Ansiedad y Estrés 27 (2021) 47-56 Ansiedad y Estrés ISSN 1134-7937 Ansiedad y Estrés Volumen 27, Número x-x Julio-Diciembre 2021 Órgano de expresión de la Sociedad Española para el estudio de la Ansiedad y el Estrés (SEAS) www.ansiedadyestres.es h t t p s : / / w w w. a n s i e d a d ye s t r e s. e s Órgano de expresión de la Sociedad Española para el estudio de la Ansiedad y el Estrés (SEAS) Original article Health outcomes of occupational stress in passionate musicians Eulàlia Portía, Eva Parradob, Ramon Cladellasb & Andrés Chamarrob Centro Sanitario Portí; bDepartament de Psicologia Bàsica, Evolutiva i de l’Educació, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona a A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T Article history: Becoming a professional musician is highly demanding and requires a deliberate practice that involves Recibido el 29 September 2020 participation in a highly structured activity to improve performance and high levels of concentration. Aceptado el 12 November 2020 Musicians often begin to study music at a very young age, and their lives are subjected to constant pressu- Online el 15 June 2021 re and prone to high levels of stress that may impact their well-being. The aim of this study is to identify the effects of occupational stress and deliberate practice on the performance anxiety of passionate mu- Keywords: sicians and on their degree of well-being. A total of 483 musicians completed questionnaires measuring Occupational stress their levels of occupational stress, passion, performance anxiety and wellness. The results indicated that Music gender, low control, high demands, overcommitment and obsessive passion are predictors of musicians’ Passion level of performance anxiety. Meanwhile, experiencing control, low demands, rewards, low overcom- Performance anxiety Well-being mitment, harmonious passion and low obsessive passion contributed to the explanation for musicians’ well-being. These findings show that occupational stress and passion, but not deliberate practice, are directly related with performance anxiety and with musicians’ well-being. Resultados de salud del estrés laboral en músicos apasionados R E S U M E N Palabras clave: Convertirse en músico profesional es muy exigente y requiere una práctica deliberada que implica la Estrés ocupacional participación en una actividad altamente estructurada para mejorar el rendimiento y altos niveles de Músico concentración. Los músicos a menudo comienzan a estudiar música a una edad muy temprana, y sus Pasión Ansiedad escénica vidas están sujetas a una presión constante y son propensas a altos niveles de estrés que pueden afectar su Bienestar Occupational stress bienestar. El objetivo de este estudio es identificar los efectos del estrés ocupacional y la práctica deliberada Music sobre la ansiedad de interpretación de músicos apasionados y sobre su grado de bienestar. Un total de Passion 483 músicos completaron cuestionarios que miden sus niveles de estrés ocupacional, pasión, ansiedad por Performance anxiety el desempeño y bienestar. Los resultados indicaron que el género, el bajo control, las altas exigencias, el Well-being compromiso excesivo y la pasión obsesiva son predictores del nivel de ansiedad de interpretación de los músicos. Mientras tanto, experimentar control, bajas exigencias, recompensas, bajo compromiso excesivo, pasión armoniosa y poca pasión obsesiva contribuyeron a la explicación del bienestar de los músicos. Estos hallazgos muestran que el estrés y la pasión ocupacional, pero no la práctica deliberada, están directamente relacionados con la ansiedad por la interpretación y con el bienestar de los músicos. * Corresponding author. E-mail address: andres.chamarro@uab.es (A. Chamarro). https://doi.org/10.5093/anyes2021a7 1134-7937/© 2021 Sociedad Española para el Estudio de la Ansiedad y el Estrés - SEAS. Colegio de la Psicología de Madrid. All rihgts reserved. 48 E. Portí et al. et al. / Ansiedad y Estrés 27 (2021) 47-56 Performing music at a professional level is among the most are located in two basic features of any given job: the psychological demanding disciplines in arts education. Musicians often begin demands of the job (intellectual demands, amount of work and their training at very young ages (Braden, Osborne, & Wilson, pressure) and the degree of discretion or control that an individual 2015), and they test the limits of their sensorimotor capacities and can exercise, both over his or her tasks (discretion as to how to carry devote themselves to constant efforts to be ever faster and more out predetermined tasks) and over the skills involved (discretion as expressive (Altenmüller & Ioannou, 2016). In the musical profession, to what tasks to undertake, creativity with regard to what methods psychological distress is prevalent, as it is related to the demands of to use and where to apply them, the use and development of each the public and other musicians (Burin & Osorio, 2017). Occupational individual’s skills). When a workplace task features high levels stress may affect musicians’ well-being (Vervainioti & Alexpoulos, of both demands and control, the result for workers consists of 2015). Some studies have also shown that women in this field higher of degrees motivation, learning and personal growth (and experience greater demands and stress than men (Holst et al., 2012), thus increased productivity). However, workplace situations in line with previous research examining the general population characterized by low levels of both demands and control can lead (e.g., Moncada, Llorens, & Sánchez, 2005). Nevertheless, there has to lower motivation, the loss of previously acquired knowledge, been limited attention focused on the consequences of occupational or the learning of behavior patterns that are damaging to both the stress in this population. worker and the organization. When demands are high and workers’ Additionally, according to Ericsson, Krampe, & Tesch-Römer control over them is low, the resulting workplace situations are (1993) musicians engage in intentional practice with their marked by high degrees of strain and stress. The model was later instruments to improve their performance, which may have a expanded (Karasek & Theorell, 1990) to include a third factor, that negative impact on their health (e.g., because of the appearance of of social support. The term here refers to the moderating role that muscle pain) (Burin & Osorio, 2017). However, deliberate practice can be played by the support received from both colleagues and is a form of formal practice that experts use to improve their superiors. In other words, social support can help safeguard against performance, a fact that suggests some degree of self-regulatory the negative effects a demanding job can have on well-being. The skills (Bonneville-Roussy & Bouffard, 2015). greatest levels of stress emerge, then, in jobs with high demands To our knowledge, no studies have focused on the combined and a lack of social support, although it remains true that more effects of occupational stress and deliberate practice, two factors control can counteract the negative effects of high demands. that may have consequences for musician’s health. Therefore, this In broad terms, musicians may be exposed to high levels of study has been conducted to explore the implications of both demand along with limited opportunities to exert influence over occupational stress and deliberate practice for musicians. their own work (low skill discretion). Added to this, a lack of social support and low job satisfaction could increase the chances of experiencing occupational stress. Music as a profession Another prominent theoretical model that can be used to understand occupational stress is the effort-reward imbalance Professional musicians deal with conditions of greater tension model (Siegrist, 1996). This model emphasizes the need for the than other professionals, because they are forced to contend rewards received by workers (money, prestige and opportunities with irregular working hours, personal isolation, separation from for promotion) to be commensurate with the (extrinsic and their families (as most concerts take place at the weekend), the intrinsic) efforts they make. This model also takes into account the monotony of practice sessions and frequent travel (Kenny, 2006). phenomenon of overcommitment, exhibited by individuals who In addition, professional musicians are subjected to intense are excessive in their devotion to their workplace tasks, dedicating demands at work, as from the very start of their careers they are exaggerated degrees of effort to their jobs. According to this model, expected to perform to perfection and to exhibit constant patience an imbalance between effort and reward can provoke prolonged and dedication (Jacukowicz & Weyzyk, 2017). More specifically, reactions of social and psychological strain. Stress emerges when the musicians face considerable emotional demands (their exposure efforts made by a worker are significantly greater than the rewards to assessment and criticism), cognitive demands (the need for he or she receives in return. This sort of situation can be especially constant concentration, memorization and improvement) and stressful for overcommitted workers. The effort-reward imbalance social demands (competition from other musicians). On top of the model has been applied in a range of different contexts and has psychological demands they deal with, musicians also have a lack proven to be a useful tool in the design of programs to prevent of control over a part of their livelihoods, as they tend to have workplace stress (Siegrist & Li, 2017). Research has proven the little say over what pieces they play, especially when it comes to importance of remuneration, job security and career progression. symphony orchestras, which are very hierarchical organizations This renders artists vulnerable to occupational stress due to the (Halleland, Harris, Sornes, Murrison, & Ursin, 2009; Holst, Paarup, imbalance between effort and reward (Willis, Neil, Mellick, & & Baelum, 2012). Wasley, 2019). Both models represent important contributions to the Occupational stress theoretical models literature on occupational stress. Taken together, they paint a more complete picture, given that the job demand-control model Some of the most prominent theoretical models used to focuses on the characteristics of the job itself, while the effort- understand occupational stress are based on observing an reward imbalance model looks more at what happens when the imbalance between the demands placed on an individual by the reciprocity principle inherent in labour relations is violated and occupational context and the individual’s resources to meet these examines the personal factor of excessive dedication to work. demands. The job demand-control model (Karasek, 1979) makes However, few researchers have applied the job demand-control it possible to describe and analyze workplace situations featuring model to musicians (e.g., Vaag, Giaever, & Bjerkeset, 2014), and chronic stress factors, placing special emphasis on the psychosocial we are not aware of any research that has used the effort-reward characteristics of the professional environment. It has become one imbalance model to study musicians. In light of the scarcity of of the most influential models on the relationship between work literature covering this topic and the need for empirical research and health (Van del Doef & Maes, 1999). The chief sources of stress that explores musicians’ working environment and the links E. Portí et al. et al. / Ansiedad y Estrés 27 (2021) xx-xx 49 between personal factors and musicians’ occupational stress, our dependent on contingency factors such as feelings of acceptance, purpose is to combine the two models to map the psychosocial and the individuals exhibit a behavior pattern marked by a factors that influence musicians’ mental health outcomes. rigid commitment to participating in the activity. Consequently, although individuals may love an activity passionately, they Deliberate practice feel obligated to participate in it more out of a need to prove something to themselves or to gain social approval. Thus, Meanwhile, in the context of the musical profession, people with obsessive passion can experience uncontrollable deliberate practice seems to be a variable worthy of consideration impulses to engage in the activities that are important to them, (Bonneville-Roussy & Bouffard, 2015). Deliberate practice is and they are unable to stop themselves. This sort of passion defined as the intentional participation in highly structured takes up a disproportionate amount of space in the person’s activities that are created specifically to improve performance identity and controls the person’s behavior, with some people and that require high levels of concentration (Ericsson et al., experiencing negative effects (such as ruminations) or other 1993). These activities are not inherently enjoyable (Ericsson behavioral changes during and after the activity (Curran et al., & Charness, 1994). In broad terms, these kinds of activities can 2015). While it is true that this kind of obsession can sometimes be divided into two basic categories (Sloboda et al., 1996): i) lead to greater persistence and thus improved performance in technical exercises (scales, arpeggios, sight reading, etc.), which the activity, it can also have the opposite effect, with a lack of help musicians systematically improve technical aspects of their flexibility making it impossible for people to achieve what they performance by exposing them to a wide range of problems that might otherwise be capable of in the activity. The persistent may occur in pieces of music in a given genre, even though the obsession with the activity that has caused this sort of passion music produced in the exercises is not in and of itself of interest; can bring with it conflicts with other aspects of an individual’s ii) practice playing individual works of music, where the focus life. When a person is unable to engage in the desired activity, he is on overcoming the specific technical and expressive problems or she experiences frustration, which in turn stands in the way of posed by a given piece. Musicians risk burnout if they engage in fulfilling participation in other activities. Both kinds of passion deliberate practice for more than a certain amount of time each have been documented as part of performing music at the highest day, but they can complement this practice with other music- levels, as the most accomplished musicians tend to display high related activities (studying music theory, playing familiar pieces levels of both harmonious and obsessive passion and to meet either alone or in groups, observing other musicians). the criteria to be considered passionate: they love music, devote a large proportion of their time to it and consider it a passion (Mageau et al., 2009). However, a recent study showed that while Passion and musical performance harmonious passion does positively predict higher degrees of life satisfaction in accomplished musicians, the same is not true of Another potentially relevant consideration is the fact that obsessive passion (Bonneville-Roussy, et al., 2011). In line with musicians place great importance on their professional activity. the positive effects of harmonious passion, Ascenso, Williamon, Music is the driving force in their lives and an integral part of their & Perkins (2017) suggested that the keys to effective musical identities. The predominant role they give to music coincides performance are experiencing positive emotions, maintaining with Vallerand’s definition of passion, set out in the Dualistic social relationships, adopting an identity as a musician, and Model of Passion (Vallerand et al., 2003; Vallerand, 2015). In the working hard to achieve a broad perspective that takes in the field terms of the model, passion is understood as going beyond mere of music and other areas as well (in other words, being flexible). interest in an activity, and it is defined not as a personality trait Others (Fernet, Lavigne, Vallerand, & Austin, 2014), suggest but as a special relationship that is forged with a given activity (Vallerand, 2015). The Dualistic Model of Passion is based on the effects of harmonious passion on professional efficacy and Self-Determination Theory (Ryan & Deci, 2017), and it assumes obsessive passion on emotional exhaustion. that people attempt to meet certain basic needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness. When people are passionate about Musical performance anxiety an activity, they love it and devote their time and energy to it, taking it on as part of their identities. By this definition, several Further, it should be noted that musical performances studies (Bonneville-Roussy, Lavigne, & Vallerand, 2011; Stenseng, (both auditions and concerts) represent the core of musicians’ 2008) have pointed to playing a musical instrument as a supreme professional activities, and that these occasions require a high example of an activity that awakens passion. Vallerand identifies degree of psycho-physiological activation. When they perform two different types of passion, distinguished by the ways in which in these contexts, musicians are constantly being assessed, both the activity in question has been incorporated into an individual’s on their technical execution and on their audience interaction, identity. Harmonious passion arises when the internalization of and the fact that they often lack the skills to confront these the activity as part of one’s identity is autonomous, such that kinds of situations can provoke anxiety (e.g., Braden et al., 2015; the activity and its results are experienced as in accordance with Chanwimalueang et al., 2017). Several studies have focused on one’s pre-existing values and self-concept. The activity is freely the area of musical performance anxiety in the years since Kenny pursued, often for pleasure, and it results in positive experiences (2011, p. 433) defined the phenomenon as “the experience of both during the time spent on the activity itself and afterwards, marked and persistent anxious apprehension related to musical generating motivation to adapt and regulate oneself (Curran, Hill, performance that has arisen through specific anxiety-conditioning Appleton, Vallerand, & Standage, 2015). Thus, when the person experiences.” Kenny writes that this anxiety is manifested through cannot participate in the activity at a given time, he or she is able combinations of symptoms that may be affective, cognitive (such to adapt to the situation and effectively engage in other activities, as fear of failure or negative thoughts about the performance or indicating a degree of flexibility (Vallerand & Verner-Filion, 2013). about oneself), somatic (such as tremors in the extremities or Obsessive passion, however, emerges from a more controlled the voice) or behavioral (such as avoidance or flight behaviors). internalization of the activity. Engagement in the activity is Anxiety affects adult musicians and children and adolescents 50 E. Portí et al. et al. / Ansiedad y Estrés 27 (2021) 47-56 alike (Boucher & Ryan, 2011; Zarza-Alzugaray, Orejudo, Casanova, control, greater demands, social support and a balance between & Aparicio-Moreno, 2018). Between 40 and 60 percent of efforts and rewards (H2). professional musicians have seen their performance harmed by anxiety (Thomas & Nettelbeck, 2014; Zarza-Alzugaray et al., 2018). Method Beyond these effects on performance, there can be other negative consequences, as musicians tend to adopt coping strategies Participants that are not very healthy, including the consumption of drugs and alcohol, sometimes causing not only poorer performance Responses were collected from a total of 529 musicians, but (Williamon, Aufegger, Wasley, Looney, & Mandic, 2013), but also 29 of them were excluded because they were incomplete. Also, 17 bringing about an end to musicians’ careers (McGinnis & Milling, more participants (3.4%) were excluded because they did not meet 2005; Ryan & Andrews, 2009; Yoshie, Kudo, Murakoshi, & Ohtsuki, the criteria for inclusion. The inclusion criteria called for passionate 2009). musicians of 16 years of age or older who were professional or those, whom enrolled in an academic program, but also were participating Performing music and well-being in bands or auditions professionally. In line of prior studies (e.g., Rip, Fortin, & Vallerand, 2006; Vallerand & Houlfort, 2003), only those Performing music may allow musicians to experience feelings participants who were highly passionate (those who scored 4 or of flow and well-being (Croom, 2015). Researchers have also above on the passion criterion scale described below) were included looked at the effects of musical performance, concluding that in the study (96.6%). playing an instrument can improve subjective well-being through Of the 483 musicians who made up the final sample, 256 (56%) several different mechanisms: i) subjective experiences of were men and their age ranged from 16 to 77 years old (mean= pleasure, ii) an increase in social interaction, iii) the fulfilling of 32.67± 11.52 years). According their occupational level and the type musical ambitions, iv) the ability to make music and v) a feeling of of performing, more than a half were fulltime musicians and played self-satisfaction thanks to musical progress (Perkins & Williamon, on a group or band (see Table 1). Sampling was conducted between 2014). However, research on performing professions suggests February 2015 and January 2016. that occupational factors may negatively affect actors’ well-being (Robb, Due, & Venning, 2018). In the same vein, over the past 10 Table 1. years a growing body of research has examined the relationship Frequencies of the sociodemographic and professional variables of the between playing music and well-being (e.g., Willis et al., 2019). participants. Other authors (Ryff, 2014; Willis et al., 2019) suggest that a Variables % eudemonic conceptualisation of well-being may be a suitable Gender framework for understanding the experiences of performing Women 47% artists. Men 53% Civil Status The present study Single 52.6% Married/couple 42.7% Thus, as discussed above, the job demand-control model Separate/divorced 4.8% indicates that in musical performance and the musical profession in Occupational level general, occupational demands, workers’ degree of control and the Fulltime musician 57.1% social support receive are all important factors (Jacukowicz, 2016), Part time musician 22.4% while the effort-reward imbalance model tells us that musicians, Unpaid musical band 13% like other performing artists, expect the efforts they make to be Not working at all 3.9% recognized with commensurate rewards (Siegrist & Li, 2017). Prior Others 3.5% studies have analysed the relationship between occupational stress Type of performing and musical performance anxiety (Kenny et al., 2004), but they did Group/ band 56.5% not apply the widely recognized theoretical models presented here, Group and soloist 17.4% which have established their relationship with the well-being of Soloist 10.1% employees in other workplace contexts. Taken together, the two Not specified 15.5% models account for a large proportion of the occupational and personal factors that have been identified as affecting musicians’ well-being (Vervainioti & Alexpoulos, 2015; Willis et al., 2019). In Measures addition, passion seems to play a defining role in the field of music and would seem to have both positive and negative consequences In addition to socio-demographic and professional data, we (Mageau et al., 2009; Bonneville-Roussy et al., 2011), and deliberate measure passion and occupational stress. practice seems to be a variable that merits attention (Bonneville- Measurement of socio-demographic and professional data. Roussy & Bouffard, 2015). A socio-demographic and professional questionnaire were used to Founded on the above framework, the aim of this study is to data. Collects data on gender, age, civil status, occupational level analyze the effects of occupational stress and deliberate practice (fulltime musician, part time musician, unpaid musical band, not on performance anxiety and well-being of passionate musicians. working at all, and others) and type of musical performance (group/ It is expected that higher rates of music performance anxiety band, group and soloist, soloist, not specified). will be associated with obsessive passion, lower levels of control, Measurement of occupational stress. Occupational stress was high demands, low levels of social support and overcommitment measured with The Job Content Questionnaire (Karasek et al., 1998); (H1). In contrast, it is expected that well-being will be associated adapted into a Spanish version by Escribà-Agüir, Más, & Flores, with harmonious passion, deliberate practice, higher degrees of 2001), and the Effort-Reward Imbalance Questionnaire (Siegrist et E. Portí et al. et al. / Ansiedad y Estrés 27 (2021) xx-xx 51 al., 1996), adapted into a Spanish version (Robles, et al., 2003). The Likert scale ranging from 1 (totally disagree) to 7 (totally agree), Job Content Questionnaire is a 22-item scale that measures three and a well-being score is calculated via a sum of the scores on the dimensions: demands (e.g., “My musical activity requires very hard subscales. This scale has an internal consistency of α = .89. work”), control over one’s work (e.g., “In my musical activity, I have the opportunity to develop my special skills”) and social support Procedure (e.g., “My teacher/conductor is concerned about the well-being of the people he/she works with”). All the items are answered on a The questionnaires were administered both in a paper format four-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (totally disagree) to 4 (totally and online. The paper questionnaires were administered by the agree). In our study, the internal consistency indices were α=.69 for first author to teachers and students of the superior school of demands; α=.72 for control and α=.87 for social support. music who met inclusion criteria, and to members of professional The Effort-Reward Imbalance Questionnaire is a 16-item bands, all of whom had signed informed consent protocols. The questionnaire which measures three dimensions: effort (e.g., “I am online questionnaire was distributed via a link that could be often interrupted or bothered when doing my musical activity”), shared and forwarded by social network users, especially on reward (e.g., “In my job, the opportunities for promotion to a higher Facebook and LinkedIn. Respondents were able to access the position in my musical activities are scarce”) and overcommitment questionnaire after having read the informed consent document (e.g., “Many days I wake up with problems associated with my and having clicked on “I agree to participate.” Users were asked musical activity on my mind”). The items are answered using a to consent to the posting of information about the questionnaire Likert scale that ranges from 1 (totally disagree) to 4 (totally agree). on their profiles to attract more participants. This procedure is The internal consistency indices are as follows: α=.46 for effort; α in compliance with the ethics rules set out in the 2013 Helsinki =.77 for reward and α=.75 for overcommitment. Declaration and its subsequent amendments and received the Measurement of deliberate practice. In order to assess Research Ethics Committee’s approval. deliberate practice, we have used an item taken from a study by Bonneville-Roussy & Bouffard (2015), which asks respondents to rate the statement “I practice with the specific objective of Statistical analysis improving (practicing scales, technical exercises, perfecting difficult musical fragments, improving my technique and performance...)”, The data analysis was carried out using version 17.0 of the on a seven-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (never) to 7 (always). statistics program SPSS. The techniques used were as follows: Measurement of passion. The Spanish version (Chamarro et al., (a) descriptive analysis, (b) analysis of variance (ANOVA) (c) co- 2015) of the Passion Scale (Vallerand et al., 2003), was adapted to rrelation analysis and (d) hierarchical multiple linear regression music (items mentioning activity were changed to read “activity using the “enter” method. Socio-demographic and occupational as a musician”), and contains two six-item subscales, assessing data, transformed into dummy variables, and passion dimensions, harmonious and obsessive passion. A five-item criterion measures were entered in the first and second steps in order to control their participants’ degree of passion for their musical activities. Each effects. Then, the occupational stress and deliberate practice were item in this section is designed to assess a different criterion of entered as a third step. The measurements of performance anxie- the definition of passion (the extent to which the participant likes ty and well-being were considered to be dependent variables. and feels passionate about the activity, as well as the time spent on the activity). All these subscales were answered using a seven- Results point Likert (from 1, strongly disagree to 7, strongly agree). Previous research has demonstrated the reliability and validity of the We conducted a preliminary data analysis (ANOVA) to enable instrument (Chamarro et al., 2015; Marsh et al., 2013). In our study, us to determine if socio-demographic variables showed significant the internal consistency indices were α=.83 for harmonious passion differences for the stress models, deliberate practice, anxiety and and α=.79 for obsessive passion. well-being variables. No significant differences were found for Measurement of performance anxiety. For performance the dimensions of Effort-Reward Imbalance Questionnaire or for anxiety, the study used the subscale of the Kenny Music Performance deliberate practice. However, some differences were found for the Anxiety Inventory (Kenny et al., 2004), adapted into Spanish by variables from the Job Content Questionnaire, performance anxiety Zarza, Orejudo, Casanovas, and Mazas (2015). This questionnaire and well-being. Specifically, for gender, women showed higher originally consisted of three subscales: general vulnerability, scores for social support than men (p = 0.031). Regarding type of context and early relationships and performance anxiety. This final performing, musicians who played in a group/band showed lower subscale is made up of 11 items, (e.g., Before a concert, I never know scores for the control dimension than soloists (p =0.048) and if I will give a good performance) with respondents answering on than musicians that played in a group and as soloists (p =0.001). a seven-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (totally disagree) to 7 Likewise, musicians who played in a group and as soloists showed (totally agree). The scale has an internal consistency of α = .87. higher scores for demands than musicians who played in a group/ Measurement of psychological well-being. The Psychological band (p =0.029) and than musicians that did not specify what type Well-being Scale (Ryff, 1989) was used in an abbreviated Spanish of performing they did (p =0.028). Regarding occupational level, adaptation (Díaz et al., 2006). It consists of 29 items and measures fulltime musicians showed higher scores for the control dimension six dimensions of psychological well-being: self-acceptance (e.g., than unpaid musicians in bands (p =0.001), part time musicians (p “In general I feel secure and positive about myself”), positive <0.001), non-working musicians (p <0.001), and they got higher relations with others (e.g., “I know that I can count on my friends, scores for the demand dimension than unpaid musicians in bands and they know they can count on me”), autonomy (e.g., “I trust (p =0.001) and part time musicians (p =0.002). in my own opinions, even when they go against the general Regarding performance anxiety, women had higher scores than consensus”), environmental mastery (e.g., “I have been able to men (p <0.001), and members of groups and soloist musicians build a home and a lifestyle that I like”), personal growth and showed lower scores than group/band musicians (p =0.008) and purpose in life (e.g., “I feel that over time I have developed a lot than musicians that did not specify what type of performing they as a person”). All the dimensions are answered on a seven-point did (p = 0.001). Finally, for the wellbeing dimension, married 52 E. Portí et al. et al. / Ansiedad y Estrés 27 (2021) 47-56 musicians and those in relationships registered higher scores but lower correlation, between rewards and social support. than single musicians (p = 0.001), and musicians who performed Deliberate practice was found to correlate positively (although to in a group and as soloists showed higher scores than group/band a smaller degree) with control, demands, overcommitment and musicians (p = 0.038). obsessive passion. Harmonious passion showed moderate positive The descriptive variables are shown in Table 2, with the mean, correlations with control, social support and rewards. Obsessive standard deviation, range, asymmetry and kurtosis. The values of passion correlates negatively with rewards. Performance anxiety asymmetry and kurtosis are all between +/-1. The asymmetry values also showed a moderate correlation with overcommitment and a are all negative (less age and reward). The same happens with the smaller correlation with demands. Finally, well-being was positively values of kurtosis, which are all negative (less control, demands and correlated with control, rewards and harmonious passion. A negative social support). In general, the descriptive statistics show adequate correlation was found between well-being and overcommitment consistency. (see Table 3). Most of the participants were found to be at least moderately Table 4 shows the results of the hierarchical regression analy- passionate about music, and there was a predominance of sis. The regression analysis for performance anxiety showed a harmonious passion over obsessive passion. Considering the ranges significant predictive value for gender, being a group and soloist based on the means and standard deviations of responses provided musician, harmonious passion (negatively) and obsessive passion, for each of the variables (Table 2), it would seem that, regarding control (negatively), demands and overcommitment and (see Ta- the demand-control model, musicians experience high degrees of ble 4). Taken together, these factors explained 26% of the variance demand, but they also exhibit high levels of control, meaning that in performance anxiety. Well-being was significantly predicted by they can actively take initiatives in their work (Siegrist, Li, & Montano, harmonious passion and obsessive passion (negatively), control, 2014). They also show a high degree of social support. Applying the and rewards. These factors explained 32% of the variance in we- effort-demand model, we found that their efforts are not rewarded ll-being. to the extent that they would like and that overcommitment is prevalent. Deliberate practice is also predominant. We also found Discussion low levels of performance anxiety and high degrees of well-being. The purpose of this study was to identify the effects of Table 2. Descriptive statistics. occupational stress and deliberate practice on the degrees of well-being and performance anxiety experienced by passionate Variables M (SD) Rank Asymmetry Kurtosis musicians. It was hypothesized that musical performance anxiety 1.Age 32.69 (11.58) 16-77 .60 -.34 would be associated with obsessive passion, lower levels of control, 2.Control 24.68 (3.10) 14-28 -.99 .64 high demands, low levels of social support and overcommitment. 3.Demands 18.18 (3.40) 6-24 -.50 .08 Regarding well-being, it was expected to be associated with 4.Social Support 28.38 (5.33) 9-36 -.78 .45 harmonious passion, deliberate practice, high levels of control, high 5.Effort 8.66 (1.94) 3-12 -.31 -.16 demands, social support and a balance between effort and rewards. 6.Reward 16.71 (4.67) 7-28 .09 -.63 In descriptive terms, our results suggest that a large percentage 7.Over-commitment 16.52 (4.20) 6-24 -.25 -.66 of musicians can be considered to be passionate about their 8. Deliberate Practice 5.20 (1.71) 1-7 -.74 -.38 profession, and more specifically that they tend more toward 9. Harmonious Passion 33.91 (6.29) 17-42 -.80 -.01 harmonious passion than obsessive passion. This suggests that 10. Obsessive Passion 24.56 (8.30) 6-42 -.24 -.63 musicians feel that their profession is part of their identities, which 11.Performance Anxiety 33.21 (13.42) 11-73 .59 -.20 they enjoy it and do not do it out of a sense of obligation, and that 12. Wellbeing 149.65 (23.90) 79-202 -.21 -.57 playing music coexists in harmony with other parts of their lives. Note. (N = 483). These results bear out the findings of other studies on musicians (Bonneville-Roussy et al., 2011) and on other artists, such as dancers In terms of the correlation analysis, a moderate positive (Chamarro, Martos, Parrado, & Oberst, 2011). correlation was observed between overcommitment, demands, Regarding occupational stress, musicians report feeling largely effort and obsessive passion (r > 0.40). There was also a positive in control of their professional activities, saying that they are able to Table 3. Correlation among the Variables. Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1.Age 2.Control 0.18** 3.Demands 0.06 0.40** 4.Social Support -0.15* 0.10* -0.04 5.Effort -0.11* 0.17** 0.56** 0.10* 6.Reward -0.11* 0.002 -0.27** 0.33** -0.08* 7.Over-commitment -0.02 0.21** 0.51** -0.02 0.48** -0.22** 8. Deliberate Practice 0.03 0.17** 0.13* 0.06 0.06 -0.01 0.21** 9. Harmonious Passion 0.09* 0.30** -0.05 0.22** 0.04 0.24** -0.05 0.12* 10. Obsessive Passion -0.04 0.22** 0.40** 0.09* 0.38** -0.16** 0.58** 0.24** 0.25** 11.Performance Anxiety -0.08* -0.10* 0.17** -0.02 0.12* -0.10* 0.30** -0.02 -0.06 0.25** 12. Wellbeing 0.13* 0.25** -0.12* 0.13* -0.06 0.26** -0.21** 0.07 0.43** -0.12* Note. *= p < .05; **= p < .001; E. Portí et al. et al. / Ansiedad y Estrés 27 (2021) xx-xx 53 Table 4. Hierarchical regression analysis for performance anxiety and well-being. Performance Anxiety Well-being Variables R2 ∆R2 B Beta IC (95%) R2 ∆R2 B Beta IC (95%) Step 1 0.10 0.08*** 48.7 40.77 56.62 0.04 0.02 138.51 124.02 152.99 Gender -0.22*** 0.02 Age -0.01 0.07 Civil Status -0.06 0.05 Type of performing Soloist -0.06 -0.05 Group/band -0.07 -0.02 Group and soloist -0.16* 0.08 Occupational level Fulltime musician -0.07 0.12 Unpaid music band 0.03 0.02 Part time musician 0.07 0.01 Not working -0.06 0.05 Musical studies level -0.02 -0.02 Step 2 0.19 0.17*** 46.65 36.54 56.75 0.27 0.25*** 90.48 73.51 107.45 Harmonious Passion -0.14** 0.49*** Obsessive Passion 0.31*** -0.25*** Step 3 0.26 0.23*** 50.49 36.06 64.93 0.32 0.29*** 58.99 34.60 83.40 Control -0.19*** 0.19** Demands 0.17** -0.09 Social Support -0.03 0.01 Effort -0.08 0.06 Reward -0.01 0.12** Over-commitment 0.23*** -0.10 Deliberate Practice -0.06 0.06 F=7.99*** F=10.90*** Note. *= p < 0.05; **= p < 0.01; ***= p <0.001; Gender: 1=women, 2=men make decisions as to when and how to perform. As for the demands less susceptible to audience’s reactions. These factors make them of the job, musicians exhibit scores slightly higher than the average less susceptible to experience musical performance anxiety (Burin for all professions. This combination of high levels of both demands & Osorio, 2017; Kenny, 2011). and control places musicians in the category of “active workers” Regarding passion, on the one hand, obsessive passion has (Escribà-Agüir et al., 2001). Thus, according to the terms of the job been shown to be associated with greater negative effects and demand-control model, the musicians in our sample do not seem to with anxiety (Curran et al., 2015; Vallerand & Verner-Filion, 2013), experience occupational stress. Additionally, they report receiving including some studies that specifically looked at musicians a high degree of social support from their colleagues and superiors. (Bonneville-Roussy & Bouffard, 2015). However, harmonious Being able to exercise discretion plays a role in fostering well-being passion decreases musical anxiety, and consequently enhance well- and protecting against performance anxiety. However, according being (Bonneville-Roussy and Vallerand, 2018). Additionally, it was to the Siegrist model our participants did register high scores for found that lesser control over one’s work, or in other words a lack effort and low marks for reward, indicating that they view their of autonomy in the decision to play music, contribute to musical profession as highly demanding and the rewards they receive as performance anxiety. These results are consistent with preliminary insufficient. In other words, being a musician is stressful, as defined correlation analysis, showing that for musicians, experiencing by this model (Siegrist, Li, & Montano, 2014). The moderately high demands is associated with greater effort and overcommitment as scores registered for overcommitment point to the fact that many a coping strategy. Moreover, that strategy seems to be implemented musicians devote themselves somewhat excessively to their work to in an obsessive, rigid and persistent way. try to meet the intense demands of the musical profession (Siegrist On the other hand, the results of our study, regarding stress et al., 2014). factors, are aligned with the predictions of Karasek and Theorell’s According the results of multivariate analysis musical model (1990), who pointed out that the combination of high levels performance anxiety was associated to lesser control over one’s of demand, a low degree of control over one’s work and a pattern work, a greater tendency toward overcommitment, the perception of overcommitment can have negative consequences for workers. of stronger demands, lower levels of harmonious passion and These results place the musical profession in the category of high- higher levels of obsessive passion, confirming our first hypothesis. strain activities. These results also echo those of Holst et al. (2012), Besides, these factors were most likely to affect women. In this who found that symphony orchestra employees show high levels sense, previous studies had also found women to be more likely of commitment despite being subjected to great demands, often to experience performance anxiety (e.g.,Thomas & Nettelbeck, lacking the capacity to influence their own professional activities 2014). Additionally, perform both on bands an as soloist, seem to and receiving low levels of social support. be a protective factor. That may be because they are more able to Otherwise, the results showed that in fact well-being was perform adequately in different situations, feel comfortable and are predicted by higher degrees of harmonious passion and lower 54 E. Portí et al. et al. / Ansiedad y Estrés 27 (2021) 47-56 obsessive passion, higher degrees of control over one’s work and the effort-reward imbalance. A third limitation is that for deliberate the belief that one’s rewards are a sufficient reflection of the efforts practice only one item was used. Future studies should consider made. These findings partially confirmed our second hypothesis. using a minimum of three or four items, as suggested by Lloret- The evidence that a combination of high levels of harmonious Segura, Ferreres-Traver, Hernández-Baeza, & Tomás-Marco (2014). passion and low degrees of obsessive passion contribute to well- Notwithstanding, this study has many implications for research and being is not new. Harmonious passion has been shown to predict practice in music education and occupational research. well-being in a whole range of different activities (Curran et al., In terms of practice, our results suggest that musicians benefit 2015, Vallerand, 2015), as the autonomous internalization of the the most from being harmoniously passionate. Harmonious passion activity as part of the person’s identity leads to greater flexibility could be developed through practicing diverse music-related in the commitment made to the activity, which in turn fosters activities and combining them with other activities of everyday, concentration and facilitates the individual’s engrossment when gaining flexibility, a basic component of harmonious passion. In engaged in it. Prior studies have shown this also to be the case for this sense, developing musical skills for playing in bands and, musicians (Bonneville-Roussy et al., 2011; Fernet et al., 2014). The as soloist seems a promising way. Additionally, our results offer results here are also consistent with the findings of Ascenso et al. new suggestions for minimizing musical performance anxiety, (2017), who suggested that musical achievement was associated which may be treated not only though professional treatment with factors such as a high degree of personal implication and the or early educational experiences (e.g., Boucher & Ryan, 2011), assumption of an identity as a musician (passion) and with hard but also promoting control, reducing demands and limiting work undertaken from a broad perspective (harmonious passion). overcommitment. From a theoretical point of view, our results Similarly, the literature has shown that high scores for obsessive suggest that a view of both organizational and personal aspects of passion are not associated with well-being (Rousseau & Vallerand, occupational stress may be considered. Future research should shed 2008), because musicians who experience obsessive passion tend to light on the role of those factors on the health of musicians. be driven by uncontrollable impulses to play, which may improve their performance but ultimately leads to decreased well-being. Conclusion Thus, our results suggest they achieve greater well-being when their degree of obsessive passion is low. Our study has made clear that occupational stress and In the face of the stressors described here, higher levels of passion, but not deliberate practice, are directly related with both control and discretion, along with greater social recognition, performance anxiety and well-being in musicians. The musicians in contribute to promoting health. These results are consistent with this study scored below average when it comes to the appearance of prior suggestions by Van der Doef and Maes (1999) and findings by maladaptive patterns connected with performance, specifically in Vervainioti and Alexopoulos (2015), who concluded that the well- the form of performance anxiety, a finding that coincides with their being of musicians is threatened in large part because they tend to high scores for psychological well-being. experience a lack of control and to be subjected to criticism. Our results suggest that musicians would be well served by Finally, although musicians score highly for deliberate practice, striving to exercise control over their own musical decisions, to meaning that they practice specifically to improve their performance, combine their musical activities with other parts of life (harmonious the contribution of this activity to well-being is not relevant. This passion) and to obtain enough rewards for their work. may be because, as Ericsson and Charness (1994) highlight, this sort When it comes to performance anxiety, women, along with of practice is not inherently enjoyable (nor inherently unpleasant). those focused on obtaining results and those most prone to These results are at odds with the findings of Bonneville-Roussy overcommitment, are at higher risk of experiencing negative and Bouffard (2015), but they may be understandable if we consider consequences. the potential risk of burnout when musicians engage in deliberate However, our results show that musicians are better off under practice for more than a certain amount of time each day (Sloboda certain conditions (high harmonious passion and low obsessive et al, 1996). According to Sloboda et al (1996), musicians should passion), when they can exercise autonomy and to combine music complement this deliberate practice with other music-related with other activities. Therefore, it might be positive to attain activities (studying music theory, playing familiar pieces either working conditions that allow musicians to find a better balance alone or in groups, observing other musicians). This combination between their professional activities and other parts of their lives. could help them lower their levels of unpleasant feelings and, at the same time, it could contribute to greater flexibility, a basic References component of harmonious passion. Taken together, our results suggest that by using two theoretical Altenmüller, E., & Ioannou, C. I. (2016). Music performance. In Performance Psychology (pp. 103–119). Elsevier. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978- models that focus on both the organizational aspects of work and 0-12-803377-7.00007-7 on personal factors, we can get a more complete picture of the Ascenso S., Williamon A., & Perkins R. (2017). 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