Supplementary Materials Supplementary Materials 1 (SM1) The systematic literature review according to the ROSES pro forma principals We conducted a systematic literature review in line with both, the PSASAR method [1] and the ROSES pro forma criteria (RepOrting standards for Systematic Evidence Syntheses) [2], which constitute the most updated guidelines for conducting and presenting environmental systematic literature reviews. Our review target local responses to climate change impacts by IPLC and associated with their ILK. Specifically, with this review we aim at answering the following questions: What is the geographical extend of research on local responses to climate change impacts? What are frequently reported local response strategies? How do responses differ across climates, livelihoods and regions? An overview of the framework and search process of this review is summarized in Table SM1 and Table SM2. Table SM1: The PICo (population, interest, and context) framework for this review. Population (P) Interest (I) Context (Co) Indigenous Peoples and local Documented human ground- First-hand case studies communities with natural- based adaptation responses to published between 2015 and resource-based livelihoods, such climate change 2019 on local adaptation as small-holding agriculture, responses to climate change pastoralism, small-scale fishing, across the globe aquaculture or hunting/ gathering I Table SM2: Outline of the literature review according to the STARLITE principal. Sampling strategy Selective: Studies relevant to local adaptation to climate change based on ILK Type of study Partially reported: Any first-hand qualitative, quantitative or mixed method study Approaches Electronic subject search only Range of years 2015-2019 Limits English Inclusion and Inclusion: case studies reporting implemented responses to climate exclusion change by IPLC Terms used “climate change” AND ("indigenous knowledge" OR "local knowledge" OR "traditional knowledge" OR "traditional ecological knowledge") AND (“adapt*” OR “coping” OR “cope”) appearing in titles, abstracts and keywords Electronic sources Scopus®, Web of Science® Step 1 – Protocol development We developed a protocol including the research goal, the search strategy, the coding guidelines and a glossary. The protocol guided article selection and coding, ensuring the application of homogenized inclusion and exclusion criteria among different coders. After receiving a personal training, all coders conducted a test coding before starting the systematic review. During the search and coding process, the protocol was regularly updated and new versions shared among co-authors and coders. The coding process of all supporting coders was double checked by the main author. Step 2 - Search We used two standard web-based search engines for scientific peer-reviewed publications in English, the Web of Science® (WOS) (http://science.thomsonreuters.com) and Scopus® (https://www.scopus.com/). The search was conducted at the beginning of February 2020. We selected these databases and their search engines because of their large size (+70 million articles), multidisciplinary scope, and friendly search tools (18 and 79 field codes/limiters permitted, II respectively), which allowed for a targeted, precise and replicable search [3] and minimized retrieval bias [4]. Information on the online search, including search string, online database, date and location of the conducted search and results are summarized in Table SM3. Table SM3: Details on the online search. Scopus Web of Science Search TITLE-ABS-KEY(("climate change") TS=(("climate change") AND string AND ("indigenous knowledge" OR "local ("indigenous knowledge" OR "local knowledge" OR "traditional knowledge" knowledge" OR "traditional knowledge" OR "traditional ecological knowledge") OR "traditional ecological knowledge") AND (“adapt*” OR “coping” OR “cope”)) AND (“adapt*” OR “coping” OR “cope”)) Date, 2020/02/03, Universitat Autònoma de 2020/02/03, Universitat Autònoma de Location Barcelona, Spain Barcelona, Spain Nr of 681 709 publications Total of both databases (without duplicates): 931 (all years) Nr. of 394 445 publications Total of both databases (without duplicates): 580 (2015-2019) The search resulted in 931 records from both databases after the removal of duplicates and without any temporal limitations (Table SM3). The number of records was low before 2010 (< 30 records/year), but strongly increased after, surpassing 90 records/year in 2015. To reduce the number of records to a manageable amount while maintaining the depth of our review in a research field of high maturity [5], we followed the suggestions by Okoli [6] to limit the included timeline. We thus limited our search to the period after 2014. The decision was based in two reasons. First, in 2014, the IPCC report - a compilation of current climate change research - stated the need for more efforts towards the integration of ILK with existing practices for a higher effectiveness of adaptation [7], III thereby promoting a new research focus towards local adaptation to climate change by IPLC. Second, in 2015, the number of annual records surpassed 90 records/year, a promising number for solid data analysis. Limitations: We acknowledge that our review is not comprehensive as i) we cover a short timeframe, ii) we did not conduct manual searches to identify additional sources of evidence, in English or any other language [8], and iii) we did not seek advice from bibliometric experts to reduce any inherent publication bias [4]. Furthermore, we are aware that our keyword string does not capture all relevant publications on local responses to climate change in subsistence-oriented IPLC and could be improved by specifically including different livelihoods (e.g., ‘small-scale fishing’) in the search keywords, and in so doing potentially reduce the above-mentioned retrieval and publication bias [4]. However, we suggest that this would have resulted in an inoperable amount of publications with an undesirable lower representation of traditional and indigenous strategies and a higher proportion of externally-driven measures, two consequences that contradict our interest. The bias in the quantity of available publications on different livelihoods might have resulted in an underdevelopment of our classification system for fishing and hunting / gathering livelihoods. Step 3 - Appraisal (inclusion/exclusion criteria and quality appraisal) I. Inclusions/exclusion criteria: Articles were selected if they reported first-hand data on implemented and currently practiced responses to climate change and variability (including coping, adaptation, transformation and capacity building) by IPLC. Articles were excluded if they (1) did not report any relationship between adaptation and climate change, i.e., adaptation to non-climatic drivers, (2) referred to a community whose main livelihoods did not depend on natural resources, (3) described only potential but not actual and realized adaptation or coping strategies, (4) provided only assessments of vulnerability, resilience or adaptive capacity but no response actions, (5) discussed theoretical frameworks, concepts or modelling exercises, or (6) were secondary studies such as reviews (see Table SM4 for the complete list of inclusion / exclusion criteria). IV Table SM4: Description of the inclusion and exclusion criteria. INCLUDED Topic: Local responses to climate change in Indigenous Peoples and local communities: The title and/or abstract of the study explicitly indicates that currently practiced adaptive strategies are reported/mentioned/assessed/discussed in the paper. Local climate change adaptation is among the research objectives of the paper and the full text reports results and a subsequent discussion on the topic. The local responses to climate change must be set in place. Timeline: Studies published between 2015 and 2019 Population: Indigenous Peoples and local communities – mainly rural - with natural resource dependent livelihood such as smallholding agriculture, small-scale fishing, aquaculture and livestock rearing, hunting-gathering. Data: Primary studies based on first-hand empirical data. Publication type: Peer-review articles and book chapters with a thorough and comprehensive description of the data collection procedure. EXCLUDED Topic: Biological adaptation: Any study focusing on adaptation in the biological system (flora, fauna, fungi and other microorganisms). Adaptation to non-climatic drivers: Studies on adaptation to non-climatic drivers only, e.g., deforestation, technology transfer. Natural climate variability and extreme events: V Studies on responses to long-existing climate variability and extreme events if no change in such variability or extreme events is mentioned in relation to climate change. Past adaptation to natural (non-anthropogenic) climate change: All articles about past adaptation to non-anthropogenic but natural climate change and climate variability (e.g., during the Pleistocene/Holocene transition) Future or potential adaptation: Studies on unrealized adaptation to climate change, e.g., suggestions or recommendations for future or potential adaptation, including adaptation planning. Planned/Institutional/Governmental adaptation: We excluded studies that did not focus on local (autonomous) adaptation. For example, we excluded reported adaptation at the institutional (e.g., industry), governmental, and (inter-)national level. We also excluded studies with a focus on adaptation purely driven and implemented by external agents, e.g., NGOs, extension services, or researchers. Impact/risk/uncertainty assessments only: Studies with a main focus on climate change impacts, e.g., in the biological, physical or human system, including impact perception and observation and/or risk awareness with respect to climate change. Mitigation: All studies that focused on mitigation strategies only, e.g., the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, and increase in carbon sinks. Sustainable development only: Articles documenting or assessing sustainable development programs, processes and ideas without an explicit focus on adaptation to climate change. Vulnerability/resilience/adaptive capacity assessments: Articles assessing vulnerability of a particular group/system to climate change based on environmental/social factors (e.g. geographical location, poverty level) but without including actual adaptive actions set in place to improve resilience or adaptive capacity. Timeline: VI Studies published before 2015 (<2015) and after 2019 when the data analysis was performed (>2019). Population: Studies that did not focus on IPLC with natural resource dependent. For example, studies in metropolitan regions were excluded and studies on populations that mainly depend on work in the service sector or industry, or similar labor work (e.g., small businesses). Data: We excluded secondary studies such as reviews, reports and other studies based on secondary data, pure conceptual and theoretical frameworks, and theoretical (e.g., scenario-based) modelling work. We also excluded studies that present results that were already published in previous work of the same author(s). Article quality: Non-peer-revied publications or publications of very low quality. II. Critical appraisal: Since our systematic literature review only includes peer-reviewed literature, the case studies have all been through one quality-control process. Nonetheless, we applied some measures to ensure quality. For each publication, we checked the Journal Citation Report (JCR) Impact Factor (IF) for the year 2019. For publications in journals that were scored equal or higher than 1.5, we automatically assumed an acceptable quality (score=1; included) of the publication. For publications in journals with either an impact factor <1.5 [5] or without an impact factor, as well as for all book chapters, we assessed the quality by revising the respective publication with special focus on the method description. Book chapters and studies published in journals with low or no impact factor but which provided basic information on the research approach (i.e., research objective, data collection methods, and a specification of the study site), were accepted for the subsequent data coding and analysis process (score=0.5; included). Publications that did not provide such fundamental information were excluded (score=0; excluded) (see Table SM5). Only one book chapter did not meet the minimum quality requirements. VII Table SM5: Considered journals and their JCR Impact Factors for the year 2019. JCR Impact Journal names (number of publications in the database). Factor >1.5: included n=64; Acta Tropica (n=1), Agricultural Systems (n=1), Ambio (n=2), Anthropocene (n=1), Climate and Development (n=7), Climate Research (n=1), Climate Risk Management (n=2), Climatic Change (n=4), Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability (n=1), Ecological Indicators (n=1), Ecological Processes (n=1), Environment, Development and Sustainability (n=4), Environmental Management (n=1), Environmental Science & Policy (n=3), Experimental Agriculture (n=1), Frontiers in Earth Science (n=1), Frontiers in Marine Science (n=2), GAIA-Ecological Perspectives for Science and Society (n=1), Geoforum (n=1), Global Environmental Change-Human and Policy Dimension (n=1), Human and Ecological Risk Assessment (n=1), International Journal of Biodiversity Science, Ecosystem Services and Management (n=1), International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction (n=1), International Journal of Sustainable Build Environment (n=1), Journal of Arid Environments (n=1), Journal of Environmental Management (n=2), Journal of Marine Systems (n=1), Land Degradation & Development (n=1), Land Use Policy (n=1), Local Environment: The International Journal of Justice and Sustainability (n=1), Natural Hazards (n=1), Regional Environmental Change (n=2), Scientifica (n=1), Social Science & Medicine (n=1), Society & Natural Resources (n=1), Sustainability (n=4), Sustainability Science (n=1), Theoretical and Applied Climatology (n=1), Water (n=1), Weather, Climate and Society (n=3), VIII < 1.5 or NA: n=55 included after African Geographical Review (n=2), Agenda-Empowering Women for Gender reviewing Equity (n=1), Arctic Science (n=1), Asian Geographer (n=1), Climate (n=5), Cogent Social Sciences (n=1), Environment and Natural Resources Journal (n=1), Environmental Hazards-Human and Policy Dimensions (n=2), Environmental Justice (n=1), Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution (n=1), Geography, Environment, Sustainability (n=1), Human Ecology (n=1), Human Organization (n=1), Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge (n=2), Interdisciplinary Description of Complex Systems (n=1), International Journal of Climate Change Strategies and Management (n=4), International Journal of Social Economics (n=1), Iranian Journal of Science and Technology, Transaction A: Science (n=1), Jamba-Journal of Disaster Risk Studies (n=2), Journal of Agricultural Extension (n=2), Journal of Asian and African Studies (n=1), Journal of Environmental Science and Management (n=2), Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (n=1), Journal of Mountain Science (n=2); Journal of Social Sciences (n=1), Mountain Research and Development (n=3), Norsk Geografisk Tidsskrift-Norwegian Journal of Geography (n=1), Pacific Journalism Review (n=1), Pastoralism-Research, Policy and Practice (n=1), Sarhad Journal of Agriculture (n=1), South African Review of Sociology (n=1), The Rangeland Journal (n=1), Book chapters (n=7) < 1.5 or NA: n=1; excluded after Book chapter (n=1) reviewing Final article selection: The key word search resulted in a total of 582 records published between 2015 and 2019, from which 271 were immediately excluded by reading the title and abstracts, including eight conference proceedings and two non-English publications. Twelve other documents were excluded because they were not findable or accessible. 299 were retrieved for full text reading. 179 articles were excluded because they did not match the topic and one publication was excluded after critical appraisal due to low quality. This resulted in a final list of 119 articles included in the analysis (see Figure SM6 and Supplementary Materials 5 (SM5)). IX Figure SM6: Summary of document selection according to the ROSES pro forma standard. X Step 4 – Synthesis (data extraction): From each case study documenting local responses to climate change impacts, we recorded: 1) bibliographic information (e.g., title, authors, publication year, journal), 2) georeferenced location and geographic characteristics (e.g., coordinates, main climate, altitude range), 3) studied group and attributes (e.g., livelihoods), and 4) the list of local responses to climate change. We only coded local responses for which the authors explicitly provided a link to climate change and its impacts. The coded entries of each articles were double-checked by the lead author. Table SM6: Data extracted and analysed for the purpose of this study. Variable Data entry options Data type Bibliographic information Author(s) text Title text Publication year numeric Journal/Book text Language text DOI character string Study site information X-latitude, Y-longitude numeric (6 decimal) Continent text World region category Country text Location name text Altitude range category main climate according to the category Köppen-Geiger classification Study group information name of study group (e.g., text ethnic group) the three main livelihoods category Information on reported local descriptions of local responses text adaptation to climate change to climate change classification of local category responses to climate change direction of change category XI Information for the georeferenced location and altitude were taken directly from the article, if provided, otherwise from secondary data, such as Wikipedia GeoHack (https://tools.wmflabs.org/geohack/) or Google Maps (https://www.google.com/maps) for the location and Enetplanet (http://www.enetplanet.com/) or Daft Logic Google Maps Finds Altitude (https://www.daftlogic.com/sandbox-google-maps-find-altitude.htm) for the altitude. Since our analysis is a global assessment, possible discrepancies arising from the quality of the secondary data are considered minor, with negligible impacts on the quality of our results. For the estimation of the main climate we used the freely available raster layer of the Köppen-Geiger climates, provided by Kottek et al. [9]. We estimated the climate zone of the study sites based on the GPS locations. Step 5 - Data Analysis The global map of the locations of case studies reviewed in this article was drawn with the open- source geographic information system Quantum GIS (QGIS, version 3.4.14-Madeira) [10]. We performed the descriptive and statistical data analysis with RStudio (version 1.2.5033) [11] based on the R language (version 3.6.2) [12]. Supplementary Materials 2 (SM2) Table SM7: Definitions of the world regions and included countries. World region Countries AFR (Sub-Saharan Africa) Angola, Botswana, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Lesotho, Malawi, Namibia, Nigeria, Rwanda, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe, MEA (Middle East/Nort Africa) Iran SAS (South Asia) Bangladesh, India, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan EAS (Eastern Asia) China (including Tibet), Vietnam PAS (Asia-Pacific) East Timor, Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Solomon Islands, Thailand, Vanuatu XII LAM (Latin America and the Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Jamaica, Mexico, Peru, Caribbean) Venezuela NAM (North America) USA (Alaska), Canada EUR (Europe) Finland, Greenland, Norway Supplementary Materials 3 (SM3) Table SM8: Spatial distribution and livelihood characteristics of study sites. nonNRD = non or low- natural resource dependent; a: Category totals for the number of case study for the livelihood differ from the number of case studies per continent and altitude since the livelihoods of a given community may be classified into several non-exclusive categories. climate zone equatorial arid temperate snow polar Total Continents, Total 54 30 53 23 21 181 Africa 17 26 15 0 0 58 Asia 30 2 28 6 2 68 North & Central America, excl. 0 0 1 15 9 25 Arctic Oceania 0 0 0 0 0 0 Latin America & the Caribbean 7 2 9 0 9 27 Europe 0 0 0 2 1 3 Altitude, Total 54 30 53 23 21 181 coast 32 8 2 15 10 67 low-/mid-lands (=< 1,500 masl) 19 18 23 2 0 62 high altitudes (1,500 - 2,000 m) 2 2 17 1 0 22 very high altitudes (> 2,500 masl) 1 2 11 5 11 30 Livelihoods, Totala 114 53 109 43 41 360 XIII Cultivation 52 19 59 4 11 145 Fishing & Aquaculture 32 9 2 15 10 68 Livestock husbandry 16 19 31 8 7 81 Hunting / Gathering 6 3 6 15 10 40 nonNRD* livelihood 8 3 3 1 2 26 Supplementary Materials 4 (SM4) Readers are able to access interactive data visualization of the classification of local responses to climate change by Indigenous Peoples and local communities, presented in Figure 2, Table SM9, Table SM10 and https://licci.eu/local-responses-to-climate-change-classification. Table SM9: Definition of the response sectors, domains and types (in alphabetic order). Response Definition level Response AQ: Changes in the aquaculture sector; CU: Changes in the cultivation sector; FI: sector Changes in the fishery sector; LS: Changes in the livestock sector; OA: Changes in ‘other activities’ Response CAPAC: Changes in the capacity building related to the human and social capital; domain INPUT: Changes in the input of productive resources (FERTD: fertiliser; FOODD: food; MEDIC: medicine/antibiotics; PESTD: pesticides; WATER: water); LOCAT: Changes in locations; PRACT: Changes in practices; PRODU: Changes in livelihood products; SCHED: Changes in time management; SYSTM: Changes in the livelihood system Response COMPS: Changes in the composition of resource input and livelihood products; BUILT: type Changes in built construction; DEMND: Changes in the demand of resource input and livelihood products; DURAT: Changes in duration; HUMAN: Changes in human capacities; INCOM: Changes in income generation; LIVLI: Changes in the natural- resource-based livelihood system; METHD: Changes in methods and techniques; MOBIL: Changes in mobility; MONIT: Changes in observation and monitoring; NETWK; Changes in social relation and networks; MIGRT: Changes in migration; XIV NATUR: Biodiversity conservation; ORIGN: Changes in the provenance of resource input and livelihood products; PLACE: Changes in nearby places (close-by relocation); STORE: Changes in storage and storage facilities; TIMES: Changes in timing; TRANS: Changes in (water) transport facilities; XV Table SM10: Examples of the classification of documented local responses to climate change impacts. The columns refer to the response sector, while the rows refer to the response domain. Examples refer to different response types belonging to the respective response sector and domain. Cultivation [CU] Animal Fishing [FI] Aquaculture Hunting/ Other activities [OA] husbandry [LS] [AQ] Gathering [HG] Practices & Mulching; [minimal] Indigenously Changing fishing gear Intensify Use of aluminium Rising the floor level of technique tillage; soil bunds; made cover or [e.g., fish-traps, koheh traditional boats, GPS and houses; boarding up [PRACT] terracing; contour dress for animals; fishing net, pwengai practices of SPOT devices windows; alternative or farming; cover use of helicopters bowl, modern fishing aquaculture [METHD]; place traditional construction cropping; ratoon to gather reindeer methods], boat-based [METHD] tabu to restrict materials; sea wall system; zaï plantings; [METHD]; fishing, e.g., use harvesting of fruits construction using rock, weeding; application of constructing cow bimbas instead of and nuts; planning, sand and bamboo wood ash for soil sheds [BUILT]; chatas; use GPS; tying regulating and [CONST]; ILK-based conservation; replace grazing ban with down boats to secure monitoring of and scientific weather topsoil after flood fences [NATUR] from storm surge protected areas forecast; monitoring [METHD]; forecast the [METHD]; poach [NATUR] flood areas [MONIT]; seasonal calendar for illegally in the marine use of mosquito nets agriculture [MONIT] reserve; engage [METHD]; increase fishing agreement forest protection; [NATUR] mangrove restoration [NATUR] Productive Irrigation, e.g., Water points for - Drain excess Storing famine Reduction in number resource groundwater-based; livestock; water in the food; drying and and size of daily meals; XVI input [INPUT] water use efficiency; veterinary rainy season; storing wild fruits use of medicinal plants manuring, e.g., medicine pump water under sun and then [DEMND]; pond corralling livestock [DEMDN]; from the canal kept for construction; access overnight on the fields; supplementary into the consumption springs in dry spells; chemical fertilizer; feeding; crop ghers/ponds) [STORE] changing diet; organic / chemical residues [TRANS] [COMPS]; rainwater pesticides [DEMND]; [COMPS]; harvesting; store food, composting [ORIGN]; preserve fodder as e.g., for winter rainwater harvesting; hay; fodder banks; [STORE]; buying food riverside wells; store store dried meat at local market; cultivate rice [STORE]; [STORE]; buy medicinal plants irrigation channels; fodder; grass [ORIGN] bamboo pipes; replace planting; fodder steel pipe with plastic crop cultivation; pipe; water pumps collect fodder drainage [TRANS] [ORIGN] Livelihood Mixed cropping, e.g., Destocking; target different fish Re- Reduce amount of - product relay intercropping; switch farmland species [COMPS] introduction of collected firewood [PRODU] agroforestry; altering to grazing salt-tolerant [DEMND]; going crop species and [DEMND]; fish species; now after smaller varieties, e.g., drought- relying on small preference of whales; switching and salt-tolerant crops, livestock; raising indigenous XVII local varieties, hybrid more goats than over exotic hunted species varieties; crop sheep; improved fishes [COMPS]; rotations; succession animal breeds; [COMPS] planting; gardening incorporating [COMPS]; reduce indigenous cultivated area chicken; [DEMND]; seed complementary exchange; purchasing grazing grains [ORIGN]; store [COMPS]; seeds [STORE] Capacity join agricultural co- elected committee fishery co- co-operative sharing network for educate children; building operations; share for making management pond SPOT devices training with (human & machinery; access regulations of [NETWK] construction [NETWK] professionals social capital) agricultural extension grazing; barter [NETWK] [HUMAN]; reciprocity; [CAPAC] services [NETWK] trading; collective customary law that grazing with land regulates relationships; user fee system community cohesion; [NETWK] collective action; resource sharing; praying; rituals; relying on NGOs [NETWK] XVIII System Combine herding with Switch from Switch from farming Start clamshell Start hunting geese; Off-farm work [e.g., transformation farming [LIVLI]; farming to to fishing [LIVLI]; farming; crab start picking wild wage labor; [eco- [SYSTM] Market gardening; crop livestock; mixed commercial fishing culture fruits and plants; ]tourism, gold panning]; insurance [INCOM] farming [LIVLI]; [INCOM] [LIVLI] collect medicinal reliance on remittances, sell livestock, e.g., plants [LIVLI]; loans [INCOM] in times of start selling bush drought; sell meat products; collect [INCOM] bait to sell [INCOM] Location Field rotation and Avoid animal fish closer inshore; go - Avoidance of weak Build house away from [LOCAT] fallowing; riverbed husbandry in further out to sea ice; adjust hunting flood-prone area; farming; minimize riparian zones; [PLACE]; migrate to location [PLACE]; women travel long cultivation near rotational grazing other fishing grounds travelling over 160 distances to fetch water riparian sources [PLACE]; [MIGRT]; migrate km to hunt [PLACE] seasonal or [PLACE]; move to migrate with after the fish [MIGRT] permanent (out-) better farm land herds to places [MOBIL] migration, e.g., to urban [MIGRT]; swidden with better forage; areas or to places with agriculture [MOBIL] herd splitting water [MIGRT]; [MIGR]; [decline construction of bridges in] transhumance; [MOBIL] adapt migratory routes [MOBIL] XIX Time Earlier sowing and Adapt migratory Fish overnight; shift Fill the Wait for weather to Re-scheduling management/ planting dates; harvest dates; later fishing times; wait for ghers/ponds in improve [TIMES]; community events schedule before flash flood; grazing on winter the weather to dry season shorter hunting [TIMES] [SCHED] nurse seedling in the pasture [TIMES]; improve [TIMES]; [TIMES] season; longer rainy season; multiple adapt migratory longer fishing trips; harvesting trips cropping dates duration reduce number of days [DURAT] [TIMES] [DURAT] out in the sea [DURAT] XX Supplementary Materials 5 (SM5) Table SM11: List of documents that were coded and analysed in this review. Country Climate_code LACCIpublication_ID Reference C 601 [1] 90 [2] Alaska / USA D 112 [3] 637 [4] E 90 [2] 637 [4] Angola B 680 [5] 125 [6] 144 [7] Bangladesh A 226 [8] 634 [9] 656 [10] 125 [6] C 170 [11] 290 [12] B 164 [13] C 164 [13] Bolivia 648 [14] E 164 [13] 648 [14] Botswana 298 [15] B 633 [16] 646 [17] Brazil A 106 [18] 658 [19] 667 [20] C 601 [1] Canada 670 [21] D 676 [22] 683 [23] 603 [24] E 670 [21] 676 [22] 278 [25] C 684 [26] 897 [27] China 291 [28] D 672 [29] E 278 [25] Colombia C 608 [30] East Timor A 666 [31] Ecuador B 606 [32] C 904 [33] XXI E 904 [33] Ethiopia A 604 [34] 600 [35] B 649 [36] 688 [37] 115 [38] C 604 [34] 625 [39] 643 [40] Finland D 138 [41] 143 [42] Ghana 619 [43] A 627 [44] 629 [45] 664 [46] 690 [47] Greenland / Denmark E 681 [48] A 623 [49] India 628 [50] B 669 [51] 157 [52] 289 [53] 605 [54] C 645 [55] 654 [56] 669 [51] 672 [29] 863 [57] D 095 [58] 672 [29] Indonesia A 632 [59] 666 [31] Iran C 615 [60] Jamaica A 626 [61] Kenya B 614 [62] C 810 [63] Lesotho C 147 [64] Malawi 137 [65] A 630 [66] 674 [67] 682 [68] B 137 [65] 682 [68] C 674 [67] Mexico A 004 [69] 602 [70] Myanmar A 279 [71] B 620 [72] XXII Namibia B 655 [73] 680 [5] 100 [74] 113 [75] Nepal C 142 [76] 609 [77] 621 [78] 635 [79] 672 [29] Nigeria 631 [80] A 636 [81] 638 [82] Norway D 653 [83] Pakistan C 686 [84] Papua New Guinea A 639 [85] Peru C 678 [86] E 127 [87] 678 [86] 611 [88] Philippines 640 [89] 647 [90] A 657 [91] 666 [31] 920 [92] Rwanda C 662 [93] Solomon Islands A 285 [94] South Africa 119 [95] B 292 [96] 680 [5] 687 [97] 171 [98] C 659 [99] 687 [97] Tanzania 058 [100] A 149 [101] 286 [102] 661 [103] B 058 [100] 661 [103] Thailand A 616 [104] Tibet D 613 [105] Uganda A 612 [106] Vanuatu A 133 [107] Venezuela C 608 [30] Vietnam A 660 [108] C 617 [109] 618 [110] Zambia B 010 [111] XXIII C 010 [111] 607 [112] B 644 [113] 679 [114] Zimbabwe 104 [115] 176 [116] C 610 [117] 622 [118] 882 [119] List of documents included for review (119) 1. Wyllie de Echeverria VR, Thornton TF: Using traditional ecological knowledge to understand and adapt to climate and biodiversity change on the Pacific coast of North America. Ambio 2019, 48:1447–1469. 2. Rosales J, Chapman JL: Perceptions of Obvious and Disruptive Climate Change: Community-Based Risk Assessment for Two Native Villages in Alaska. Climate 2015, 3:812–832. 3. Chapin FS, Knapp CN, Brinkman TJ, Bronen R, Cochran P: Community-empowered adaptation for self-reliance. Curr Opin Environ Sustain 2016, 19:67–75. 4. Huntington HP, Quakenbush LT, Nelson M: Evaluating the Effects of Climate Change on Indigenous Marine Mammal Hunting in Northern and Western Alaska Using Traditional Knowledge. Front Mar Sci 2017, 4. 5. Sowman M, Raemaekers S: Socio-ecological vulnerability assessment in coastal communities in the BCLME region. J Mar Syst 2018, 188:160–171. 6. Sultana P, Thompson PM: Adaptation or conflict? Responses to climate change in water management in Bangladesh. Environ Sci Policy 2017, 78:149–156. 7. Khalil MB, Jacobs BC, McKenna K, Kuruppu N: Female contribution to grassroots innovation for climate change adaptation in Bangladesh. Clim Dev 2019, 12:664-676. 8. Rakib MA, Sasaki J, Pal S, Newaz MA, Bodrud-Doza M, Bhuiyan MAH: An investigation of coastal vulnerability and internal consistency of local perceptions under climate change risk in the southwest part of Bangladesh. J Environ Manage 2019, 231:419–428. 9. Alam GMM, Alam K, Mushtaq S: Climate change perceptions and local adaptation strategies of hazard-prone rural households in Bangladesh. Clim Risk Manag 2017, 17:52–63. 10. Khalil MB, Jacobs BC, Kuruppu N: Grassroots Technologies and Community Trust in Climate Change Adaptation: Learning from Coastal Settlements of Bangladesh. In Innovation in Climate Change Adaptation. Climate Change Management. Edited by Leal Filho W. Springer, Cham; 2016:297–311. 11. Ahmed MNQ, Atiqul Haq SM: Indigenous people’s perceptions about climate change, forest resource management, and coping strategies: a comparative study in Bangladesh. Environ Dev Sustain 2019, 21:679–708. XXIV 12. Rahman MH, Alam K: Forest dependent indigenous communities’ perception and adaptation to climate change through local knowledge in the protected area-A Bangladesh Case Study. Climate 2016, 4:1–25. 13. Meldrum G, Mijatović D, Rojas W, Flores J, Pinto M, Mamani G, Condori E, Hilaquita D, Gruberg H, Padulosi S: Climate change and crop diversity: farmers’ perceptions and adaptation on the Bolivian Altiplano. Environ Dev Sustain 2018, 20, 703-730. 14. Taboada C, Garcia M, Gilles J, Pozo O, Yucra E, Rojas K: Can warmer be better? Changing production systems in three Andean ecosystems in the face of environmental change. J Arid Environ 2017, 147:144–154. 15. Kolawole OD, Motsholapheko MR, Ngwenya BN, Thakadu O, Mmopelwa G, Kgathi DL: Climate variability and rural livelihoods: How households perceive and adapt to climatic shocks in the Okavango Delta, Botswana. Weather Clim Soc 2016, 8:131–145. 16. Akinyemi FO: Climate change and variability in semiarid palapye, eastern Botswana: An assessment from smallholder farmers’ perspective. Weather Clim Soc 2017, 9:349– 365. 17. Ngwenya BN, Thakadu OT, Magole L, Chimbari MJ: Memories of environmental change and local adaptations among molapo farming communities in the Okavango Delta, Botswana—A gender perspective. Acta Trop 2017, 175:31–41. 18. Vogt N, Pinedo-Vasquez M, Brondízio ES, Rabelo FG, Fernandes K, Almeida O, Riveiro S, Deadman PJ, Dou Y: Local ecological knowledge and incremental adaptation to changing flood patterns in the Amazon delta. Sustain Sci 2016, 11:611–623. 19. Oviedo AFP, Mitraud S, McGrath DG, Bursztyn M: Implementing climate variability at the community level in the Amazon floodplain. Environ Sci Policy 2016, 63:151– 160. 20. Pinho PF, Marengo JA, Smith MS: Complex socio-ecological dynamics driven by extreme events in the Amazon. Reg Environ Chang 2015, 15:643–655. 21. Clark DG, Ford JD, Pearce T, Berrang-Ford L: Vulnerability to unintentional injuries associated with land-use activities and search and rescue in Nunavut, Canada. Soc Sci Med 2016, 169:18–26. 22. Panikkar B, Lemmond B, Else B, Murray M: Ice over troubled waters: Navigating the Northwest Passage using Inuit Knowledge and scientific information. Clim Res 2018, 75:81–94. 23. Waugh D, Pearce T, Ostertag SK, Pokiak V, Collings P, Loseto LL: Inuvialuit traditional ecological knowledge of beluga whale ( Delphinapterus leucas ) under changing climatic conditions in Tuktoyaktuk, NT . Arct Sci 2018, 258:1–17. 24. Galappaththi EK, Ford JD, Bennett EM, Berkes F: Climate change and community fisheries in the arctic: A case study from Pangnirtung, Canada. J Environ Manage 2019, 250: 109534. 25. Shijin W, Dahe Q: Mountain inhabitants’ perspectives on climate change, and its impacts and adaptation based on temporal and spatial characteristics analysis: A case study of Mt. Yulong Snow, Southeastern Tibetan Plateau. Environ Hazards 2015, 14:122–136. 26. Zhang L, Hu J, Li Y, Pradhan NS: Public-private partnership in enhancing farmers’ adaptation to drought: Insights from the Lujiang Flatland in the Nu River (Upper Salween) valley, China. Land use policy 2018, 71:138–145. XXV 27. Song Y, Dong Y, Wang J, Feng J, Long C: Tartary buckwheat (Fagopyrum tataricum Gaertn.) landraces cultivated by Yi people in Liangshan, China. Genet Resour Crop Evol 2020, 67:745–761. 28. Wu X, Zhang X, Dong S, Cai H, Zhao T, Yang W, Jiang R, Shi Y, Shao J: Local perceptions of rangeland degradation and climate change in the pastoral society of Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. Rangel J 2015, 37:11-19. 29. Dong S: Himalayan grasslands: Indigenous knowledge and institutions for social innovation. In Environmental Sustainability from the Himalayas to the Oceans: Struggles and Innovations in China and India. Edited by Dong S, Bandyopadhyay J, Chaturvedi S. Springer, Cham; 2017:127–144. 30. Leroy D: Farmers’ perceptions of and adaptations to water scarcity in colombian and venezuelan páramos in the context of climate change. Mt Res Dev 2019, 39:R21–R34. 31. Hiwasaki L, Luna E, Syamsidik, Marçal JA: Local and indigenous knowledge on climate-related hazards of coastal and small island communities in Southeast Asia. Clim Change 2015, 128:35–56. 32. Kieslinger J, Pohle P, Buitrón V, Peters T: Encounters between experiences and measurements: The role of local knowledge in climate change research. Mt Res Dev 2019, 39:R55–R68. 33. López S, Jung JK, López MF: A hybrid-epistemological approach to climate change research: Linking scientific and smallholder knowledge systems in the Ecuadorian Andes. Anthropocene 2017, 17:30–45. 34. Gebru BM, Wang SW, Kim SJ, Lee WK: Socio-ecological niche and factors affecting agroforestry practice adoption in different agroecologies of southern Tigray, Ethiopia. Sustain 2019, 11:1–19. 35. Ahmed ME, Bihi MA: Indigenous Knowledge for Resilience and Adaptation in Pastoral Production System of Somali Regional State in Ethiopia. Interdiscip Descr Complex Syst 2019, 17:723–737. 36. Tilahun M, Angassa A, Abebe A: Community-based knowledge towards rangeland condition, climate change, and adaptation strategies: the case of Afar pastoralists. Ecol Process 2017, 6:1-13. 37. Balehegn M, Balehey S, Fu C, Liang W: Indigenous weather and climate forecasting knowledge among Afar pastoralists of north eastern Ethiopia: Role in adaptation to weather and climate variability. Pastoralism 2019, 9:1-14. 38. Iticha B, Husen A: Adaptation to climate change using indigenous weather forecasting systems in Borana pastoralists of southern Ethiopia. Clim Dev 2019, 11:564–573. 39. Amare ZY: Indigenous knowledge of rural communities for combating climate change impacts in west central ethiopia. J Agric Ext 2018, 22:181–195. 40. Mekuriaw A: Towards a Methodological Approach to Document and Analyze Local Knowledge of Climate Change: With Evidence from Rift Valley and Blue Nile Basins, Ethiopia. In Climate Change Adaptation in Africa. Climate Change Management. Edited by Leal Filho W, Belay S, Kalangu J, Menas W, Munishi P, Musiyiwa K. Springer, Cham; 2017:689–710. 41. Turunen MT, Rasmus S, Bavay M, Ruosteenoja K, Heiskanen J: Coping with difficult weather and snow conditions: Reindeer herders’ views on climate change impacts and coping strategies. Clim Risk Manag 2016, 11:15–36. XXVI 42. Gyasi EA, Gyekye Awere K: Adaptation to Climate Change: Lessons from Farmer Responses to Environmental Changes in Ghana. In Strategies for Building Resilience against Climate and Ecosystem Changes in Sub-Saharan Africa. Editey by Saito O, Kranjac-Berisavljevic G, Takeuchi K., A Gyasi E. Springer, Singapore; 2018:291–312. 43. Yamba S, Appiah DO, Siaw LP: Smallholder farmers’ perceptions and adaptive response to climate variability and climate change in southern rural Ghana. Cogent Soc Sci 2019, 5:1–23. 44. Freduah G, Fidelman P, Smith TF: Mobilising adaptive capacity to multiple stressors: Insights from small-scale coastal fisheries in the Western Region of Ghana. Geoforum 2018, 91:61–72. 45. Kwoyiga L, Stefan C: Groundwater development for dry season irrigation in North East Ghana: The place of local knowledge. Water 2018, 10:1724. 46. Antwi-Agyei P, Dougill AJ, Stringer LC: Barriers to climate change adaptation: evidence from northeast Ghana in the context of a systematic literature review. Clim Dev 2015, 7:297–309. 47. Nyantakyi-Frimpong H, Bezner-Kerr R: The relative importance of climate change in the context of multiple stressors in semi-arid Ghana. Glob Environ Chang 2015, 32. 48. Tejsner P, Veldhuis D: Climate Change as (Dis)Equilibrium: Behavioral Resilience in the Greenlandic Arctic. Hum Ecol 2018, 46:701–715. 49. Singh PK, Papageorgiou K, Chudasama H, Papageorgiou EI: Evaluating the effectiveness of climate change adaptations in the world’s largest Mangrove Ecosystem. Sustain 2019, 11:1–17. 50. Kodirekkala KR: Cultural adaptation to climate change among indigenous people of South India. Clim Change 2018, 147:299–312. 51. Sarkar S, Padaria RN, Vijayragavan K, Pathak H, Kumar P, Jha GK: Assessing the potential of indigenous technological knowledge (ITK) for adaptation to climate change in the Himalayan and arid ecosystems. Indian J Tradit Knowl 2015, 14:251– 257. 52. Pandey R, Kumar P, Archie KM, Gupta AK, Joshi PK, Valente D, Petrosillo I: Climate change adaptation in the western-Himalayas: Household level perspectives on impacts and barriers. Ecol Indic 2018, 84:27–37. 53. Shukla G, Kumar A, Pala NA, Chakravarty S: Farmers perception and awareness of climate change: a case study from Kanchandzonga Biosphere Reserve, India. Environ Dev Sustain 2016, 18:1167-1176. 54. Inaotombi S, Mahanta PC: Pathways of socio-ecological resilience to climate change for fisheries through indigenous knowledge. Hum Ecol Risk Assess 2019, 25:2032– 2044. 55. Negi VS, Maikhuri RK, Pharswan DS, Thakur S: Climate change impact in the Western Himalaya : people ’ s perception and adaptive strategies Clima ate chan nge imp pact in t the Wes stern Hi imalaya a : peop le ’ s perce ption and a adap ptive st trategie es. 2018, 14:403–416. 56. Hazarika N, Tayeng T, Das AK: Living in troubled waters: stakeholders’ perception, susceptibility and adaptations to flooding in the Upper Brahmaputra plain. Nat Hazards 2016, 83:1157–1176. 57. Maikhuri RK, Phondani PC, Dhyani D, Rawat LS, Jha NK, Kandari LS: Assessment of XXVII Climate Change Impacts and its Implications on Medicinal Plants-Based Traditional Healthcare System in Central Himalaya, India. Iran J Sci Technol Trans A Sci 2018, 42:1827–1835. 58. Ingty T: High mountain communities and climate change: adaptation, traditional ecological knowledge, and institutions. Clim Change 2017, 145:41–55. 59. Utami AW, Cramer LA, Rosenberger N: Staple food diversification versus Raskin: Developing climate change resilience in rural Indonesia. Hum Organ 2018, 77:359– 370. 60. Saboohi R, Barani H, Khodagholi M, Sarvestani AA, Tahmasebi A: Nomads’ indigenous knowledge and their adaptation to climate changes in Semirom City in Central Iran. Theor Appl Climatol 2019, 137:1377–1384. 61. Baptiste AK: Climate change knowledge, concerns, and behaviors among Caribbean fishers. J Environ Stud Sci 2018, 8:51–62. 62. Omolo N, Mafongoya PL: Gender, social capital and adaptive capacity to climate variability: A case of pastoralists in arid and semi-arid regions in Kenya. Int J Clim Chang Strateg Manag 2019, 11:744–758. 63. Ombati M: Ethnology of Select Indigenous Cultural Resources for Climate Change Adaptation: Responses of the Abagusii of Kenya. In Contextualising Climate Change, Disasters, Sustainability Transition and Peace in the Anthropocene. Edited by Brauch HG, Oswald Spring Ú, Collins AE, Serrano Oswald SE. Springer Nature Switzerland AG; 2019:125–151. 64. Palframan A: “In common nature”: an ethnography of climate adaptation in the Lesotho Highlands. Local Environ 2015, 20:1531–1546. 65. Trogrlić RŠ, Wright GB, Duncan MJ, van den Homberg MJC, Adeloye AJ, Mwale FD, Mwafulirwa J: Characterising local knowledge across the flood risk management cycle: A case study of Southern Malawi. Sustain 2019, 11:1681. 66. Limuwa MM, Sitaula BK, Njaya F, Storebakken T: Evaluation of small-scale fishers’ perceptions on climate change and their coping strategies: Insights from lake Malawi. Climate 2018, 6:34. 67. Hockett M, Richardson RB: Examining the drivers of agricultural experimentation among smallholder farmers in Malawi. Exp Agric 2018, 54:45–65. 68. Šakić Trogrlić R, Wright GB, Adeloye AJ, Duncan MJ, Mwale F: Taking stock of community-based flood risk management in Malawi: different stakeholders, different perspectives. Environ Hazards 2018, 17:107–127. 69. Audefroy JF, Sánchez BNC: Integrating local knowledge for climate change adaptation in Yucatán, Mexico. Int J Sustain Built Environ 2017, 6:228–237. 70. Frawley TH, Crowder LB, Broad K: Heterogeneous perceptions of social-ecological change among small-scale fishermen in the central Gulf of California: Implications for adaptive response. Front Mar Sci 2019, 6:1–18. 71. Swe LMM, Shrestha RP, Ebbers T, Jourdain D: Farmers’ perception of and adaptation to climate-change impacts in the Dry Zone of Myanmar. Clim Dev 2015, 7:437–453. 72. Zin WYL, Teartisup P, Kerdseub P: Evaluating traditional knowledge on climate change (TKCC): A case study in the central dry zone of Myanmar. Environ Nat Resour J 2019, 17:1–29. 73. Hooli LJ: Resilience of the poorest: coping strategies and indigenous knowledge of XXVIII living with the floods in Northern Namibia. Reg Environ Chang 2016, 16:695–707. 74. Baul TK, McDonald M: Integration of indigenous knowledge in addressing climate change. Indian J Tradit Knowl 2015, 1:20–27. 75. Devkota S, Lal AC: Local knowledge for addressing climate change risks at local level: A case study from Nepal. In Identifying Emerging Issues in Disaster Risk Reduction, Migration, Climate Change and Sustainable Development: Shaping Debates and Policies. . 2016:211–230. 76. Gentle P, Thwaites R: Transhumant Pastoralism in the Context of Socioeconomic and Climate Change in the Mountains of Nepal. Mt Res Dev 2016, 36:173–182. 77. Maharjan SK, Maharjan KL: Exploring perceptions and influences of local stakeholders on climate change adaptation in Central and Western Tarai, Nepal. Clim Dev 2020, 12:575–589. 78. Cieslik K, Shakya P, Uprety M, Dewulf A, Russell C, Clark J, Dhital MR, Dhakal A: Building Resilience to Chronic Landslide Hazard Through Citizen Science. Front Earth Sci 2019, 7:1–19. 79. Devkota RP, Pandey VP, Bhattarai U, Shrestha H, Adhikari S, Dulal KN: Climate change and adaptation strategies in Budhi Gandaki River Basin, Nepal: a perception-based analysis. Clim Change 2017, 140:195–208. 80. Tunde AM, Ajadi BS: Indigenous understanding of climate change, impacts and coping strategies in a rural setting of Kwara State, Nigeria. Geogr Environ Sustain 2018, 11:85–99. 81. Ebhuoma E, Simatele D: Defying the odds: Climate variability, asset adaptation and food security nexus in the Delta State of Nigeria. Int J Disaster Risk Reduct 2017, 21:231–242. 82. Ifeanyi-Obi CC, Togun AO, Lamboll R, Arokoyu S: Socio-economic determinants of cocoyam farmer’s strategies for climate change adaptation in Southeast Nigeria. J Agric Ext 2017, 21:91–104. 83. Gundersen V, Kaltenborn BP, Williams DR: A bridge over troubled water: A contextual analysis of social vulnerability to climate change in a riverine landscape in south-east Norway. Nor Geogr Tidsskr 2016, 70:216–229. 84. Nasir MJ, Khan AS, Alam S: Climate change and agriculture: An overview of farmers perception and adaptations in Balambat Tehsil, District Dir Lower, Pakistan. Sarhad J Agric 2018, 34:85–92. 85. Inamara A, Thomas V: Pacific climate change adaptation: The use of participatory media to promote indigenous knowledge. Pacific Journal Rev 2017, 23:113–132. 86. Saylor CR, Alsharif KA, Torres H: The importance of traditional ecological knowledge in agroecological systems in peru. Int J Biodivers Sci Ecosyst Serv Manag 2017, 13:150– 161. 87. Walshe R, Argumedo A: Ayni, Ayllu,Yanantin and Chanincha: The Cultural Values Enabling Adaptation to Climate Change in Communities of the Potato Park, in the Peruvian Andes. GAIA-Ecological Perspect Sci Soc 2016, 25:166–173. 88. Nelson GLM, Zamora OB, de Guzman LEP, Tatlonghari R V., Espaldon MVO, Brillon JA: The indigenous practices and climate change responses of ati and suludnon farmers in Iloilo, Philippines. J Environ Sci Manag 2019, 22:87–98. 89. Lirag MTB, Estrella AB: Adaptation measures of farmers in response to climate XXIX change in Bicol Region, Philippines. Int J Adv Sci Eng Inf Technol 2017, 7:2308–2315. 90. Soriano MA, Diwa J, Herath S: Local perceptions of climate change and adaptation needs in the Ifugao Rice Terraces (Northern Philippines). J Mt Sci 2017, 14:1455– 1472. 91. Landicho LD, Paelmo RF, Cabahug RD, de Luna CC, Visco RG, Tolentino LL: Climate change adaptation strategies of smallholder agroforestry farmers in the Philippines. J Environ Sci Manag 2016, 19:37–45. 92. Molina JGJ, Neef A: Integration of Indigenous Knowledge into Disaster Risk Reduction and Management (DRRM) Policies for Sustainable Development: The Case of the Agta in Casiguran, Philippines. In Sustainable Development and Disaster Risk Reduction. Edited by Uitto JI, Shaw R. Springer Japan; 2016:247–264. 93. Taremwa NK, Gashumba D, Butera A, Ranganathan T: Climate Change Adaptation in Rwanda through Indigenous Knowledge Practice. J Soc Sci 2016, 46:165–175. 94. Aswani S, Vaccaro I, Abernethy K, Albert S, de Pablo JF-L: Can Perceptions of Environmental and Climate Change in Island Communities Assist in Adaptation Planning Locally? Environ Manage 2015, 56:1487–1501. 95. Ubisi NR, Kolanisi U, Jiri O: The Role of Indigenous Knowledge Systems in Rural Smallholder Farmers’ Response to Climate Change: Case Study of Nkomazi Local Municipality, Mpumalanga, South Africa. J Asian Afr Stud 2020, 55:273–284. 96. Rankoana SA: Perceptions of climate change and the potential for adaptation in a rural community in Limpopo Province, South Africa. Sustain 2016, 8:672. 97. Vilakazi BS, Zengeni R, Mafongoya P: Indigenous strategies used by selected farming communities in KwaZulu Natal, South Africa, to manage soil, water, and climate extremes and to make weather predictions. L Degrad Dev 2019, 30:1999–2008. 98. Apraku A, Akpan W, Moyo P: Indigenous Knowledge, Global Ignorance? Insights from an Eastern Cape Climate Change Study. South African Rev Sociol 2018, 49:1– 21. 99. Rankoana SA: Rainfall scarcity and its impacts on subsistence farming: the role of gender and religious rituals in adaptation to change. Agenda 2016, 30:124–131. 100. Ojoyi MM, Mwenge Kahinda J-M: An analysis of climatic impacts and adaptation strategies in Tanzania. Int J Clim Chang Strateg Manag 2015, 7:97–115. 101. Wang T, Peng S, Lin X, Chang J: Declining snow cover may affect spring phenological trend on the Tibetan Plateau. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2013, 110:E2854- E2855. 102. Velempini K, Smucker TA, Clem KR: Community-based adaptation to climate variability and change: mapping and assessment of water resource management challenges in the North Pare highlands, Tanzania. African Geogr Rev 2018, 37:30–48. 103. Smucker TA, Wangui EE: Gendered knowledge and adaptive practices: Differentiation and change in Mwanga District, Tanzania. Ambio 2016, 45:276–286. 104. Sereenonchai S, Arunrat N: Fishers’ decisions to adopt adaptation strategies and expectations for their children to pursue the same profession in Chumphon Province, Thailand. Climate 2019, 7:34. 105. Nyima Y, Hopping KA: Tibetan Lake Expansion from a Pastoral Perspective: Local Observations and Coping Strategies for a Changing Environment. Soc Nat Resour 2019, 32:965–982. XXX 106. Nkuba M, Chanda R, Mmopelwa G, Kato E, Mangheni MN, Lesolle D: The effect of climate information in pastoralists’ adaptation to climate change: A case study of Rwenzori region, Western Uganda. Int J Clim Chang Strateg Manag 2019, 11:442–464. 107. Granderson AA: The role of traditional knowledge in building adaptive capacity for climate change: Perspectives from Vanuatu. Weather Clim Soc 2017, 9:545–561. 108. Thi Hoa Sen L, Bond J: Agricultural adaptation to flood in lowland rice production areas of Central Vietnam: understanding the ‘regenerated rice’ ratoon system. Clim Dev 2017, 9:274–285. 109. Son H, Kingsbury A: Community adaptation and climate change in the Northern Mountainous Region of Vietnam: A case study of ethnic minority people in Bac Kan Province. Asian Geogr 2020, 37:33–51. 110. Son HN, Chi DTL, Kingsbury A: Indigenous knowledge and climate change adaptation of ethnic minorities in the mountainous regions of Vietnam: A case study of the Yao people in Bac Kan Province. Agric Syst 2019, 176: 102683. 111. Makondo CC, Thomas DSG: Climate change adaptation: Linking indigenous knowledge with western science for effective adaptation. Environ Sci Policy 2018, 88:83–91. 112. Kupika OL, Gandiwa E, Nhamo G, Kativu S: Local ecological knowledge on climate change and ecosystem-based adaptation strategies promote resilience in the Middle Zambezi Biosphere Reserve, Zimbabwe. Scientifica 2019, 2019. 113. Mubaya CP, Mafongoya P: Local-level climate change adaptation decision-making and livelihoods in semi-arid areas in Zimbabwe. Environ Dev Sustain 2017, 19:2377– 2403. 114. Siambombe A, Mutale Q, Muzingili T: Indigenous knowledge systems: A synthesis of batonga people’s traditional knowledge on weather dynamism. African J Soc Work 2018, 8:46–54. 115. Mugambiwa SS: Adaptation measures to sustain indigenous practices and the use of indigenous knowledge systems to adapt to climate change in Mutoko rural district of Zimbabwe. Jamba J Disaster Risk Stud 2018, 10:1–9. 116. Mutandwa E, Hanyani-Mlambo B, Manzvera J: Exploring the link between climate change perceptions and adaptation strategies among smallholder farmers in Chimanimani district of Zimbabwe. Int J Soc Econ 2019, 46:850–860. 117. Mashizha TM: Adapting to climate change: Reflections of peasant farmers in Mashonaland West Province of Zimbabwe. Jàmbá J Disaster Risk Stud 2019, 11:1–8. 118. Mugambiwa SS, Rukema JR: Rethinking indigenous climate governance through climate change and variability discourse by a Zimbabwean rural community. Int J Clim Chang Strateg Manag 2019, 11:730–743. 119. Mapfumo P, Mtambanengwe F, Chikowo R: Building on indigenous knowledge to strengthen the capacity of smallholder farming communities to adapt to climate change and variability in southern Africa. Clim Dev 2016, 8:72–82. XXXI References 1. Mengist W, Soromessa T, Legese G: Method for conducting systematic literature review and meta-analysis for environmental science research. MethodsX 2020, 7:100777. 2. Haddaway NR, Macura B, Whaley P, Pullin AS: ROSES reporting standards for systematic evidence syntheses: pro forma, flow-diagram and descriptive summary of the plan and conduct of environmental systematic reviews and systematic maps. Environ Evid 2018, 7:1–8. 3. Gusenbauer M, Haddaway NR: Which academic search systems are suitable for systematic reviews or meta-analyses? Evaluating retrieval qualities of Google Scholar, PubMed, and 26 other resources. Res Synth Methods 2020, 11:181–217. 4. Durach CF, Kembro J, Wieland A: A new paradigm for systematic literature reviews in supply chain management. J Supply Chain Manag 2017, 53:67–85. 5. Kraus S, Breier M, Dasí-Rodríguez S: The art of crafting a systematic literature review in entrepreneurship research. Int Entrep Manag J 2020, 16:1023–1042. 6. Okoli C: A guide to conducting a standalone systematic literature review. Commun Assoc Inf Syst 2015, 37:879–910. 7. IPCC: Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press; 2014. 8. Cooper C, Booth A, Varley-Campbell J, Britten N, Garside R: Defining the process to literature searching in systematic reviews: a literature review of guidance and supporting studies. BMC Med Res Methodol 2018, 18:1–14. 9. Kottek M, Grieser J, Beck C, Rudolf B, Rubel F: World map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification updated. Meteorol Zeitschrift 2006, 15:259–263. 10. QGIS Development Team: QGIS Geographic Information System. Open Source Geospatial Foundation Project. 2018, 11. R Studio Team: RStudio: Integrated Development Environment for R. 2019, 12. R Core Team: R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. 2019, XXXII