72 4.25 A204 – Tidies up 2.2 2.63 17.85 A209 – Looks for a toy/material 67.1 8.07 5.77 6.23 A205 – Transports toy/material 8.89 8.11 67.05 8.11 A210 – Gives to a child 10.18 12.1 7.34 A218 – Holds toy/material 4.11 8.86 “Looks for toy/material” pattern. “Transports toy/material” pattern. FIGURE 1 | Educator 1. “Looks for” pattern. FIGURE 2 | Educator 1. “Transports” pattern. The second pattern – transports toy/material – (see Table 5) is The same analyses were carried out with both educators’ less versatile. Before transporting a toy, she first picks it up, and recordings. The significant results found for each of them are she can also hold it for a while or not. Then, she transports it and shown in Tables 8, 9. tidies up on its final position systematically (Figure 2). The adjusted residuals obtained in lag 0 confirm the existence For educator 2, we found another two behavioral patterns: of significant relationships between the instrumental and the “gives toy/material to a child” and “transports toy/material.” relational dimensions of educators’ behavior. The first pattern – gives toy/material – (see Table 6) is a very systematic succession of four different behaviors, as shown in Figure 3. Before giving a toy, she looks for it and later transports it DISCUSSION to another area of the classroom. Then, she gives it to a child, and, finally, she accompanies a complex activity related to the object The obtained results meet the objectives proposed in this involved in the action (book reading or puzzle-solving). study. Moreover, they present a very detailed picture of The second pattern – transports toy/material – (see Table 7) the studied educators’ behavior while they are accompanying has two different options. Before transporting a toy, on the one children’s free play. hand, she can pick it up, and after she transports it, she can tidy The first objective was to discover if the educators’ it up on its final position. In this case, between the moment she instrumental action (Wallon, 1980) follows a systematic picks it up and transports it, she can also hold it for some time. succession of behaviors: different but precise physical actions On the other hand, she can previously look for a specific toy, related to children’s free play accompanying. As we had transport it, and give it to a child once in the final area of the classroom. This last option has a similar shape to the previously TABLE 6 | Significant adjusted residuals of the lag sequential explained pattern: gives toy/material. Both options are included analysis for educator 2. in the same pattern, as shown in Figure 4. All in all, we found four different behavioral patterns when Lag -2 Lag -1 Lag 0 Lag +1 studying the instrumental dimension of the educators’ behavior. A205 – Transports 8.34 One of them is common for both educators – transports toy/material toy/material – even if it is shaped quite differently by each A209 – Looks for a 5.96 of them. The second behavioral pattern, on the contrary, is toy/material particular for each of the educators. A210 – Gives to a child 42.94 Once the behavioral patterns for the instrumental dimension A212 – Complex activity 3.45 were analyzed, we wanted to study the relational dimension to accompanying discover their specificities. Having this in mind, we analyzed the “Gives toy/material” pattern. lag 0 or concurrence of the instrumental behaviors that constitute the behavioral patterns we had obtained for the instrumental dimension criterion behaviors – and some of the behaviors under the subdimensions included in the relational dimension. Specifically, we analyzed the concurrence with the emblems, illustrators, and regulators performed by the educators – FIGURE 3 | Educator 2. “Gives” pattern. conditioned behaviors. Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 7 July 2020 | Volume 11 | Article 1731 Sagastui et al. Free Play Accompanying: Systematic Observation TABLE 7 | Significant adjusted residuals of the lag sequential (Ekman, 1976), illustrators, and regulators (Ekman and Friesen, analysis for educator 2. 1969) – which complete educators’ instrumental action. Those Lag -2 Lag -1 Lag 0 Lag +1 actions are combined with other ones – tidying up (A204), picking up toys from the floor (A203), looking for them in the A203 – Picks up 3.54 14.58 cupboards (A209), and transporting materials (A205) – directed A204 – Tidies up 2.61 12.77 to objects, materials, or the classroom layout in general. The A205 – Transports toy/material 2.37 42.92 results show that when their instrumental action is directed to A209 – Looks for a toy/material 7.11 objects or materials instead of children, there are less relational A210 – Gives to a child 8.34 behaviors implied. A218 – Holds toy/material 3.67 5.48 3.11 We can, therefore, demonstrate the existence of free play “Transports toy/material” pattern. accompanying action patterns, formed by a masterly and differentiated combination of actions that include instrumental and relational dimensions (Figures 5, 6). Therefore, together with performing systematic instrumental patterns, the relational value is specific to each of the behaviors that constitute them. The great value of the free play accompanying action patterns lies in the precise and meticulous adaptation of the observed educators’ actions to each child or the particular circumstances of an everyday life moment as children’s free play episodes. FIGURE 4 | Educator 2. “Transports” pattern. This way, the hypothesis for the third objective of the study is confirmed: it is possible to distinguish three different intervention levels, depending on the intensity of educators’ behavior toward hypothesized, we found behavioral patterns when studying the young children: direct, indirect, and no intervention or presence. instrumental dimension of their educational activity: two for First, we just found direct intervention when educator 2 helps each of them. The strong results obtained demonstrate that the children who are facing a complex task. In this case, her instrumental dimension of their educational activity – what they action is even before children’s next, as regulator P1102 shows. do while children are playing – is systematic and well-established. So, when children ask for her support to solve a challenging The order in which their instrumental behaviors are carried activity, her role is to accompany this activity and provide out is not an effect of chance, but they act in a very particular meaningful feedback directly, so they can ultimately learn to way, meticulously following an established behavioral sequence solve that challenge on their own. The indirect intervention or choreography. appears when educators’ action is directed to children, but The results concerning the second objective of the study they just support children’s own activity from an outsider indicate that, together with acting in an organized way, the point of view. This happens when they offer, give, or hold relational dimension of their educational activity is specific materials that children need or may need. The instrumental for each of the instrumental behaviors. The findings indicate behaviors’ evident relational value proofs educators’ support, that the relational behaviors support educators’ instrumental but, at the same time, they do not disrupt children’s initiative. action if they target children, for example, when they help Finally, when they tidy up, pick up, transport, and look children who are facing a complex task (A212) when they hold for objects, there is no intervention, but they are present, an object (A218) while tidying up to follow children’s cues, trying to keep the playing area tidy, so children’s inherent offering (A208) and giving (A210) new materials if they seem interest is always renovated. Therefore, the intervention level bored, or they ask for something specific. Those instrumental of the observed educators’ educational activity is defined by behaviors are mediated by some kinetic elements – emblems the combination of their instrumental behaviors and their TABLE 8 | Concurrence of educators’ instrumental and relational behaviors. P9 Emblems P10 Illustrators P11 Regulators A203 – Picks up P900 – None 8.61 P1000 – None 6.99 P1100 – None 5.7 A204 – Tidies up P900 – None 8.07 P1000 – None 7.22 P1109 – Last touch 7.45 A205 – Transports P900 – None 5.73 P1000 – None 5.6 P1100 – None 4.73 A208 – Offers P901 – Points/shows 15.1 – P1103 – Makes child do 4.25 A209 – Looks for P900 – None 3.76 P1000 – None 2.61 P1100 – None 2.42 A210 – Gives P900 – None 3.12 P1000 – None 3.03 P1101 – Marks beginning 7.84 P1103 – Makes child do 10.69 A218 – Holds P906 – Strokes/looks after toy 12.7 P1003 – Tilts her head 2.67 P1108 – Accepts child’s “no” 2.17 Educator 1. Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 8 July 2020 | Volume 11 | Article 1731 Sagastui et al. Free Play Accompanying: Systematic Observation TABLE 9 | Concurrence of educators’ instrumental and relational behaviors. P9 Emblems P10 Illustrators P11 Regulators A203 – Picks up P900 – None 4.23 P1000 – None 3.84 P1100 – None 2.77 A204 – Tidies up P900 – None 5.7 P1000 – None 5.22 P1100 – None 3.03 A205 – Transports P900 – None 3.15 P1000 – None 3.84 P1100 – None 3.34 A209 – Looks for P900 – None 2.89 P1000 – None 2.22 P1100 – None 2.7 A210 – Gives P907 – Strategic position 2.65 – – A212 – Accompanies – – P1102 – Her action is ahead child’s next 15.5 A218 – Holds P906 – Strokes/looks after toy 3.94 P1008 – Mediates w/arm 4.44 P1105 – Lets child do and she stops P911 – Asks with head 3.97 her action 4.36 Educator 2. FIGURE 5 | Educator 1. Instrumental patterns and their relational value. FIGURE 6 | Educator 2. Instrumental patterns and their relational value. specific relational value and is adaptive to each child and the be open to exploring, so they can live their own competence circumstances of the moment. (White, 1959; Pikler, 2018) in each developmental stage and at As a result of these systematic behavioral patterns, formed any moment. Finally, educators never suggest games directly, by actions translated into different intervention levels, we but they indirectly accompany children’s playful activity, and conclude that the observed educators ensure that the three even when they support children who are facing a complex task, basic psychological needs proposed by self-determination theory it is children who ask for the educator’s help. Therefore, their are satisfied. The stability of the educators’ instrumental action educational activity consists of ensuring that children’s actions provides children with a sense of security and relatedness (Deci are always a result of their internal needs and their capacities. and Ryan, 2000); the environment where they are playing is They are self-endorsed, so they promote children’s autonomy predictable and familiar, so they feel safe and open to play (Kálló (Deci and Ryan, 2000). and Balog, 2013). At the same time, through the adaptation of the The adaptation of the educators’ actions to the circumstances relational dimension of their actions, they make sure that each of each moment can be seen as facilitating so that children child’s play needs are satisfied. Therefore, children will always can be focused on their own activity. Consequently, children’s Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 9 July 2020 | Volume 11 | Article 1731 Sagastui et al. Free Play Accompanying: Systematic Observation activity will potentially evolve from subjective to more objective aspects of the studied dimensions. In a future study, it would be actions toward the external world (Wallon, 1980). The functional of interest to deepen in the rest of the subdimensions included in integration of those discoveries results in more complex activities the relational dimension of the field format (P1–P8) to discover and thoughts (Wallon, 2008). So, children’s action toward more details of the relational aspect of each of their instrumental the external world permits the construction of their internal actions. Furthermore, future research should go into detail world; it enables their psychological construction. Like this, the about the three intervention levels found in Pikler educators: emergence of the self will come naturally and, together with direct intervention, indirect intervention, and no intervention that, a self-determined behavior. The environment enables child or presence. An in-depth study based on the observational data development, but the child is the protagonist of his or her already collected could shed light on the behaviors that cause own development. and inhibit the appearance of each of the intervention levels. The intentional and adaptive early-childhood-oriented Finally, studying the verbal elements that mediate the educators’ educational behavior that characterizes the observed educators indirect and direct interventions displayed while they accompany serves as a delicate and specific combination of instrumental children’s free play would complement the obtained results in a and relational dimensions that provides the physical and very meaningful way. psychological conditions (Wallon, 1985) for children’s playful activity to develop thoroughly. This is only possible due to the value given to everyday moments’ observation from this educational approach, which permits us to get to know every DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT single detail about each child and the group in general (Tardos, The original contributions presented in the study are included 2018b). The regular and permanent observations and the in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be educational work behind them ensure the adjustment of the directed to the corresponding author. educational activity to the specific situation, so it is coherent for children (Mózes, 2016): they guarantee an understanding and understandable environment around every child (Falk, 2018b), built in each particular moment through the child’s autonomous ETHICS STATEMENT activity and the adaptation of the educator’s educational activity to it. As Mózes (2016) mentioned, the educator’s role while The studies involving human participants were reviewed and children are playing on their own can be translated into approved by the University of the Basque Country Ethics a psychological positioning toward them. Hence, educators Committee on research involving human beings. Written interact with children whenever they need it and just when they informed consent to participate in this study was provided by the do, always adapting their interventions to the child and situation, participants’ legal guardian/next of kin. providing proper autonomy support. In conclusion, our results add to the previous literature suggesting that Pikler–Lóczy educational approach is far from ideological but, instead, is built in everyday life AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS moments, through the educators’ intentional, deconstructed, and JS codified the videos, developed statistical analyses, meticulously designed educational activity, where children are documented, designed, and wrote the manuscript. EH not just said to be the protagonists of their development, but they collected the data, developed the field format, and contributed actually are. The intensity of the observed educators’ intervention to the conceptual structure of the research work. MTA is inversely proportional to children’s capacities. Thus, to the contributed to the methodological structure of the study direct intervention toward children, commonly found when and offered guidance on the data analysis. All authors studying daily care routines (Belasko et al., 2019; Belza et al., provided approval of the final version of the manuscript 2019a,b) or when they attend to specific demands of children to be published. during free play, we can now add the indirect intervention and no intervention. The exquisite management of the intervention levels by the observed educators evidences the coherence of this educational approach with self-determination theory and, ACKNOWLEDGMENTS especially, with the three basic psychological needs presented through it: autonomy, competence, and relatedness. This study JS is a Ph.D. candidate from the University of the Basque contributes to the idea that Pikler–Lóczy education provides an Country and counts with a scholarship (PIF 18/104) to autonomy-supportive environment directed to young children develop her research work. MTA thanks the Spanish and applied in a collective institution as a nursery school. Government grant (PGC2018-098742-B-C31) (2019–2021) (FEDER/Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación – Agencia Limitations and Future Research Estatal de Investigación, Programa Estatal de Generación de Due to the complexity of Pikler educators’ educational activity Conocimiento y Fortalecimiento Científico y Tecnológico del and the magnitude of the obtained results, we could not cover all Sistema I+D+i). Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 10 July 2020 | Volume 11 | Article 1731 Sagastui et al. Free Play Accompanying: Systematic Observation REFERENCES Ekman, P., and Friesen, W. V. (1969). The repertoire of nonverbal behavior: categories, origins, usage and coding. Semiótica 1, 49–98. Anguera, M. T. (2001). Cómo apresar las competencias del bebé mediante una European Commission (2019). Key Data on Early Childhood Education and Care aplicación de la metodología observacional [How to catch the baby’s skills by in Europe—2019 Edition. Eurydice Report. Luxembourg: Publications Office of applying observational methodology]. Context. Educ. 4, 13–34. doi: 10.18172/ the European Union. con.484 Falk, J. (2018a). “El hecho consciente en lugar de la instintividad. Sustitución eficaz Anguera, M. T. (2003). “La observación [Observation],” in Evaluación Psicológica. de la relación madre-niño en la casa cuna [Conscious act instead of instinct. Concepto, Proceso y Aplicación De Las Áreas Del Desarrollo Y De La Inteligencia, Effective substitution of the mother-child relationship in the foster home],” in ed. C. Moreno Rosset (Madrid: Sanz y Torres), 271–308. Claves de la Educación Pikler-Lóczy. Compilación de 20 Artículos Escrito spor Anguera, M. T. (2010). Posibilidades y relevancia de la observación sistemática sus Creadoras, ed. E. Herrán (Budapest: Asociación Pikler-Lóczy de Hungría), por el profesional de la psicología [Possibilities and relevance of systematic 179–188. observation by the psychology professional]. Papeles del Psicólogo 31, 122–130. Falk, J. (2018b). “Los fundamentos de una verdadera autonomía en el niño Anguera, M. T., Blanco-Villaseñor, A., Hernández-Mendo, A., and Losada, J. L. pequeño [The foundations of true autonomy in the young child],” in Claves (2011). Diseños observacionales: ajuste y aplicación en psicología del deporte de la Educación Pikler-Lóczy. Compilación de 20 Artículos Escrito spor sus [Observational designs: adjustment and application in sports psychology]. Creadoras, ed. E. Herrán (Budapest: Asociación Pikler-Lóczy de Hungría), Cuadernos Psicol. Deport. 11, 63–76. 89.114. Anguera, M. T., and Izquierdo, C. (2006). “Methodological approaches in human Hall, E. (1966). The Hidden Dimension. Garden City, NY: Doubleday. communication. From complexity of situation to data analysis,” in From Hernández Mendo, A., López, J. A., Castellano Paulis, J., Morales Sánchez, V., and Communication to Presence. Cognition, Emotions and Culture towards the Pastrana Brincoles, J. L. (2012). HOISAN 1.2: Programa informático para uso Ultimate Communicative Experience, eds G. Riva, M. T. Anguera, B. K. en Metodología Observacional [HOISAN 1.2: computer program for use in Wiederhold, and F. Mantovani (Amsterdam: IOS Press), 203–222. observational methodology]. Cuadernos Psicol. Deport. 12, 55–78. doi: 10.4321/ Anguera, M. T., Magnusson, M., and Jonsson, G. (2007). Instrumentos no estandar: s1578-84232012000100006 planteamiento, desarrollo y posibilidades [Non-standard instruments: Hernández-Mendo, A., Castellano, J., Camerino, O., Jonsson, G., Blanco- approach, development and possibilities]. Avances Med. 5, 63–82. Villaseñor, Á, Lopes, A., et al. (2014). Programas informáticos de registro, Bakeman, R. (1978). “Untangling streams of behaviour: Sequential analysis of control de calidad del dato, y análisis de datos [Computer software for observation data,” in Observing Behaviour, Vol. 2: Data Collection and Analysis recording, data quality control and data analysis]. Rev. Psicol. Deport. 23, Methods, ed. G. P. Sackett (Baltimore, MD: University of Park Press), 63–78. 111–121. Bakeman, R., and Gottman, J. M. (1997). Observing Interaction. An Introduction Herrán, E. (2013). La educación Pikler-Lóczy. Cuando educar empieza por To Sequential Analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. cuidar [Pikler-Lóczy education: when education starts with caregiving]. Rev. Bakeman, R., and Quera, V. (2011). Sequential Analysis And Observational Methods Latinoam. Educ. Infant. 2, 37–56. For The Behavioral Sciences. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hewes, J. (2014). Seeking balance in motion: the role of spontaneous free play in Belasko, M., Herrán, E., and Anguera, M. T. (2019). Dressing toddlers at the promoting social and emotional health in early childhood care and education. Emmi Pikler nursery school in Budapest: educator instrumental behavioral Children 1, 280–301. doi: 10.3390/children1030280 pattern. Eur. Early Childh. Educ. Res. J. 27, 872–887. doi: 10.1080/1350293X. Hirsh-Pasek, K., Golinkoff, R. M., Berk, L. E., and Singer, D. (2009). A Mandate for 2019.1678928 Playful Learning in Preschool: Applying the Scientific Evidence. New York, NY: Belza, H., Herrán, E., and Anguera, M. T. (2019a). Early childhood, breakfast, and Oxford University Press. related tools: analysis of adults’ function as mediators. Eur. J. Psychol. Educ. Joussemet, M., Koestner, R., Lekes, N., and Landry, R. (2005). A longitudinal study doi: 10.1007/s10212-019-00438-4 of the relationship of maternal autonomy support to children’s adjustment and Belza, H., Herrán, E., and Anguera, M. T. (2019b). Early childhood education achievement in school. J. Pers. 73, 1215–1236. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-6494.2005. and cultural learning: systematic observation of the behaviour of a educator at 00347.x the Emmi Pikler nursery school during breakfast. Infan. Aprend. 42, 128–178. Kálló, E., and Balog, G. (2013). Los Orígenes Del Juego Libre [The Origins Of Free doi: 10.1080/02103702.2018.1553268 Play]. Budapest: Magyarországi Pikler-Lóczy Társasag. Bernier, A., Carlson, S. M., and Whipple, N. (2010). From external regulation to Kelemen, J. (2016). El trayecto profesional de una cuidadora pikleriana [The self-regulation: Early parenting precursors of young children’s executive profesional career of a Pikler educator]. RELAdEI Rev. Latinoam. Educ. Infant. functioning. Child. Dev. 81, 326–339. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009. 5, 36–40. 01397.x Kochanska, G., Coy, K. C., and Murray, K. T. (2001). The development of self- David, M., and Appell, G. (1986). La Educación del Niño de 0 a 3 Años: Experiencia regulation in the first four years of life. Child Dev. 72, 1091–1111. doi: 10.1111/ del Instituto Lóczy [The Education of the Child From 0 to 3 Years: Experience. 1467-8624.00336 Madrid: Narcea. Krippendorff, K. (2013). Content Analysis. An Introduction To Its Methodology, 3rd David, M., and Appell, G. (2010). Lóczy. Una Insólita Atención Personal [Lóczy: An Edn, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Extraordinary Personal Attention]. Octaedro: Barcelona. Mózes, E. (2016). La observación en la Pedagogía Pikler [Observation in Pikler Deci, E. L. (1975). Intrinsic Motivation. New York, NY: Plenum. Pedagogy]. Rev. Latinoamericana Educ. Infant. 5, 27–35. Deci, E. L. (1995). Why We Do What We Do: Understanding Self-Motivation. Niemiec, C. P., and Ryan, R. M. (2009). Autonomy, competence, and relatedness New York, NY: Penguins Books. in the classroom: Applying self-determination theory to educational practice. Deci, E. L., and Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic Motivation And Self-Determination In Theor. Res. Educ. 7, 133–144. doi: 10.1177/1477878509104318 Human Behavior. New York, NY: Plenum. Ormaza, A. (2016). “Observación de la actividad autónoma infantil en la Deci, E. L., and Ryan, R. M. (1991). “A motivational approach to self: Integration in escuela infantil Pikler-Lóczy desde la metodología observacional. Un estudio personality,” in Nebraska Symposium on Motivation: Vol. Maternal Autonomy exploratorio [Observation of children’s autonomous activity in the Pikler-Lóczy Support 123338. Perspectives on Motivation, ed. R. Dienstbier (Lincoln: nursery school from the observational methodology. An exploratory study],” in University of Nebraska Press), 237–288. XXIII. Jornadas de Investigación en Psicodidáctica, eds A. Rodriguez, A. Romero, Deci, E. L., and Ryan, R. M. (2000). The "what" and" why" of goal pursuits: human and I. Ros (Bilbao: UPV-EHU), 3–23. needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychol. Inq. 11, 227–268. Pavlov, I. P. (1960). Conditioned Reflexes: An Investigation of the Physiological Deci, E. L., Schwartz, A. J., Sheinman, L., and Ryan, R. M. (1981). An instrument Activity of the Cerebral Cortex. New York, NY: Dover. to assess adults’ orientations toward control versus autonomy with children: Pikler, E. (1940). Mit Tud Már A Baba? What Does Your Baby Already Know?. reflections on intrinsic motivation and perceived competence. J. Educ. Psychol. Budapest: Cserépfalvi. 73, 642–650. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.73.5.642 Pikler, E. (1968). Some contributions to the study of the gross motor development Ekman, P. (1976). Movements with precise meanings. Nonverb. Commun. 26, of children. J. Genet. Psychol. 113, 27–39. doi: 10.1080/00221325.1968.1053 14–26. doi: 10.1111/j.1460-2466.1976.tb01898.x 3806 Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 11 July 2020 | Volume 11 | Article 1731 Sagastui et al. Free Play Accompanying: Systematic Observation Pikler, E. (1969). Moverse en Libertad: Desarrollo de la Motricidad Global [Moving Tardos, A. (2010). The researching infant. Signal 18, 9–14. Around Freely: Developing Global Motor Skills]. Madrid: Narcea. Tardos, A. (2014). El Adulto y el juego del niño [The Adult and The Child’s Play]. Pikler, E. (1988). Laßt Mir Zeit: Die Selbständige Bewegungsentwicklung des Kindes Barcelona: Octaedro. bis Zum Freien Gehen [Give Me Time: The Child’s Independent Movement Tardos, A. (2018a). “Dejemos al niño también jugar solo [Let’s leave the child play Development Until Free Walking]. München: Pflaum Verlaug. alone too],” in Claves de la Educación Pikler-Lóczy. Compilación de 20 Artículos Pikler, E. (1998). Importancia del movimiento en el desarrollo de la personalidad. Escritos por sus Creadoras, ed. E. Herrán (Budapest: Asociación Pikler-Lóczy de Iniciativa-competencia [Importance of movement in the development of Hungría), 245–258. personality. Initiative-competence]. La Hamaca 9, 31–42. Tardos, A. (2018b). “El papel de la observación en el trabajo educativo Pikler, E. (2018). “La competencia del bebé [The baby’s competence],” in Claves [The role of observation in the educational work],” in Claves de la de la educación Pikler-Lóczy. Compilación de 20 Artículos Escritos por sus educación Pikler-Lóczy. Compilación de 20 Artículos Escritos por sus Creadoras, ed. E. Herrán (Budapest: Asociación Pikler-Lóczy de Hungría), Creadoras, ed. E. Herrán (Budapest: Asociación Pikler-Lóczy de Hungría), 59–71. 115–124. Pikler, E., and Tardos, A. (1968). Megfigyelések a csecsemõ nagymozgásos Tardos, A., and David, M. (2018). “Del valor de la actividad libre en la elaboración aktivitásának alakulásáról az oldalrafordulástól a biztos járásig [Observations del yo [About the value of free activity in the elaboration of the self],” in on the development of the infant’s high physical activity from turning to safe Claves de la Educación Pikler-Lóczy. Compilación de 20 Artículos Escritos por walking]. Magyar Pszichol. Szemle 25, 69–86. sus Creadoras, ed. E. Herrán (Budapest: Asociación Pikler-Lóczy de Hungría), Portell, M., Anguera, M. T., Chacón, S., and Sanduvete, S. (2015). Guidelines 347–376. for reporting evaluations based on observational methodology. Psicothema 27, Tardos, A., and Szanto-Feder, A. (2018). “Qué es la autonomía desde la 283–289. doi: 10.7334/psicothema2014.276 primera edad? [What’s autonomy from the early ages?],” in Claves de Poyatos, F. (1986). Enfoque integrativo de los componentes verbales y no verbales la Educación Pikler-Lóczy. Compilación de 20 Artículos Escritos por sus de la interacción y sus procesos y problemas de codificación [Integrative Creadoras, ed. E. Herrán (Budapest: Asociación Pikler-Lóczy de Hungría), approach of the verbal and non-verbal components of the interaction and its 73–87. processes and coding problems]. Anuario psicol. 34, 125–155. Tomasello, M. (2000). The Cultural Origins of Human Cognition. Cambridge, MA: Ryan, R. M., and Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: classic Harvard University Press. definitions and new directions. Contemp. Educ. Psychol. 25, 54–67. doi: 10.1006/ Vygotsky, L. S. (2000). El Desarrollo de los Procesos Psicológicos ceps.1999.1020 Superiores [Development of Higher Psychological Processes]. Crítica: Ryan, R. M., and Deci, E. L. (2011). “A self-determination theory perspective on Barcelona. social, institutional, cultural, and economic supports for autonomy and their Wallon, H. (1974). Del Acto al Pensamiento [From Act To Thought]. Psique: Buenos importance for well-being,” in Human Autonomy In Cross-Cultural Context, Aires. eds V. Chirkov, R. Ryan, and K. Sheldon (Dordrecht: Springer), 45–64. doi: Wallon, H. (1980). Psicología del niño. Una Comprensión Dialéctica Del Desarrollo 10.1007/978-90-481-9667-8_3 Infantil [Child Psychology. A Dialectical Understanding of Child Development]. Ryan, R. M., and La Guardia, J. G. (2000). “What is being optimized over Madrid: Pablo del Río. development?: A self-determination theory perspective on basic psychological Wallon, H. (1985). La Vida Mental [Mental Life]. Crítica: Barcelona. needs across the life span,” in Dialogues on Psychology and Aging, eds S. Wallon, H. (2008). La Evolución Psicológica del Niño [The Psychological Evolution Qualls and R. Abeles (Washington, DC: American Psychological Association), of The Child]. Crítica: Barcelona. 145–172. doi: 10.1037/10363-008 Whipple, N., Bernier, A., and Mageau, G. A. (2011). A dimensional approach Sánchez-Algarra, P., and Anguera, M. T. (2013). Qualitative/quantitative to maternal attachment state of mind: relations to maternal sensitivity and integration in the inductive observational study of interactive behaviour: impact maternal autonomy support. Dev. Psychol. 47, 396–403. doi: 10.1037/a0021310 of recording and coding among predominating perspectives. Qual & Quant 47, White, R. W. (1959). Motivation reconsidered: the concept of competence. Psychol. 1237–1257. doi: 10.1007/s11135-012-9764-6 Rev. 66, 297–333. doi: 10.1037/h0040934 Schegloff, E. (2000). On granularity. Annu. Rev. Sociol. 26, 715–720. doi: 10.1146/ Yogman, M., Garner, A., Hutchinson, J., Hirsh-Pasek, K., and Golinkoff, R. M. annurev.soc.26.1.715 (2018). The power of play: a pediatric role in enhancing development in young Szöke, A. (2016). Autónomo, pero no abandonado a su suerte. El apoyo de la children. Pediatrics 142:e20182058. doi: 10.1542/peds.2018-2058 actividad autónoma en la escuela infantil 0-3 [Autonomous, but not abandoned to his fate. Support of autonomous activity in nursery school 0-3]. Rev. Conflict of Interest: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the Latinoamericana Educ. Infant. 5, 41–46. absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a Tardos, A. (1964). Megfigyelések a környezetváltozásnak a csecsemõk potential conflict of interest. játéktevékenységére gyakorolt hatásáról. Pszichol. Tanulmányok 6, 273–287. Tardos, A. (1967). A 3-12 hónapos csecsemõ optikus és taktilmotoros explorációs Copyright © 2020 Sagastui, Herrán and Anguera. This is an open-access article viselkedése [Optical and tactile motor exploratory behavior of an infant 3-12 distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). months of age]. Magyar Pszichol. Szemle 24, 57–70. The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the Tardos, A. (1972). A csecsemõ mozgásfejlõdése során megnyilvánuló tanulási original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original folyamatok egyes sajátosságai [Some peculiarities of the learning processes publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. manifested during the developmental movement of the infant]. Pszichol. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with Tanulmányok 13, 281–287. these terms. Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 12 July 2020 | Volume 11 | Article 1731