Marine Policy 129 (2021) 104529 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Marine Policy journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/marpol Cultural heritage and environmental ethical values in governance models: Conflicts between recreational fisheries and other maritime activities in Mediterranean marine protected areas Sílvia Gómez a, *, Arnau Carreño b, Josep Lloret b a Dep. Social Anthropology, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Building B-Campus UAB, 08193-Bellaterra (Cerdanyola del Vallès), Barcelona, Spain b Oceans and Human Health Chair, Institute of Aquatic Ecology, University of Girona, C/ Maria Aurèlia Capmany 69, 17003 Girona, Spain A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T Keywords: The seas as the next economic frontier have led to conflicts at the intersection of resource conservation and Recreational fisheries exploitation; a space where cultural values and social practices overlap. Underpinned by a literature review, Conflicts surveys and personal interviews, this study identifies the main policy, socio-economic, environmental and cul­ Mediterranean marine protected areas tural drivers of conflicts arising from the coexistence of recreational fishing -a major maritime activity in Cultural heritage Socioecological values Mediterranean marine protected areas- and other maritime users. Results show that the constant paradoxes Environmental ethics arising from the conflict stem from different concepts of heritage, appropriation of resources and preservation. Recreational fishing lacks a common definition and governance institution, but nevertheless regards itself as a fishing community and has behavioural traits which challenge other maritime activities, particularly small-scale fishing. This study highlights the importance of fostering socio-ecological relational values, which must neces­ sarily be evaluated through the lens of environmental ethics, and contends that this is almost as relevant as the governance system. Given the divergent values of the different stakeholders and the high degree of scientific uncertainty found, we conclude that the main challenge in attaining a solid governance of multiple recreational and professional activities in marine reserves is to adopt a "middle ground" approach that combines top-down and bottom-up governance approaches. 1. Introduction the coming years. NGOs, however, point out that this needs to reach 40% [1]. Paradoxically, the Mediterranean is the world’s leading tourist Over the past decades, increased recreational maritime activities destination with more than 300 million international tourist arrivals per have transformed the sea, turning it into a contested social arena [2] year, which represents around 30% of the total number of tourists in the sparking conflict and a political struggle rights and access to marine world [58], and according to the World Tourism Organisation (https resources. The value of coastal and marine recreational activities ://www.https://www.e-unwto.org/doi/pdf/10.18111/97892844169 deriving from the sea such as recreational fishing, diving, and wildlife 29), this number will likely rise to 500 million by 2030. At the turn of the viewing has attracted increasing attention and contributed significantly century, the seas witnessed significant transformations at the crossroads to local and regional economy [56]. Caught between conservation and between resource conservation and overexploitation, which impinge on exploitation, society has focused its attention on the sea as a new eco­ overlapping and contradictory cultural values and social practices in a nomic frontier, and in doing so has intensified the competition for using contested space. the ocean, constructing a double-bind discourse. Although threats to The second half of the 20th century and beginning of the 21st century marine ecosystems such as unsustainable fishing practices, pollution, saw recreational maritime activities increase and develop rapidly in and climate change highlight that the ocean needs to be protected as a countries surrounding the Mediterranean Sea, in parallel with increasing natural, cultural heritage, the sea is seen at the same time as an eco­ numbers of tourists. Apart from professional fishing in MPAs, these ac­ nomic opportunity [74]. At present, only 7.14% of the Mediterranean tivities interacted and competed for the use of the environment. At the Sea is a marine protected area (MPA), with a target of rising to 10% in same time, Mediterranean MPAs have also grown in number and size * Corresponding author. E-mail address: silvia.gomez@uab.cat (S. Gómez). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2021.104529 Received 11 November 2020; Received in revised form 18 March 2021; Accepted 8 April 2021 Available online 6 May 2021 0308-597X/© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). S. Gómez et al. Marine Policy 129 (2021) 104529 due to efforts to conserve the region’s marine ecosystems, which are been considered. under increasing pressure from human activities. Although these MPAs This paper tackles conflicts arising from the coexistence of recrea­ constitute a key tool for conservation, their individual effectiveness is tional fisheries and other stakeholders in the light of the growing highly dependent on how well they are integrated with their specific importance of recreational fisheries in Mediterranean coastal waters, local conditions. especially in MPAs. We identify the main legal, socioeconomic, envi­ Despite studies highlighting potential existing conflicts in these ronmental and cultural drivers of conflicts with the ultimate goal of contested spaces, there is a lack of in-depth studies which take into ac­ identifying the underlying conflicts which need to be addressed in count the social and cultural issues causing these conflicts, and possible management plans. solutions to mitigate them. Studies carried out in Mediterranean MPAs have mainly dealt with ecological implications rather than the social, 2. Material and methods political and economic aspects of the problem [11]. Although conserving nature may be regarded as the main starting point for This research was conducted within the framework of an extended implementing MPAs, neglecting the sociocultural aspects embedded in EU Interreg PHAROS4MPAS project (https://pharos4mpas.interreg-me the environment has led to misunderstandings among MPA stake­ d.eu/). The study reviews various management actions with the aim holders. This in turn has led to conflicts and/or underlying, irreconcil­ of proposing a set of recommendations to tackle economic, socio- able points of view. On the whole, this may lead to only a partial cultural and ecological concerns related to the interaction of recrea­ understanding of MPAs and a move towards poor local consensus, if not tional fisheries and commercial fisheries and other maritime activities in outright hostility [11], leading to conflict among the various social ac­ Mediterranean MPAs. For this purpose, a comprehensive review of sci­ tors in the MPA. As recreational fishing continues to grow, its environ­ entific publications from both within and outside the Mediterranean was mental impact is being increasingly debated, (particularly in MPAs), but conducted. This included grey literature and technical reports derived the issue is not without controversy. Recreational fishing raises a num­ from management projects carried out in Mediterranean MPAs. Man­ ber of issues that question its long-term sustainability. These include agement experiences that tested viable solutions inside the Mediterra­ pressure on fish resources, habitat degradation, biodiversity loss, social nean were taken as best practices. The literature was researched using conflicts and pollution. Whether and how recreational fisheries can be Scopus, Google Scholar and Mendeley, and guided by several keywords sustainably practised in MPAs is a significant question which requires (*conflicts and *MPAs; *conflicts and *recreational fisheries; *conflicts recreational fisheries to take management measures [57]. and *small-scale fisheries; *conflicts and *scuba diving). The literature Among the activities conducted in European coastal waters, recrea­ was analysed following different qualitative questions guiding the focus tional fisheries stand out as one of the most important. The total number of our attention: of European recreational sea fishers was estimated to be approximately 8.7 million, with 5.9 million and 2.8 million in Atlantic and Mediter­ a) What is the status of progress towards high-quality management of ranean regions, respectively. It has been estimated that more than 25% recreational fisheries which takes biological, social, economic and of the population practises recreational fishing in some northern Euro­ governance into consideration? pean countries such as Norway and Iceland, whereas Mediterranean b) What are the main gaps in knowledge and how can they be filled? countries it is considerably less: 2.7% in Greece; 2.06% France; 1.32% in c) What should the vision and expectations for the future be? Italy and 0.61% in Spain. However, participation rates in many coun­ d) What potential social conflicts could ecological mitigation measures tries are uncertain [35,45]. Despite its popularity, recreational fishing cause? has not yet been properly assessed and managed at either a Mediterra­ e) Under what circumstances can MPAs and recreational fishing come nean or European level. The importance of recreational fisheries is together, considering the ecological and biological impacts, as well particularly great in Mediterranean MPAs where a large number of as the socioeconomic aspects and fishing method? people fish for pleasure. f) What new legislation and environmental awareness initiatives are Many studies have reported conflicts between professional (com­ needed (codes of conduct, co-management, etc.) to tackle the bio­ mercial) fisheries, particularly disputes over fishing rights between logical, social and economic challenges posed? small-scale (artisanal) and large-scale fisheries (trawlers and purse g) What local initiatives are needed to reduce conflicts between recre­ seiners). Conflicts often stem from over-exploitation of resources by ational fisheries, small-scale fisheries and scuba divers? highly efficient industrial and semi-industrial vessels, and conflicts of h) Are recreational fisheries threatening the future of artisanal fish­ interest may even arise with NGOs working to preserve marine ecosys­ eries? Should the cultural value of artisanal fisheries be taken into tems. However, to date, few studies have tackled the diversity of in­ account? teractions between recreational fishing and the various maritime activities other than professional fishing, such as scuba diving. Recrea­ Furthermore, different surveys addressing different issues (see Sup­ tional scuba diving in the Mediterranean has significant economic value; plementary material) were sent to the managers of the most emblematic for example, in the Apulia region of Italy, scuba diving related to the Mediterranean MPAs (Medes Islands, Cap de Creus, Cabo de Palos and existence of coralligenous habitat generated a revenue of €4.7 M in 2014 Cabrera in Spain; Côte Bleue, Egadi, Port Cros, Syros, Cerbère-Banyuls, [13]. It is clear, therefore, that scuba diving also needs to be taken into Porquerolles, Cap d’Agde and Bonifacio in France, Torre Guaceto and consideration alongside recreational and small-scale fisheries (SSF) Portofino in Italy, Institute of the Republic of Slovenia for Nature Con­ when setting priorities for conservation and coastal management de­ servation in Slovenia, Cape Greco in Cyprus), as well as to some key cisions. Knowledge of scuba divers’ preferences for management stra­ stakeholders (members of the European Anglers Alliance and scientists tegies is relevant for enhancing and the successfully adopting working on MPAs, n = 3). They were collected by email or phone. conservation strategies, while still maintaining the site as a tourism Questionnaires from MPA managers and local administrations were attraction [68]. As stated in Lopes et al. [41], conflicts between MPA complemented with face-to-face in-depth interviews to key recreational users can jeopardise their effectiveness to the point of potentially activity associations and small-scale fishers in one MPA as a case study making some MPAs less successful than the unprotected areas that (Cap de Creus) (n = 5). This case study was selected to further illustrate surround them. Solving conflicts is an important step towards assuring divergences resulting from the interaction between maritime activities. the effectiveness of MPAs [41]. Although authors usually list conflicts Through a Google Forms survey, possible ecological/socio-economic that arise by sector, especially when recreational fisheries and com­ solutions were proposed, and stakeholders requested to provide their mercial fisheries clash, a more global insight into conflicts between opinion regarding mitigating conflicts and implementing best practices recreational fisheries interacting with all maritime activities has not yet in MPAs (n = 10). Based on the analysis of the data collected in the 2 S. Gómez et al. Marine Policy 129 (2021) 104529 above sections, some conclusions will be drawn to guide the develop­ fishing grounds and fish stocks. In certain areas the total catch from ment of recommendations adapted to Mediterranean MPAs, some of recreational fishing is comparable to, or may even exceed, that of which are part of the Pharos4MPA report (see [29]). commercial fishing [43]. Similarly, for specific species, recreational catches may often equal, or exceed, commercial catches [75]. Recent 3. Results studies indicate that for certain species, recreational fishery in MPAs contributes significantly to fishing mortality and can magnify the 3.1. What are the drivers of conflict? negative effects of artisanal fisheries [49]. In 2002, the EU Council has approved regulations for monitoring and An analysis of reviews and surveys in the literature show that con­ controlling recreational fisheries in order to mitigate their ecological flicts in MPAs are mainly generated areas where there are poor insti­ impact. However, it is the responsibility of Member States to ensure tutional structures, ineffective surveillance, poor enforcement of MPA these regulations are implemented in accordance with the conservation policies, lack of inclusive co-management policies and well agreed objectives established under the Common Fisheries Policy. In 2009, a multi-actor governance systems, and above all, where the frameworks chapter on recreational fishing was included in Council Regulation (EC) for integrating the social, ecological, and economic aspects of MPAs are No 1224/2009. Article 55 of this regulation requires that “Member weak [3,9,42,67]. Management shortcomings are the consequence of a States should ensure that recreational fisheries on their territory and in lack of baseline measures providing the social, ecological and economic Union waters are conducted in a manner compatible with the objectives links into the inner workings of the management system. These mea­ and the rules of the Common Fisheries Policy”. Only in cases where sures have been identified as: (1) the asymmetric legal context of the two significant impacts are reported can the Council establish specific forms of fishing (non-commercial and commercial fisheries), reflected in management measures. Recreational fishing is subject to European the lack of recreational fishery data and management regimes; (2) the regulations outlining fishing opportunities for certain fish stocks and absence of a common definition of recreational fisheries at the European groups of fish stocks (EC No 2019-124). Management measures are set level, comprising a standardisation of different motivations, purposes for recreational fisheries targeting species subject to recovery plans. In and technical aspects of the activities; (3) the poor organisation of rec­ the Mediterranean these are species with minimum conservation refer­ reational fisheries as stakeholders, and (4) the lack of any standardised ence sizes (MCRS) such as the European eel, bluefin tuna and swordfish. criteria for issuing licences at a national level. To this, we can add the Even so, European priorities focus on only a few species managed by the difficulties involved in covering a wide array of maritime recreational total allowable catch (TAC) system as the general management of ma­ fishing licences, and their various typologies in different Mediterranean rine recreational fisheries mostly depends on national and regional countries [23,70]. What have to be added to: (5) divergent perceptions legislation [55]. of environmental and cultural values, and (6) social conflicts derived The FAO technical guidelines for responsible fisheries defines rec­ from resource use that can be exacerbated by ecological mitigation reational fishing as an individual’s motivation to fish, whether for per­ measures (Fig 1). sonal objectives, incentives or rewards: “Recreational fishing is thus defined as fishing of aquatic animals (mainly fish) that do not constitute 3.1.1. The lack of agreement on a definition the individual’s primary resource to meet basic nutritional needs and are One of the main sources of conflict lies in the fact that there is no not generally sold or otherwise traded on export, domestic or black agreed definition for recreational fisheries.1 This results in it being markets” [16]. In 2009, Arlinghaus and Cooke [4] warned of a series of identified as a maritime activity in a rather vague and poorly established inconsistencies stemming from this premise, as its broad definition fails way, which further complicates its regulation. It is clear that there is no to specify the authorised target species, or indeed, the capture methods specific European law enforcing recreational fishery laws, nor any employed. The General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean standardisation of regulation goals amongst Mediterranean MPAs. This (GFCM) defined recreational fishing as follows: “Fishing activities is in part due to the absence of an agreed definition of as activity that is exploiting marine living aquatic resources for leisure or sport purposes far-reaching enough to encompass fishing systems and techniques at from which it is prohibited to sell or trade the catches obtained” [69]. both Member State and European level. Recreational fisheries legisla­ For GFCM management purposes, recreational fishing comprises two tion varies widely among countries and MPAs in the Mediterranean major segments: first, leisure fishing which is for pleasure, and secondly, basin; this variability encompasses all types of regulation measures sport fishing, which pertains to fishing contests (competitions), which including the maximum fishing effort allowed for each fishing modality take place within an established institutional framework. These defini­ (e.g. boat fishing, fishing from the shore, spear fishing, shellfish tions cover active fishing methods including line, spear, and collection, etc.), as well as the minimum landing size of species, the hand-gathering and passive fishing methods including nets, traps, pots interdiction of certain fishing modalities and the establishment of sea­ and set-lines. However, it should be noted that in some Mediterranean sonal closures, among others ([65]. See Supplementary material). countries using methods such as nets, traps and pots is prohibited in The exact meaning of marine recreational fisheries in each European recreational fishing and only allowed for commercial fisheries. Marine country remains unexplained so far. This opens up a prominent debate recreational fisheries activity involves many different techniques, takes among academics and managers on whether or not commercial small- place in many different locations, and targets a broad range of taxa scale fisheries and recreational fisheries should be given equal rights (finfish, shellfish, crustaceans, etc.) [17,23]. Each type involves different of access to MPAs and their resources, which would imply imposing the fishing techniques and practices, each with its own specific same regulations. The lack of an agreed definition makes it difficult to socio-economic implications and impact on marine ecosystems [23]. manage competition for fishing resources as the impact of recreational Intrinsically connected to the lack of an agreed definition is the fisheries on stock is not being assessed. Nor is the impact of commercial distinction between semi-subsistence fisheries and strictly recreational fishing on fish stocks being controlled and managed. This competition fisheries. Since the 2008 economic crisis, some recreational fisheries can take the form of spatial competition for allocation or access to have been reported as semi-subsistence fisheries [36,44], in some cases providing supplementary income and competing with small-scale fish­ eries for the market [36]. Moreover, a few retired professional fishers 1 practising recreative fishing sell catches without declaring them [78]. Similarly, it is worth noting that despite the existence of a European defi­ nition of small-scale fisheries, this does not necessarily accommodate the great Studies carried out in Mediterranean MPAs up to date have dealt with variability of practices and conceptions of small-scale fisheries in Europe [53]. mainly ecological aspects ignoring social, political and economic im­ Even national definitions fail to cover the nuances existing between artisanal plications [11,62], whereas the few studies that attempt to assess the fisheries regarding spatial, ecological and cultural specificities [28]. socioeconomic aspects connected to protection contain limited 3 S. Gómez et al. Marine Policy 129 (2021) 104529 Fig. 1. Areas where recreational fisheries interact with other maritime activities. Source: Map by Alessandro Mulazzani (CNR-ISMAR), in Gómez et al. [29]. 4 S. Gómez et al. Marine Policy 129 (2021) 104529 information which make it difficult to segregate data between hands of Member States. A debate on the multiannual plan for the semi-subsistence fishing and occasional non-commercial fishing [61]. western Mediterranean, which included a fishing effort regime for all The FAO policy brief warns of the possibility that the economic impacts trawl vessels operating in the western Mediterranean, established that of the recent COVID-19 pandemic could fuel the continuation of these recreational fisheries would be included through regionalisation (this is, practices creating a worldwide problem [18]. MEDAC). Nevertheless, we have to take into account that recreational Although marine recreational and subsistence fishing are commonly fisheries should be represented at the local level, which is the appro­ defined as practices prohibiting the sale of catches, black market priate political domain for MPAs. transactions can take place, lowering the price of fish for SSF, directly affecting them. An EU report [46] highlights that before policies on 3.1.4. Divergent perceptions of environmental and cultural values through a non-commercial fisheries can be properly considered, thorough moni­ case study approach: Cap de Creus Natural Park toring and analysis of valid scientific data need to be carried out. The literature review and data provided through face-to-face in­ terviews in the Cap de Creus MPA show that a variety of conflicts may 3.1.2. Licence issuing arise in relation to environmental and cultural issues in MPAs, most The lack of registration systems also hampers identifying recrea­ often connected to resource allocation and the need to match the MPA’s tional fisheries and estimating the extent of their activity. The literature biodiversity objectives with establishing sustainable livelihood objec­ review reveals that data are scarce and vary between countries [17], and tives. A principal problem for MPA management in the European Med­ that recreational fishing practices are particularly difficult to assess as iterranean arises from conflicts over regulations and restrictions. It is they are carried out by a highly heterogeneous, mobile population [33]. reported that any changes made to regulations are often opposed by Anecdotal evidence suggests that recreational fisheries in the Mediter­ both small-scale fishermen and recreational fishermen [20]. Conflicts ranean witness significant fishing activity, with pressure on fish stocks involving recreational fishing and artisanal fishing are, however, the still increasing in some areas. Licence issuing is a good benchmark for most visible. Although these conflicts seem less relevant in some Med­ estimating the extent of recreational fishing. In Spain, where fishing iterranean coastal zones, especially in the western Mediterranean where with a licence is compulsory, the percentage of unlicensed fisheries small-scale fishing operations can diversify their economic activity nevertheless ranges from 26%, in the case of shore fishing in Cap de and/or benefit from tourism [11], this does not mean they do not exist. Creus, to 39% in Tabarca [21,23,47] and up to 59% in Mallorca [51]. Small-scale fishing operators complain that other extractive and Poaching negatively affects MPAs in terms of biomass and biodiversity, non-extractive maritime activities are threatening their livelihoods, at and can also cause serious economic losses while amplifying conflicts least in terms of “lifestyle” and cultural heritage [27,28,66]. Although among other stakeholders (e.g. small-scale fishermen, scuba divers, more diverse livelihoods lead to improved perceptions of distributional etc.). Typically, the legislation for fisheries establishes three types of equity [8], local small-scale fishermen feel they must compete with access regime for individual recreational fishing, recreational boats and tourist activities such as scuba diving, leisure boating and recreational divers. Licencing varies between Mediterranean countries, and six fishing, as well as the construction of ports for recreational boats which countries in the region (Albania, Croatia, Greece, Slovenia, Spain and may have unfavourable socio-economic and environmental impacts the Syrian Arab Republic) have a licencing system in force for boat which can particularly affect small-scale fisheries. Recreational fishing recreational fishing. In contrast, Bosnia and Herzegovina, France, has a negative impact on traditional small-scale fishing, provoking a Greece, Israel, Libya, Malta and Turkey have no licencing systems in struggle for maritime and coastal territorial space and access to re­ place [17]. Furthermore, some licences require paying a fee, and sources. Overall, although small scale fishing is still economically compulsory fees are applied differently depending on where the MPA is important for some communities, this type of fishing has been declining located in the Mediterranean. in many Mediterranean MPAs since the 90s [6,26,32]. Weak renewal, aging and demographic loss, decline in marine resources, lack of insti­ 3.1.3. Recreational fisheries representation tutional support, rigidness of EU regulations and the fishermen feeling Recreational fishing lacks any clear interlocutors, and its manage­ they are marginalised and undervalued in society, along with a decline ment is not centralised by a social institution, making conflict resolution in profits from fishing, are the main drivers of this downturn [15,26,36, difficult to frame. Another result from the literature review indicates 79]. that governments and other recreation bodies do not usually consider Nevertheless, small-scale fishing has cultural value, and besides these fishermen as definitive stakeholders as they lack a certain degree being an economic activity, it forms a cultural relationship with nature of organisation. They are highly diverse and lack the official represen­ which is rooted in local identities [27]. Sometimes small-scale fishermen tation and organisation that exists in professional fisheries in the Med­ declare that fishing is an activity that cannot be replaced by any other iterranean (Cofradías in Spain, Prud’homies in France and Fraglie in job [66]. These small-scale fishermen, therefore, depend on fishing, not Italy). Despite this, several recreational fishing organisations have been just for economic reasons, but cultural reasons too [30,54], and this is a established since the 1990s in many Mediterranean regions and nations, reason why scientists consider MPAs should ensure the economic and including EU level, such as the European Anglers Alliance, which has the social sustainability of small-scale fishing activity [15]. An EU statement capacity to influence the media and politicians because of the large approving recreational fisheries pointed out that: “the development of number of licences and business turnover from recreational fisheries recreational fishing activities must not mean a reduction in professional compared to professional ones. Furthermore, since the CFP reform in fishing opportunities or a sharing of scarce resources between profes­ 2002, the decision-making process has changed with the establishment sional and recreational activities, especially in the case of small-scale of Regional Advisory Councils (RAC). This was later renamed the and artisanal fishing”.2 Mediterranean Advisory Council (MEDAC) [59], and represents the At the same time, this recent EU document also recognised recrea­ various stakeholders (commercial fisheries sector, environmental orga­ tional fisheries as cultural heritage since it has been practised for nisations, consumer groups and sports/recreational fishery associa­ tions). Allegedly, regionalisation is decisive in implementing similar regulations in commercial fisheries. The CFP (EU Reg. 1983/2013) 2 Official Journal of the European Union, State of play of recreational fish­ states that local voices throughout the regions should be taken into eries in the EU European Parliament resolution of 12 June 2018 on the state of consideration during the decision-making process in order to ensure the play of recreational fisheries in the European Union (2017/2120(INI)) policy is applied effectively. However, specific CFP measures for com­ mercial fishing do not directly affect recreational fishermen, as these are only expected to comply with CFP conservation objectives left in the 5 S. Gómez et al. Marine Policy 129 (2021) 104529 centuries in the EU (European Parliament resolution of 12 June 2018 on institutions of fishery associations (Confraries, Cofradías and Prudh’ho­ the state of play of recreational fisheries in the European Union).3 mies in Catalonia, Spain and France, respectively), which are in charge of Similarly, recreational fishing is highlighted as bringing many social and schedules, time of fishing and first registration. On the other hand, public health benefits. For example, it increases participants’ quality of recreational fishermen have created an online community by connecting life, encourages social interactions, and increases practitioners’ aware­ with each other using social networks (WhatsApp, Instagram, and ness of the environment and the importance of sustainability [31,69]. Facebook), which has become the only registration system. The constant In this context, conflicts usually generate from users’ divergent inter-connectivity of recreational fishermen through the media has points of view over perceived ownership of the space and resources, established different cultural habits and a way of doing and fishing that which besides being ideological, do not generally lead to major clashes with the substantial cultural values of small-scale fishing. Rec­ confrontations. reational fishermen constantly upload photos of their catch, detailing Fishing is a complementary activity for some small-scale professional quantity, species and place of fishing, as well as revealing fishing fishermen, as they primarily work in tourism activities during sum­ grounds and opening up access to everybody. This disrupts the “culture mertime. However, they assert that it is the high frequency of other of secretiveness” that fishermen have traditionally used as a mechanism maritime activities in summer that leads them to cease their fishing to restrict access to sea resources emerging from competition for re­ activity during this time. On the other hand, recreational fishermen sources. The culture of secretiveness is also a system of self-regulation point out that professional fishermen make a living from common goods used to prevent excessive fishing pressure [48]. Recreational fisher­ (aquatic living resources) that do not belong to them alone, but to men exhibiting a fishing day trip via social media is a direct attack on the everybody. Divers use similar arguments to complain about discretional system of small-scale fishing. Although the use of social biodiversity-rich dive sites being occupied by small-scale fishermen in networks is becoming more common among some small-scale fishers, it search of better sizes or highly valued species in the market, which is perceived as more of a communication tool to enable information compromises diving safety. Clubs come into the conflict the most with exchange; any sense of community in these professional fishers is other activities; individual divers (using their own boats) have no major expressed in other spaces (e.g. the fishing port or auction) where fishers complaints and are more able to adapt to spaces and avoid interaction share their daily working life. with other activities. The excessive regulation and progressive bureaucratisation to which Another conflict that has recently been the focus of attention in MPAs professional fishers are exposed is another reason for complaint, is that of leisure boating, although little is known about it and there are together with a feeling of displacement due to the growing presence of no specific studies related to this type of conflict [5]. Managers in the recreational fishers, and more particularly, the allocation of fishing Medes Islands MPA reported that among the main conflicts that need to rights implemented by MPAs managers. Legislation regulating recrea­ be tackled are those between divers and hired leisure craft for which no tional fishing is not only out-dated, but vague and lacking enforcement, licence or boating permit is required. Lack of navigation knowledge and with over 50% of recreational fishermen declaring not having a licence experience amongst these unlicensed boaters leads them to tie up to dive and compliance with fishing regulations is generally very low [43]. Even buoys or encroach on the minimum distance required from divers’ alpha though some fishermen are familiar with the legal framework, they are flags. In other cases, large yachts and speedboats may be responsible for critical of measures that they consider to be inconsistent. In general, injuries or fatal accidents. Leisure boating can also disrupt the activities professional fishermen report unfairness in the way their activities are of small-scale fishing and recreational fishermen by accidentally drag­ highly regulated and subject to a number of administrative procedures, ging and destroying fishing gear, particularly nets. Collisions can also while recreational fishing is poorly regulated, accessible to all, uses occur between recreational vessels and small-scale fishermen’s boats increasingly high tech means, and in some cases culminates in the illegal [5]. sale of catches [78]. A lack of surveillance is the main argument The legitimate right to sea spaces and resources is a common argu­ explaining this situation. The lack of control over the issue of licences ment used by professional fishermen, often appealing to historical rights means that the real number of recreational fishers practising the activity to a relationship with the seascape and aquatic living resources, which is largely unknown. Presumably this number is growing due to online they call “immemorial rights”.4 Tradition, the value of a culture resources helping amateur fishers to learn how to set up fishing gear embedded in an environment, and the history of fishing connected to the easily, amongst other reasons. On the other hand, experienced fisher­ people are arguments understood as socially circumscribed moral men usually come from the families of professional fishermen or from principles, upholding these rights. A lack of replacement by the next recreational fishing families that have passed down the practice of generation, poor economic performance and a decline in fishery re­ fishing from one generation to the next. Both profiles of recreational sources has led to a decline in small-scale fishing over the years, whereas fishers coexist despite having different experiences of fishing, socio­ the amount of recreational fishing is increasing year after year. This ecological relationships and attachment to the territory. situation is leading to feeling helplessness in the face of an economic The constant paradoxes emerging from the conflict between recre­ activity (recreational fishing) that generates larger revenues for the ational fishers and other maritime activities reveal different conceptions territory. Although fishermen benefit from some of the tourist activities of heritage, appropriation of resources, and their preservation. The same in Cap de Creus, the feeling that small-scale fishing is a “disappearing arguments of responsibility, sustainability and the existence of a com­ socioecological system” strengthens the perception of conflict, and often mon legacy that legitimates the preservation of the rights of the native- underlines the fact that these are two different fishing sectors, with born population and their future generations over these resources are different habits and cultural values creates a sense of belonging and a often used [27]. Tourist operators run by local people (who are not reason for existence. fishers) assert their rights, based on the assumption that the Natural Park The sense of community, the social norms, and way of playing the is part of an age-old ‘domain’ inherited from their ancestors, legitimising “fishing game” often confronts different worldviews. Professional fish­ their claim over the territory [28]. These conflicts affect management ing in the Mediterranean is organised around the historical social systems, while fishers feel they are being displaced and their activities over-regulated by local management plans which leaves tourism un­ regulated. This in turn hinders fishing and depletes resources. Tourist 3 operators consider that introducing restrictions and zoning in the Nat­ Official Journal of the European Union, State of play of recreational fish­ eries in the EU European Parliament resolution of 12 June 2018 on the state of ural Park is depriving them of their historical and legitimate rights over play of recreational fisheries in the European Union (2017/2120(INI)) the territory. 4 Informations obtained from the allegation’s fishermen from the Cap de Creus MPA made to the proposal of implementing a no-take zone. 6 S. Gómez et al. Marine Policy 129 (2021) 104529 3.1.5. Social conflicts derived from use of resources that can be exacerbated different environmental arguments of right or wrong socio- by ecological mitigation measures environmental practices that each user wields to legitimise environ­ Conflicts are also driven by competition for high market value tar­ mental rights according to their own notion of fair access and use of geted species which are in high demand. These coastal species are in resources. Using Folchi’s [24] concept, the conflicts faced by users are, rapid decline, which impinges even more on conflicts arising from the rather, "conflicts with environmental content", and contain cultural competition for resources between recreational and artisanal fisheries. values within the struggle of different social sectors. These conflicts On the other hand, seeing these species is a main attraction for scuba often mask economic interests and power relations with concern for the divers, originating another cause for conflict in MPAs. environment. As Folchi [24] states: “conflict of environmental content The impact of certain recreational fishing methods such as spear occurs, precisely when the historical stability achieved between a fishing, jigging and trolling on vulnerable species is a major concern. community and its habitat is put under stress” (2001: 91). According to recent studies [22,23,47], 30% of the species captured by recreational fishers in the Mediterranean MPAs studied are classified as 4. Discussion vulnerable. However, in some areas such as Porquerolles (France), Côte-Bleue (France) and Serra Gelada (Spain), the proportion of Conflict between recreational fishers and other users, particularly vulnerable species in the recreational catch surpasses 50%. Overall, small-scale fishers, may arise because of multiple (social, economic and vulnerable species make up nearly 20% of the total recreational catch in environmental) perspectives, values and trade-offs inherent in resource coastal waters (including MPAs) of the western Mediterranean [45]. management. While some studies consider different agreement strate­ Clearly, recreational fisheries may pose a threat to vulnerable species, gies as an ingredient for preventing future conflicts, others list and many of which have experienced marked declines in their populations in describe alternative systems to resolve disputes [81,82]. These include recent decades [45]. For instance, it was shown that spearfishing attitudes towards agreement and/or skills to consider when establishing contributed to the decline of the vulnerable fish species Brown meagre a possible conflict resolution protocol. Nevertheless, few case studies (Sciaena umbra) population in the Scandola MPA (Corsica) [34]. show how these conflict resolution protocols and/or agreement strate­ Vulnerable species, such as S. umbra and grouper (Ephinephelus margin­ gies are put into practice, although an overall awareness exists that atus) are included in international conventions (e.g. Barcelona, Bern or conflicts are usually generated at the core of MPA regulations, and that Washington conventions), laws (e.g. EU Habitats Directive) and/or lists they have to be prevented and/or resolved. Resolving conflicts involves (e.g. the IUCN Red List). In particular, spearfishing is a very selective being proactive, creating a transparent process, and building trust. type of fishing since underwater fishers can see and choose the species to Although it is important to note that ways of resolving conflicts have to fish; this makes vulnerable species a target, particularly top predators be context-specific [10]. One reference model cannot be considered and larger individuals. Although they are less selective than spearfish­ valid for the whole Mediterranean since there is wide diversity in the ing, jigging and trolling may to an extent have the same effect, as large socioeconomic and environmental characteristics of MPAs [11]. lures are often used to attract the biggest fish [22,47,63]. Many of the Notwithstanding the impacts of recreational activities on the marine vulnerable species targeted by recreational fisheries have a high eco­ environment, the conflicts generated, and the solutions adopted to nomic value and, therefore, are also exploited by small-scale fisheries. In regulate them depend upon the past and current context of the MPA and fact, most of the target species of small-scale fishing are classed as on the regulatory tools at the disposal of managers [20]. These refer vulnerable on the IUCN Red List. In a study carried out in France, Italy directly to governance systems that, since 1990, imply institutional and Spain, nearly 50% of the total SSF catch in coastal waters – and organisation, negotiation and conflict resolution [14], which must 100% in offshore waters – was made up of vulnerable species [45]. Both tackle the conflicts arising between different sectors operating in an sectors therefore compete for these valuable resources. MPA. In this sense, and according to Mermet [50], negotiation is “a Furthermore, these vulnerable species targeted by both recreational decision system in which players who are interdependent, but have and small-scale fishers are also very valuable for scuba divers, who different interests or views, engage in dialogue in order to seek a depend on them for underwater viewing. This is similar to what occurs mutually agreeable solution”. Although, as stated by Jentoft [38], in with vulnerable species in some Pacific Islands; these species are not many instances, conflicts triggered by management have been pin­ only valuable for spearfishers, but are also highly valuable when kept pointed as being cultural rather than just interest-driven. Therefore, alive for scuba diving tourism [25,64]. In fact, many Pacific Islands and sociocultural and ecological information needs to be more effectively Caribbean countries have banned the use of scuba spearfishing or integrated to attain a complete understanding of the trade-offs associ­ spearfishing in general due to the fact that it conflicts with underwater ated with MPAs. The tendency to conduct ecological assessments tourism [80]. As for the ecological impacts of recreational fishing (e.g. regardless of a socio-economic evaluation ignores that both realms are affecting vulnerable species), recreational fishers often disagree with inextricably linked. Furthermore, historical deep-seated sociocultural reports of monitoring programs, complaining that they are criminalised experiences with territories leading to “territorial identities” and fuel­ for the type of activity they carry out to the detriment of other activities ling a feeling of jurisdiction over the space should be considered. (e.g. small-scale fishing), which they consider have a greater impact Conflicts may go from being a real physical competition for resources and/or are exempted from their responsibility. to economical and legal arguments about social and cultural priorities, Furthermore, the impacts of lost or abandoned fishing gear at sea which each sector uses to legitimate their own rights of access to the exacerbates conflicts with both sectors (recreational and SSF) and scuba resources [72]. Rights over which territorial relationships and identities divers. Lost hooks may also pose a serious threat to marine fauna, while are built. On the basis of this discourse, legitimate relationships of in­ sessile organisms in coralligenous bottoms may have their growth clusion in, or exclusion from, access to sea resources are built and/or compromised by the abrasive action of lost fishing nets and lines [12]. claimed. On the one hand, professional, small-scale fishers appeal to Coralligenous bottoms are the most frequented and valued bottoms by socially circumscribed moral principles and social rights to subsistence scuba divers in the Mediterranean. Furthermore, plastic fishing lines and and well-being, manifested through different historical processes of lead (mostly from recreational fishing) and lost nets (mostly from embeddedness in nature [27]. On the other, recreational fishers claim commercial fishing) are a major source of marine pollution in some the "democratisation" of free access to common sea resources and the areas, leading to the pollution of bottoms where scuba divers operate. As right to practise nature-based activities with health benefits. It is a pointed out by the European Commission, fishing gear accounts for 27% question of space appropriation in the interests of a historical relation­ of all beach litter and around 20% of all gear is eventually lost at sea ship with nature that does not involve privatisation, but rather negoti­ [71]. ation, communication, agreement, and collaboration. The environmental pressures each sector generates drives the Notwithstanding these facts, stakeholders are often not particularly 7 S. Gómez et al. Marine Policy 129 (2021) 104529 interested in solving conflicts, as they are not really perceived as such, Involving recreational fishers in MPA fisheries committees is not and seen more as the result of a process of interaction and claiming always straightforward, as recreational fishers may lack official repre­ rights over the space. And this is not an issue to be resolved by judicial sentative organisations, and many do not belong to a representative bodies (e.g. through politically established dispute resolution or nego­ organisation even where one exists (in France, only 3% of marine rec­ tiation systems), but rather through collaboration mechanisms, or what reational fishers belong to federations or other relevant organisations) Jentoft [39] called “synergy”, which implies the stakeholders’ mutual [19]. Nevertheless, in recent years recreational fishing organisations knowledge, as well as their knowledge of the place and the environment, have been established in many Mediterranean regions and nations, the coastal system, and of fisheries as a whole. As pointed out by including some at EU level such as the European Anglers Alliance. Chuenpadgee et al. [60], initial images of MPAs shared by stakeholders In a study published in 2012, eight of the 21 Mediterranean MPAs influence their conceptualisation of governance and the governability of analysed involved recreational fishers in making decisions governing the MPA. According to Kooiman and Jentoft [76], this is why it is vital to their activity [23]. MPAs such as Côte Bleue (France), Bonifacio establish good communication right from the initial steps of MPA (France), Cala Ratjada (Spain), Cabo de Gata-Nijar (Spain) and Torre del governance implementation, so that these images can be assessed and Cerrano (Italy) have, on the other hand, established frequent contact taken into account from the beginning. with these fishers. Others, such as the Golfe du Lion Natural Park Nonetheless, MPAs with some experience of stakeholder collabora­ (France) and the Calanques National Park (France) have representatives tion can transform complex cooperative and competitive interactions, of recreational fishing federations in their governing body. To ensure which could provide insights into different livelihoods and interests for regulations are relevant and accepted by stakeholders, they are prepared long-term conservation success. Although MPA implementation can in a participative manner – in some cases they are also tested before increase competitiveness among stakeholders, social cleavages can be being made permanent. In the Natural Reserve of the Straits of Bonifacio overcome through mutual cooperation, which engage collective action (France), some experimental recreational fishing regulations were tested at the same time [7]. Therefore, cooperation can enhance social cohe­ for a six-month trial period during 2012 [83]. These included that rec­ sion among stakeholders in parallel with their feeling of representation, reational fishers should declare their intention to fish in the area to the engagement and inclusion. This strategy has been highlighted by Corsican Environmental Office before going out, and that the maximum scholars as an informal way of resolving potential conflicts [39], pre­ catch would be limited to 5 kg/person/day. The test period was fol­ venting them by agreeing on cooperation actions. lowed by a consultation with local stakeholders on whether to make the Cooperation through trust-building activities and meetings encour­ regulations permanent or not. This allowed the regulation to evolve until ages stakeholders to work together [73] and promotes good governance. it was adopted permanently in 2018. Likewise, considering fishers’ traditional and local knowledge to inform In other cases, committees are starting to be established, such as in about sustainable methods integrates cultural value into the protected the areas adjacent to the Cap de Creus and Medes Islands MPAs, in the area management plans ensuring the participation of fishers and their framework of the regional government’s co-management programs. activity are embedded in nature conservation. Consequently, not only Despite highlighting a good experience as far as building social capital is are eco-economic aspects considered, but also the viewpoint of the concerned, already pointed out by authors [37] as paramount in social-ecological relationships, which should be involved in the process creating connections between actors and sharing values arising from encompassing cultural devices. these networks, sometimes the excessive in-between committees are not To proactively establish a dialogue among different stakeholders effective in making the different voices heard. The lack of agility implies designing a governance model able to include different view­ hampered by the multiple bodies between down and top often results in points as stated for co-management systems [37,38]. MPA managers concealing power relations, which neutralises the conflict as a way of should embrace co-management as a key tool where decision-making claiming rights. The agreement can be reduced to a socialisation process power, responsibility and accountability are shared among govern­ that achieves social capital, mutual knowledge and trust, neutralising mental agencies and other stakeholders, including local communities the effect of fighting for equity and rights. At the same time, excessive that depend on the MPA culturally and/or for their livelihoods [52]. The over organisation and bureaucratisation derived from every agreed step failure of top-down systems of governance to sustainably manage ma­ at each committee and subsequent body leads to claims being lost and rine protected areas has called for alternative approaches to be sought. discordant voices being sealed. Co-management has been considered a way of overcoming many of the Therefore, almost as important as the governance system is the failings of conventional modes of governance since it enables the legit­ incorporation of valid socioecological relational values. Given the imacy, transparency and accountability of resource management to be divergent values of different stakeholders, the high degree of scientific increased through greater stakeholder participation [38]. However, it uncertainty, and the high stakes involved in marine resource manage­ should be borne in mind that co-management is difficult to legally fit ment, the key challenge is to adopt a ‘middle-ground’ approach which into the regulatory and political frameworks of the Mediterranean.5 combines top-down and bottom-up approaches, following Jones [40]. Nevertheless, while co-management is not always possible in MPAs Taking MPAs as a socio-cultural, ecological and economical whole governed by a management board, effective participatory management integrated on the basis of cultural and natural values, the place’s history can still be achieved through specific fisheries committees set up under and its relationship with the people from the place under conservation the management board in which participants share decisions, re­ criteria is the first step to resolving conflicts. Although the history of sponsibility and accountability. professional fisheries is known, very little is known about the history of recreational fisheries and their interaction with seascapes or their bonds with the environment. For this, it is necessary to understand their relationship with the environment in order to consider the different 5 Co-management has only been legally regulated in Catalonia. This is part of environmental and cultural values in management plans, which should one of the key points set out in the 2030 Maritime Strategy of Catalonia, be evaluated through the lens of environmental ethics and morality. This through Decree 118/2018 of 19 June on the governance model for professional implies an accurate analysis of interests associated to values created by fishing in Catalonia published at the Official Journal of the Generalitat de different stakeholders in order to highlight the environmental and so­ Catalunya (DOGC-A-18170141-2018). Moreover, the decree, which sets out the ciocultural values of stewardship (custody) and co-responsibility aligned guidelines for the co-management decision making body (the co-management committee), has recently (January 2021) been enforced by the co- with environmental protection and conservation from the intrinsically management of the MPA Cap the Creus. In 2019, Medes Islands MPA was relational and deontological point of view. incorporated within the co-management of a larger area (Natura 2000 In order to achieve this goal, the main institutional drivers impeding network). stakeholder cooperation have to be resolved. First, a clear, European- 8 S. Gómez et al. Marine Policy 129 (2021) 104529 wide agreed definition of marine recreational fisheries is still needed for CRediT authorship contribution statement regulation and enforcement purposes. An appropriate definition should enable a clear distinction between different types of fishery, and the S.G.: Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology, Data collec­ different methods of recreational fishing [33]. The definition should tion, Formal analysis, Writing-original draft, Review and editing. A.C.: extend across the whole Mediterranean basin, where subsistence issues Investigation, Data collection, Review and editing. J.LL.: Investigation, are also very important in some areas. It is strongly recommended that Methodology, Review and editing, Funding acquisition, Project admin­ national licence systems should be developed so that the numbers of istration. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of recreational fishers (among other parameters) can be better evaluated. the manuscript. The licence system should include the obligation to report all catches – this is an essential element in obtaining greater accuracy regarding the Acknowledgements status of fish stocks and a clear assessment of the share of catches from recreational fisheries in relation to commercial fishing. In countries We would like to thank the collaboration of all the Pharos4MPAs without such a licence system, MPAs should still be allowed to issue project members, especially Catherine Piante, Pierre-Yves Hardy, Evan licences themselves, depending on their regulatory framework. When­ Jeffries, Alessandro Mullazzani, Elvira Sánchez and Esther Martínez. We ever possible MPAs should establish an obligatory licensing system for thank the anonymous reviewers for their accurate and constructive fishers who want to fish within their boundaries, particularly in coun­ comments, which helped to improve the manuscript Interreg Mediter­ tries without a national licence system. The establishment of recrea­ ranean 3MED17-3.2-M3-066. tional fishing fees when licences are issued is an effective mechanism towards sustainable management. These fees can contribute to lessening Declaration of Interest Statement the environmental impacts of recreational fishing, covering the costs of management and – importantly – control measures. A number of studies The authors declare no conflicts of interest. have demonstrated that most fishers are willing to pay if the fees are used for environmental protection. For example, a study conducted in Appendix A. Supporting information 2007 in the marine reserve of Cap de Creus showed that 64.6% of shore anglers were willing to pay a fee for fishing in the MPA, while 25.6% Supplementary data associated with this article can be found in the refused [22]. Finally, in order to ensure the good development of each online version at doi:10.1016/j.marpol.2021.104529. activity, an agreed zoning approach can be a key tool. Following the Avoid-Mitigate-Compensate approach is the primary and most effective References measure to ban recreational fishing from some sensitive and critical areas, despite already recurrent patterns in Mediterranean MPAs. [1] M. Andrello, D. Mouillot, J. Beuvier, C. Albouy, W. Thuiller, S. 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