                                                              Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 37 (2021) 102936


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                                                  Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports
                                                               journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jasrep


Manufacturing traces and pot-forming processes during the Early Neolithic
at Cueva de El Toro (Málaga, Spain, 5280–4780 BCE)
Javier Cámara Manzaneda a, *, Xavier Clop García a, Jaume García Rosselló b, María
Dolores Camalich Massieu c, Dimas Martín-Socas c
a
    ARCHAEOM, Departament de Prehistòria, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Catalunya, Spain
b
    ArqueoUIB Research Group, Departament de Ciències Històriques i Teoria de les Arts, Universitat de les Illes Balears, 07122 Palma de Mallorca, Illes Balears, Spain
c
    Departamento de Geografía e Historia, Área de Prehistoria, Universidad de La Laguna, 38200 La Laguna, Tenerife, Islas Canarias, Spain


A R T I C L E I N F O                                          A B S T R A C T

Keywords:                                                      This paper reports the results of forming processes used in pottery manufacture at La Cueva de El Toro (Málaga,
Pottery forming processes                                      Spain) during the Early Neolithic (5280–4780 cal. BCE). La Cueva de El Toro is one of the most important sites of
Ceramic technology                                             reference on the southern Iberian Peninsula for providing extensive and systematised data on early farming
Manufacturing traces
                                                               practices. The identification of manufacturing traces on pottery has enabled the assessment of the variability of
Early Neolithic
                                                               forming techniques used by the communities of herders that seasonally inhabited the cave during the Early
Andalusia
Iberian Peninsula                                              Neolithic. Forming processes were also compared with characteristic features of pottery products (typology,
                                                               decorations) that are representative of the first pottery production in this area. Furthermore, this study provides
                                                               new insights into the distribution of the first pot-forming processes in the south of the Iberian Peninsula, which
                                                               suggest the use of similar techniques to the forming-sequences documented at other Early Neolithic sites (the use
                                                               of coils and circular patches) and other forming processes (moulding process and the use of discs) which are still
                                                               unknown in the Western Mediterranean.


1. Introduction                                                                                       materials, the circulation of ceramic products and mobility patterns
                                                                                                      during the Early Neolithic based on these parameters (e.g., Angeli and
    The onset of the manufacture and use of ceramic vessels in the                                    Fabbri, 2017; Binder et al., 2010; Capelli et al., 2017; Clop, 2011, 2012;
Western Mediterranean occurred with the spread of farming practices                                   Gabriele et al., 2019; Manen and Convertini, 2012; Stempfle et al.,
during the 6th millennium cal. BCE. Ceramic vessels started to be used in                             2018). One of the latest research lines to have been included in dis­
each area in accordance with the different temporal, spatial and social                               cussions of the Neolithisation process is the identification of pot-forming
dynamics of the Neolithisation process, which recent studies have                                     sequences used in the first pottery production in Western Europe and the
coincided in defining as non-linear and possibly multidirectional (Ber­                               Mediterranean basin (Gomart et al., 2017, 2020).
nabeu and Martí Oliver, 2014; Binder et al., 2017; Guilaine, 2013;                                       Current technological studies have revealed the existence of several
Manen et al., 2019a).                                                                                 traditions and technical practices that spread with the Neolithisation
    In this context, the first pottery productions have been investigated                             process in Western Europe. The coiling techniques documented since the
on the basis of their formal and decorative attributes – grouped into the                             beginning of the Early Neolithic in the Balkans (end of the VII millen­
so-called Impressa, Cardial and Epicardial decorative styles – in order to                            nium cal. BCE) (Gomart et al., 2020), are linked to the introduction of
define the spread and sequence of the Neolithisation process as well as to                            farming and Linear Pottery (LBK) in several areas of Central and Western
shed light on the connections and contacts between several regions of                                 Europe, such as Hungary (Gomart et al., 2020; Kreiter et al., 2017), the
the Western Mediterranean (e.g., Bernabeu et al., 2017; Rigaud et al.,                                Czech Republic (Neumannová et al., 2017; Thér et al., 2019), Belgium
2018). Meanwhile, studies focused on their technological features have                                and north-east France (c. 5500–4950 cal. BCE) (Bosquet et al., 2005;
provided data on different issues, such as the supply areas of raw                                    Gomart, 2014; Van Doosselaere et al., 2013). Indeed, these technical


 * Corresponding author.
   E-mail addresses: javier.camara@uab.cat (J. Cámara Manzaneda), xavier.clop@uab.cat (X. Clop García), jaume.garcia@uib.es (J. García Rosselló), dmassieu@ull.
edu.es (M.D. Camalich Massieu), dsocas@ull.edu.es (D. Martín-Socas).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2021.102936
Received 29 November 2020; Received in revised form 5 March 2021; Accepted 10 March 2021
Available online 31 March 2021
2352-409X/© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
J. Cámara Manzaneda et al.                                                                                    Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 37 (2021) 102936


practices prevailed between Hungary and the Paris basin practically                  variety (Camalich Massieu and Martín-Socas, 2013), but one that is
without change (Gomart et al., 2017) and were also linked to the                     singular due to the absence of vessels with cardial decorations.
diffusion of others such as the construction of vessels with slabs or the               The aim of this paper is to reveal the pot-forming processes used by
beating technique (Gomart et al., 2020; Thér et al., 2019). In contrast,            the communities that periodically inhabited Cueva de El Toro during the
recent research conducted at the first farming sites from the Western                Early Neolithic (5280–4780 cal. BCE). First, in order to recognise which
Mediterranean underscore a technical duality in the ceramic manufac­                 forming processes were used in pottery manufacture, the ceramic
ture, characterised by both the coiling forming sequences and the                    assemblage was examined considering the diagnostic traces preserved in
juxtaposition of circular patches. The use of coiling techniques is also             the ceramic vessels. Second, the identified techniques were compared
identified in the first Impressa vessels in southeast Italy (5900–5600 cal.          with the shape and decorative attributes. Finally, results were con­
BCE) (Angeli and Fabbri, 2017; Colombo, 2017). Conversely, in the                    textualised and compared with the available data on forming-sequences
Ligurian-Provencal Arc and southeast France (5800–5600 cal. BCE),                    documented in other Early Neolithic sites from the Mediterranean basin
ceramic vessels, also linked to Impressa decors, were entirely manufac­              and Western Europe.
tured using juxtaposed patches, each formed by a spiral coil (Gomart
et al., 2017).                                                                       2. Site: Cueva de El Toro
    Unfortunately, the distribution of the first pottery forming processes
during the Early Neolithic is still unknown in several areas and chro­                   Cueva de El Toro is located in the Sierra de El Torcal (Málaga, Spain)
nologies, including the Iberian Peninsula. The first pottery production              at 1190 m above sea level (Fig. 1). The inside of the cave was formed by
on this area dates to around 5650 cal. BCE (Bernabeu et al., 2011; García            large limestone blocks detached from the roof. The original space is
Borja et al., 2014; Oms et al., 2014), although no specific pottery studies          articulated on two platforms (Sector 1 and Sector 2) at different heights
based on the identification of manufacturing traces have been reported               (Martín-Socas et al., 2004).
to date.                                                                                 Archaeological fieldwork identified a 2.40 m deep stratigraphic
    This paper focuses on the examination of ceramic vessels from the                sequence, with four chrono-cultural phases. The two lower layers
Early Neolithic occupation of Cueva de El Toro, located in the south of              correspond to the Neolithic occupations: Phase IV (Early Neolithic,
the Iberian Peninsula (Martín-Socas et al., 2004). Since the introduction            5280–4780 cal. BCE) and Phase III (Late Neolithic, 4250–3950 cal. BCE)
of farming to this region (c. 5500–4700 cal. BCE, Martín-Socas et al.,               (Martín-Socas et al., 2018), with a period of site abandonment of 500
2018), a wide variety of decorative techniques were used in the pro­                 years between the two phases.
duction of vessels, with the application of almagra being especially                     The first occupation (Early Neolithic) suggests a domestic context
prominent throughout the region, as well as cardial decorations,                     characterised by domestic species, mainly ovicaprids and cereal plants,
concentrated mainly around Granada and Málaga. Cueva de El Toro                     as well as a wide range of representative artefacts of the Early Neolithic:
represents one of many examples of this morphological and decorative                 carved and polished stone tools, animal hard matter tools (bone, shell


Fig. 1. Location of Cueva de El Toro (Málaga, Spain) and the other Early Neolithic sites with research on forming processes based on the observation of
manufacturing traces (VI millennium cal. BCE): 1. Cueva de El Toro (Spain), 2, Peiro Signado, 3. Pont de Roque-Haute, 4. La Farigoule 2, 5. Abri Pendimoun
(southeastern France) (Gomart et al., 2017; Manen et al., 2019b), 6. Arene Candide, 7. Colle Santo Stefano, 8. Ripa Tetta (Italy) (Angeli and Fabbri, 2017; Colombo,
2017; Gomart et al., 2017), 9, Vörs-Máriaasszo-ny-sziget, 10. Balatonszárzó-Kis-erdei-dulo, 11. Nagykörű-Tsz. Gyümölcsös, 12. Polgár-Ferenci-hát (Hungary)
(Gomart et al., 2020; Kreiter et al., 2017), 13. Bylany (Check Republic) (Neumannová et al., 2017; Thér et al., 2019), 14. Rosheim, 15. Ennery, 16. Metz-Nord, 17.
Cury-lès-Chaudardes (northwestern France) (Gomart, 2014), 18. Aubechies, 19. Rosmeer, 20. Verlaine, 21. Fexhe-le-Haut-Clocher, 21. Remicourt, 22. Vaux-et-Borset
(Belgium) (Bosquet et al., 2005; Gomart, 2014; Van Doosselaere et al., 2013).

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J. Cámara Manzaneda et al.                                                                        Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 37 (2021) 102936


                              Fig. 2. Examples of pottery shapes and decoration from Cueva de El Toro (Phase IV).


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J. Cámara Manzaneda et al.                                                                                    Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 37 (2021) 102936


and antler), vegetal fibres, jewellery and ceramic vessels.                       Table 1
    Phase IV is therefore interpreted as a periodical or seasonal occu­           Vessels and ceramic elements analysed from Phase IV of Cueva de El Toro with
pation with a predominantly pastoral orientation. The cave interior was           diagnostic macro-traces examined with macroscopic observations and optical
used for consumption and craft activities, as well as activities associated       microscope. *Bases included in the analysis. **Handle elements preserved
with the rituality and symbolism of these communities (Camalich                   within the sample of vessels.
Massieu and Martín-Socas, 2013; Égüez et al., 2016; Martín-Socas et al.,          Preservation                            Number of           Number of ceramic
2004, 2018; Santana et al., 2019).                                                                                         vessels             elements

    Pottery production is characterised by its extraordinary quality,              Large part of the profile preserved     7                   -
predominantly fine-ware with major attention to surface treatments and
                                                                                   Profile of the belly, the upper part    28                  6
decorations (Fig. 2). Overall, the most predominant shapes are hemi­
                                                                                     and rim
spherical, ellipsoidal and ovoid profiles, although the repertoire is very
wide, including vessels with converging walls, spherical and conical               Upper parts / rim                       60                  5
bases and, in some cases, compound shapes with collars. These shapes
are normally associated with ribbon handles, solid protrusions and,                Lower part of vessels (bases)           -                   6*

exceptionally, spouts.
                                                                                   Handles / grip elements                 29**                30
    In general, two volumetric groups of vessels can be identified. One,
with a capacity ranging from one to three litres, would have been used             Total                                   95/29**             47
for domestic activities. The other, which is quantitatively less frequent
and has a greater capacity and attached grip elements, would be related
                                                                                  the central area of the cave (domestic context) (Martín-Socas et al.,
to the transport and storage of food products (Martín-Socas et al., 2004;
                                                                                  2004) with the exception of four vessels that were recovered from a
Tarifa et al., 2019).
                                                                                  specific context related to symbolic or ideological practices (Santana
    The pottery is also characterised by the outstanding presence of
                                                                                  et al., 2019). Additionally, the sample of analysed vessels comprises the
decorated vessels, either with the exclusive application of almagra, or
                                                                                  variety of shapes and decors that characterise the ceramic assemblage of
with a technical variety that encompasses impressions, incisions, stab-
                                                                                  Phase IV.
and-dragging (boquique) and applied decorations. In addition, red
paste is also used to fill the negatives of the aforesaid decorations.
                                                                                  3.3. Examination of manufacturing traces with macroscopic observations
3. Material and methods                                                           and optical microscope

3.1. Technological approach                                                           The identification of forming processes was based on the recognition
                                                                                  of manufacturing traces preserved in the ceramic vessels. Manufacturing
    Amongst research on pottery manufacture, forming processes are                traces encompass all those features produced directly during the pro­
considered a suitable indicator to assess the variability of ways of doing,       duction process of vessels that were not obliterated by other techniques
the work processes used in ceramic production as well as the trans­               or subsequent processes (surface treatments, decorations, use-wear
mission of technical know-how (García Rosselló and Calvo Trias, 2013).           traces and taphonomic processes), and those macro-traces produced
Ethnoarchaeological studies reveal how these techniques are learnt by             indirectly as a consequence of their use, rupture or abandonment, which
observation and, more importantly, by practice through a close inter­             also inform about their manufacture (García Rosselló and Calvo Trias,
action between apprentices and tutors (Bril, 2002; Gosselain, 2011;               2013, 2019).
Calvo Trias and García Rosselló, 2014). This means that technical ges­               The examination of manufacturing traces was conducted by macro­
tures are thus ‘incorporated’ and cannot be easily modified or changed            scopic observations of the topography and texture of surfaces, formal
once they have been learnt (Gosselain, 2011; Roux, 2011). As a result,            variations in vessel profile and wall-thickness, the fracturing patterns of
their reproduction and transmission across several generations of pro­            vessels (linear fractures, laminar fractures, cracks formed on the surfaces
ducers may entail major stability over time and space, especially when            and cross-sections) and the internal structure of vessels in the radial
compared to other features of ceramic vessels (Gosselain, 2000; Roux              plane (discontinuities and distribution of pores and particles) (Cámara,
et al., 2017).                                                                    2019; García Rosselló and Calvo Trias, 2013; Livingstone Smith, 2007).
    The technological study focuses on the identification of forming                  Ceramic macro-traces were recognised by combining observations
techniques and methods. Forming techniques include those modalities               with the naked eye and angular lights and observations with an optical
whereby paste is transformed into a volume (forming and auxiliary                 microscope (5x to 16x magnifications). In parallel, manufacturing traces
techniques, building phases of vessels and added elements) and those              were photographically recorded using a digital camera and alternating
whereby ceramic products are regularised and the final shape is ob­               between two lenses (18–55 mm intermediate lens and 90 mm macro
tained (García Rosselló and Calvo Trias, 2013). Forming methods were             lens). Photographs were taken with a static tripod and auxiliary LED
defined according to the sequence of forming techniques used for                  lights, preventing the entry of artificial or natural light during the
building each part of ceramic vessels (Roux, 2011, 2019).                         shooting process. Photographs at 8x magnification were obtained with a
                                                                                  Leica Microscope. Photographs obtained at different depths of field were
3.2. Pottery analysed                                                             processed with Helicom Focus v.4.62 software.

    The ceramic assemblage from Phase IV of Cueva de El Toro consists             3.4. Recording and interpretation of manufacturing traces
of around 128 ceramic vessels. The analysis focused on ceramic sherds
with diagnostic macro-traces which preserve part of the profile (base,                Two methodologies were used to record and systematically describe
belly, upper parts/rim) and which can be individualised from its formal           macro-traces (García Rosselló and Calvo Trias, 2013) and the internal
and decorative traits. In total, forming processes were identified in 95          structure of vessels in the radial plane (Livingstone Smith, 2007; Mar­
vessels and 47 ceramic elements with diagnostic macro-traces (5 rims, 6           tineau, 2000).
parts of bellies, 6 bases and 30 handles not assigned to specific vessels),           The interpretation of forming processes in each ceramic vessel was
which include 396 potsherds (Table 1). This sample presents several               based on the correlation of manufacturing traces and their comparison
degrees of preservation, with a majority of vessels for which only the            with a series of experimental and ethnoarchaeological collections
upper part and rim are preserved. The ceramic assemblage comes from               (García Rosselló and Calvo Trias, 2013, 2019; Gelbert, 2005; Lepère,

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J. Cámara Manzaneda et al.                                                                                               Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 37 (2021) 102936


2014; Livingstone Smith, 2007; Martineau, 2000, 2010; Roux, 2016,                          preservation of vessels which do not preserve their profile completely
2019; Rye, 1981). During examination of the ceramic assemblage of                          and bases that hence could not be assigned to any specific ceramic vessel
Cueva de El Toro, a set of manufacturing traces with no current ethno­                     (Table 3).
archaeological or experimental referential was detected. Their techno­
logical origin was inferred by comparing these features with a series of
macro-traces identified in archaeological contexts (Gomart et al., 2017;                   4.1. Forming process with several assembled elements (lower parts) and
Manen et al., 2019b), which led to the proposal of several hypotheses                      coils with alternate overlapping (upper parts)
regarding their forming sequence.
    The manufacturing traces and forming techniques inferred in each                           The reconstruction of the TCT1 forming method is based on several
ceramic vessel were entered in a relational database that separates the                    vessels that present a similar morphology of macro-traces. First, this
empirical data (manufacturing traces) from their technical interpreta­                     forming sequence encompasses 2 vessels whose whole profile is pre­
tion (forming techniques). The number of macro-traces identified in                        served, both of which display a similar morphology of traces in the lower
those vessels and handles included in the study amounted to 516. The                       part with 4 of the bases analysed. Second, there are 22 vessels with a
forming sequence of vessels was established afterwards in consideration                    preserved part of the belly, 50 vessels with a preserved upper part and
of the degree of vessel preservation.                                                      rim and 10 elements not assigned to specific individuals (5 rims and 5
                                                                                           parts of bellies) that also present a similar morphology of traces. These
                                                                                           vessels, however, cannot be strictly associated with a forming method as
3.5. Quantitative analysis of assembled elements                                           their profiles are not completely preserved.
                                                                                               The bases present sub-circular and horizontal fractures at the bottom
    Several statistical tests were conducted to assess the degree of                       and at the beginning of the belly. The topography preserves wavy de­
deformation and variability of those vessels formed by assembled ele­                      pressions on the inner surface of the base and individual variations both
ments, such as the use of coils. First, the coil height and wall-thickness of              on the inner and the outer topography (Fig. 3a2-a3). In the radial plane,
the vessels were measured for each part of the profile. The measure­                       transversal fractures present a heterogeneous internal structure with
ments correspond to the largest coil height whilst the thickness of the                    oblique discontinuities (Fig. 3a1). The correlation of these macro-traces
walls is related to the part of the profile where the coil measures were                   suggests that the bases were formed at least by several assembled ele­
obtained. The distribution of the measurements in the box plot diagram                     ments with possible oval shapes. The forming of horizontal preferential
was used to visualise the similarities and differences between the loca­                   fractures also suggests the fashioning of vessels with several building
tion of measures in the belly and upper parts of the vessels, bearing in                   phases.
mind that the interquartile range and median is represented in the box.                        The belly, upper part and rim of the vessels present horizontal and
In order to assess the variability of coil heights, the coefficient of vari­               diagonal fractures as well as staggered vertical fractures (Figs. 4, 5). The
ation (CV) was used and compared between each part of ceramic vessels.                     internal and external topography of the walls preserves horizontal un­
Second, a scatter plot and the Pearson coefficient correlation were used                   dulations that can be associated with horizontal burrs on the inner
to assess the correlation between coil height and wall-thickness, with a                   surface (Fig. 4a1). The correlation of these traces suggests that the belly
correlation probability threshold of a = 0.05 (Hammer et al., 2001).                       and upper parts of the vessels were formed by horizontal or diagonal
Finally, the standard deviation of the diameter of circular elements                       coils. In the radial plane, the internal structure is heterogeneous, with a
detected in several vessels was estimated.                                                 regular distribution of particles and voids forming S/Z-shaped configu­
                                                                                           rations (Fig. 4b1). This type of configuration is generally linked with
4. Results                                                                                 superimposed coils that are subsequently thinned and stretched (Liv­
                                                                                           ingstone Smith, 2007) or coils that are successively alternate over­
    The study of the ceramic assemblage of Phase IV from Cueva de El                       lapped, both externally and internally (Martineau, 2000). In the
Toro enabled the identification of several forming processes based on                      analysed ceramic vessels, the presence of undulations and burrs on the
the diagnostic macro-traces preserved on ceramic vessels. At least five                    topography creating horizontal bands (Fig. 4a1) and the oblique con­
forming methods (TCT1 to TCT5) were reconstructed on the basis of                          figurations of coils in the radial sections suggest that they may corre­
vessels that preserve a large part of their profiles (Table 2). Moreover, a                spond to alternate gestures. The internal structure of the upper parts and
series of partial forming sequences were defined according to the                          rims also suggests the forming with oblique assembled coils (Fig. 4a2,

Table 2
Reconstructed forming methods identified in the ceramic assemblage of Phase IV in Cueva de El Toro. *Bases included in the analysis.
  Forming        Number of    Base Forming                                Belly Forming                        Upper Part/Rim Forming                          Shaping Techniques
  Methods        vessels /
                 bases
  TCT1           2            Several assembled elements (oval            Coils with alternate overlapping     Coils with alternate overlapping,               Traces of scraping on
                              depressions and fractures, with oblique     (S/Z-shaped configurations in        internally and externally overlapped (S/Z-      the inner surface of
                              discontinuities in the radial plane)        the radial plane)                    shaped configurations in the radial plane)      the belly

  TCT2           2*           Shaped disc with an oval shape (oval        Coils with alternate overlapping     –                                               –
                              fracture with an oblique edge)              (S/Z-shaped configurations)

  TCT3           2            Circular juxtaposed elements (curvilinear macro-traces, laminar fractures        Circular juxtaposed elements (laminar           –
                              and long oblique discontinuities in the radial plane)                            fractures and vertical discontinuities in the
                                                                                                               radial plane)

  TCT4           1            Moulding over a convex support (regular profile and topography,                  Coil externally overlapped (horizontal          Traces of scraping on
                              compression of the internal structure in the radial plane and development of     variations in the external topography of        the inner surface of
                              fissures parallel to the surfaces)                                               the rim)                                        the rim

  TCT5           1            Pinching technique (finger-print in the inner part of the base, uneven variations of wall-thickness and vertical cracks)

  Total          6 / 2*


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J. Cámara Manzaneda et al.                                                                                            Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 37 (2021) 102936

Table 3
Partial forming sequences identified in the ceramic assemblage of Phase IV in Cueva de El Toro. *Bases included in the analysis.
  Forming       Number of      Base Forming                       Belly Forming                            Upper Part/Rim Forming                           Shaping Techniques
  Methods       vessels /
                ceramic
                elements

  –             4*             Several assembled elements (oval   –                                        –
                               depressions and fractures, with
                               oblique discontinuities in the
                               radial plane)

  –             22 / 5         Preserved in one small-size        Coils with alternate overlapping (S/Z-   Coils with alternate overlapping, with the       Traces of scraping
                               vessel, not determined             shaped configurations). Not              last coil internally and externally overlapped   on the inner surface
                                                                  determined in 2 cases                    (S/Z-shaped configurations). Without the         of the belly (n = 4)
                                                                                                           preservation of the rim in 8 cases

  –             50 / 5         –                                  –                                        Coils with alternate overlapping, with the
                                                                                                           last coil internally and externally overlapped
                                                                                                           (S/Z-shaped configurations). Without the
                                                                                                           preservation of the rim in 3 cases

  –             4/1            –                                  Circular juxtaposed elements             –
                                                                  (curvilinear macro-traces, laminar
                                                                  fractures and long oblique
                                                                  discontinuities in the radial plane)

  –             13             –                                  Sub-circular fractures and macro-        Coils with alternate overlapping, with the
                                                                  traces partially preserved, not          last coil internally and externally overlapped
                                                                  determined                               (S/Z-shaped configurations). Without the
                                                                                                           preservation of the rim in 3 cases

  Total         89 / 15


5b2), with the last coil internally or externally overlapped (internal or                 from the other forming processes identified. These traces are identified
external oblique discontinuity in the radial plane).                                      in 2 vessels with practically entirely preserved profiles, in 4 vessels with
   In addition, several vessels display regular surfaces with grooves that                only partially preserved bellies and 1 pottery sherd from a belly not
were not removed with surface treatments. These traces suggest that the                   individualised.
surfaces were scraped, which modified the wall-thickness and also                             The lower parts of the vessels display sub-circular and circular-
removed the previous manufacturing traces produced by the initial                         shaped fractures in the frontal view (Fig. 7c). These sub-circular frac­
forming techniques.                                                                       tures can be associated with laminar fractures with wavy edges
                                                                                          (Fig. 7b1) that form layers parallel to the surface in the radial plane
4.2. Shaped disc and assembled coils                                                      (Fig. 7b2). Sub-circularities can also be identified on the internal sur­
                                                                                          faces where curvilinear burrs and sub-circular fractures merge together
    The TCT2 forming method has been reconstructed on the basis of two                    in circular juxtaposed shapes (Fig. 7f; Fig. 8b2). In a particular case,
conical profiles with preserved bottoms and bellies (Fig. 6). The two                     laminar fractures coincide with sherds detached from the belly, which
conical profiles show a different topography for the base and the belly.                  also present a sub-circular shape and an uneven topography that do not
In the bases, the topography is uniform both inside and outside, whereas                  correspond to the internal surface of the vessel (Fig. 7g1-g3).
the topography of the belly preserves several horizontal undulations                          In the radial plane, the internal structure is heterogeneous and forms
(Fig. 6a2). Only one of the vessels has a fractured base that enables                     long discontinuities parallel to the surfaces associated with sub-circular
recognition of its forming process. This base has an oval-shaped fracture                 configurations (Fig. 8b1). These long discontinuities can correspond to
with an oblique margin at the edges (length 7.6 mm and 5.8 mm wide                        vertical fissures formed in the cross-sections and associated with several
fractured part) (Fig. 6b). On the internal surface, the oblique edge is                   layers that form laminar fractures parallel to the surfaces (Fig. 7a). The
associated with a laminar fracture that corresponds to the beginning of                   forming of these layers can also be observed on the internal and external
the belly (Fig. 6b1). This fracture suggests that the base was formed with                surfaces (Fig. 7e). Similarly, in the horizontal cross-section of a vessel,
an oval disc, dragging of the margins to form an oblique edge. This oval                  long sub-circular configurations appear juxtaposed over a horizontal
disc is identified in one of the conical bases while in the other case, as the            layer facing the inner wall (Fig. 7d).
base is not fractured, the use of this element cannot be confirmed.                           These macro-traces that delimit the edge of circular elements are not
Nonetheless, the regularity of the topography and density of the bottom                   identified in the current series of ethnographic and experimental col­
in comparison to the belly (Fig. 6a2) may suggest that in this case the                   lections. In contrast, this evidence does bear similarities to several fea­
base was also formed by a disc.                                                           tures documented in the first pottery productions from Abri Pendimoun,
    In the belly, the topography displays undulations on the surfaces                     Arene Candide (Gomart et al., 2017) and La Farigoule 2 (Manen et al.,
(Fig. 6a2). In the radial plane, the internal structure is heterogeneous,                 2019b). At these sites, ceramic vessels present networks of curvilinear
forming S-shaped configurations (Fig. 6a1). Together, these traces sug­                   fractures and circular convexities on the topography, detached sherds
gest the use of the same forming sequence as the TCT1 method with the                     from the body and sub-circular configurations associated with long
assemblage of coils with alternate overlapping.                                           oblique discontinuities in the radial plane. According to Gomart et al.
                                                                                          (2017), these traces suggest that the vessels were built by means of
4.3. Forming process with juxtaposed circular elements                                    circular juxtaposed and fused patches, each formed by a spiral coil, with
                                                                                          a patch diameter of around 44 ± 2.3 mm (standard deviation). The in­
   The reconstruction of the TCT3 forming method was based on several                     terpretations of this forming process using spiralled patches are also
vessels displaying a series of macro-traces that morphologically differ                   based on other traces, such as the circular organization of pores and

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J. Cámara Manzaneda et al.                                                                                    Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 37 (2021) 102936


Fig. 3. Macro-traces of TCT1 forming method associated with the bases. a1: Transversal fracture with oblique discontinuities in the radial plane (white arrows). a2:
Horizontal preferential fracture and individual horizontal variation on the external topography. a3: Wavy depressions and convexities on the inner surface and sub-
circular fractures, forming together an oval shape. These macro-traces suggest that bases were formed by several assembled with a possible oval shape. Edition &
photography: J. Cámara.


particles in the tangential plane visible at macroscopic scale or deter­             elements. The support practically covered the piece as far the upper part
mined by micro-computed tomography analyses (µCT) (Gomart et al.,                    of the belly and once extracted the internal surface was smoothed,
2017). In the case of Cueva de El Toro, these circular elements can also             leaving striations in the belly and grooves in the base, the latter caused
be interpreted as partially juxtaposed patches, with diameters of around             by a major displacement of clay (Lepère, 2014). The rim was then
52 ± 8.4 mm (n◦ . of measured patches = 6). Nonetheless, sub-                        formed by coils, thickening its profile. The inner surface of the rim was
circularities inside these circular elements can only be observed in                 subsequently scraped, forming several grooves that removed the leftover
some specific cases (Fig. 8b1), which do not enable us to confirm                    paste in order to regularize this part of the vessel. Additionally, the
whether all these circular elements were formed by a spiral coil.                    morphology of the grooves also indicate that the scraping was per­
                                                                                     formed when the paste of the vessel was at its initial hard-leather stage.
4.4. Moulding over a convex support and assembled coils
                                                                                     4.5. Vessel built by pinching
    The reconstruction of the TCT4 forming method is based on one
vessel with an entirely preserved profile (Fig. 9). The external topog­                  The TCT5 forming process comprises a single, fully-preserved vessel.
raphy of the base and the belly is completely regular and the surface was            The external surface is polished, leaving a regular topography, whilst the
vertically polished. The profile is also regular, despite a progressive              internal surface is smoothed. A hemispherical hollow is identified on the
decrease in wall-thickness from the base to the belly (Fig. 9b). Only one            inside of the base, which is vertically oriented from the bottom towards
horizontal variation in the external topography of the rim is preserved,             the belly (Fig. 10a2). This vessel also presents uneven variations in the
which coincides with a thickening of the profile (Fig. 9a1).                         thickness of the walls, decreasing in the base and partially increasing in
    The internal surface presents an uneven smoothing treatment, with                the belly. The only observed fractures correspond to vertical and irreg­
bands at the base (Fig. 9c3) and a grainy texture with linear striations             ular cracks formed from the rim to the belly (Fig. 10a1).
and protruded grains on the belly (Fig. 9c2). Additionally, the inner                    The morphology of these traces and the small size of the vessel
surface of the rim preserves a concentration of several grooves with                 suggest that this vessel was formed by pinching. The hollow located in
marked edges (Fig. 9c1).                                                             the inner part of the vessel corresponds to a finger-print produced when
    In the radial plane, the internal structure of the base and the belly is         pinching and subsequently stretching the vessel from the bottom to the
compressed, with a vertical distribution of a-plastic particles and voids            belly. In turn, the uneven variations and the cracks may have been
and the formation of cracks parallel to the surfaces (Fig. 9b1-b2). The              formed by stretching the walls vertically up to the rim. The size of the
internal structure of the rim is heterogeneous, although it is so eroded             vessel also suggests that it was fashioned in only one forming sequence.
that it is not possible to discern the orientation of pores and particles.
    Altogether, these macro-traces suggest that the lower part was                   4.6. Variability of coil heights
moulded over a convex support whilst the rim was formed by horizontal
coils. The bottom and belly were built over a convex support, regular­                   Coil height was measured in a large number of vessels, most of which
ising the external surface and obtaining a regular profile and topog­                only preserve the upper part and rim. The distribution of values in the
raphy. Precisely, as a consequence of the intensive regularization of                box plot shows that coil height measurements are similar both in the
surfaces and compression of the paste it is not possible to confirm                  belly and in the upper part of the vessels (Fig. 11a). Considering the
whether this vessel was moulded by a mass of paste or by assembled                   percentage of the Coefficient of Variation (CV), coil heights are quite

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J. Cámara Manzaneda et al.                                                                                        Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 37 (2021) 102936


Fig. 4. Macro-traces associated with the TCT1 forming method. a2: Horizontal undulations and burrs on the internal surface (black discontinuous dashes). a2 & b1:
S/Z-shaped configurations on the cross-section of the belly and the rim. The distribution of porosity and a-plastic particles is oblique to vertical. b2: Detailed view of
distribution of pores and particles. These macro-traces suggest the forming process of the belly and the rim with oblique alternate coils. Edition & photography:
J. Cámara.


variable when all measures are tested together. Nonetheless, the CV                     (Table 2, supplementary material). The large number of measurements
value from the measurements of the belly is slightly higher compared to                 oscillates between 10.1 and 16.4 mm, while there are lower height
the CV value from the upper parts (Table 1, supplementary material).                    values of between 7.9 and 9.7 mm and others that are higher than 17.6
This may suggest that coils were of similar height, although several coils              mm. This variability may indicate that the coils were slightly or not
from the upper parts and the rim were less variable and probably less                   deformed, while the highest measures may correspond to higher
deformed in comparison to the ones used to form the belly.                              assembled elements that were more elongated or deformed during the
   The scatter plot shows a linear correlation between wall-thickness                   forming process.
and coil height in the belly and upper parts of the vessels (Fig. 11b).
Non-correlation p values of the Pearson test also reveal that these vari­
ables are both correlated for the belly and the upper part of the vessels


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J. Cámara Manzaneda et al.                                                                                    Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 37 (2021) 102936


Fig. 5. Macro-traces associated with the TCT1 forming method. a1: Horizontal undulations on the external topography of the collar. b1: S/Z-shaped configurations
on the cross-section of the collar. The orientation of particles and voids is oblique to vertical. These macro-traces suggest the forming process of the collar with
oblique alternate coils. Edition & photography: J. Cámara.


4.7. Attachment systems of handles and grip elements                                 5. Discussion

    Grip and hanging elements from the ceramic assemblage of Cueva de                5.1. Variability of pottery forming processes identified in Cueva de El
El Toro present different ways to attach these elements on the walls. The            Toro
sample analysed with diagnostic traces comprises 30 sherds of handles
and lugs that are not assigned to any specific vessel as well as 29 ele­                 The results obtained from the examination of manufacturing traces
ments that are preserved on individualised vessels (Table 1).                        enabled reconstruction of the forming processes that were used in
    The forming varies according to the morphology of handles (ribbon,               ceramic production at Cueva de El Toro during the Early Neolithic
annular, tunnelled and bilobed shapes), spouts and impressed cordons.                occupation (Phase IV, 5280–4780 cal. BCE 2σ). Within the degree of
In the case of spouts and some handles, the sections and edges of holes              fragmentation of ceramic vessels, the recognition of techniques was
indicate that both these elements were drilled (Fig. 12a2).                          more feasible in those vessels for which a high number of diagnostic
    The systems used to add handles and lugs have been identified by a               traces were preserved. In some vessels, however, the technical inter­
series of manufacturing traces, such as laminar fractures, cracks in the             pretation was conditioned by the degradation and obliteration of
cross-sections and burrs preserved in the internal and external surfaces.            manufacturing traces, for reasons such as intensive surface treatments
First, there is a predominance of superimposed elements on the edge of               and decorations, the deterioration of fractures and the reuse of potsherds
the rims (lenticular appendix and one over-lifted handle, n = 12) and                as tools (García Rosselló and Calvo Trias 2013).
elements attached by a simple hook (handles and cordons, n = 12)                         The coiling forming process was recognised by examining traces
(Fig. 12a1). Second, handles can also be attached by partial insertions              preserved in the topography and surfaces, the way in which vessels are
creating a concavity on the walls (n = 13) or by pinching the surfaces (n            fractured and the analysis of cross-sections in the radial plane. This
= 6). The latter system is identified by the presence of hemispherical               forming process is identified in several vessels which preserve the belly,
hollows in the laminar fractures of the surfaces or at the ends of handles           although it is predominant in the forming of the upper parts and rims.
(Fig. 12a2 & 12b1). Finally, some handles can be attached by complete                Overall, the use of coils is similar in terms of technical gestures (S/Z-
insertions, using a pivot or a protuberance formed on their edges                    shaped configurations) and coil height. This may indicate that these
(Fig. 12c1-c2). This system is the least frequent (n = 4), although this             gestures correspond to a similar dynamic in the forming process of the
may be a consequence of the non-formation of fractures and the lack of               belly and upper parts of the vessels, with coils that were slightly or not
handles undetached from the walls.                                                   deformed and, in some cases, more elongated.
                                                                                         The examination of macro-traces also made it possible to distinguish


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J. Cámara Manzaneda et al.                                                                                     Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 37 (2021) 102936


Fig. 6. Macro-traces of the TCT2 forming method. a1. S/Z-shaped configurations on the cross-section at the end of the base and the belly. The orientation of particles
and voids is oblique to vertical. a2. Undulations in the external topography of the belly (1) and regular topography with a large thickness at the base (2). b1. Oval-
shaped fracture of the base. The internal surface of the base presents a laminar fracture (white discontinuous dashes) with an oblique edge (black discontinuous
dashes). The correlation of these macro-traces suggests that bases were formed by an oval disc and the bellies were formed by oblique coils. Edition & photography:
J. Cámara.


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J. Cámara Manzaneda et al.        Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 37 (2021) 102936


                                                                     (caption on next page)


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J. Cámara Manzaneda et al.                                                                                           Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 37 (2021) 102936

Fig. 7. Macro-traces associated with the TCT3 forming method. a1. Vertical fissure formed in the cross-section of the collar. This fissure forms a long intermediate
discontinuity in the cross-section parallel to the surfaces. Surfaces also present internal and external laminations. a2. Detailed view of fissures parallels to the surfaces.
b1. Laminar fractures on the external surface of the belly with wavy edges. b2. Horizontal cross-section of the belly with a layer parallel to the external surface. c.
Sub-circular and circular-shaped fractures on the belly. This fracturing pattern is correlated with the laminar fractures and the horizontal cross-sections. d. Horizontal
cross-section of the belly: horizontal layer placed towards the inner wall and sub-circular configurations placed towards the outer wall. Sub-circular configurations
appear juxtaposed over the horizontal layer. e. Internal laminations on the collar with several layers. f. Burrs and fractures which merge together in subcircular
shapes. Both sub-circular shapes appear juxtaposed on the internal surface of the belly. g1. Sub-circular sherd detached from the belly. The external surface of the
sherd preserves decor motives whilst the internal surface presents an irregular texture with leveled areas and wavy burrs. g2. Horizontal burrs parallel to the wavy
edges of the detached sherd. g3. Detailed view of burrs preserved on the internal surface. Together, these macro-traces suggest that the lower parts, the belly and the
collar of this vessel were formed by circular juxtaposed elements. Edition & photography: J. Cámara.


Fig. 8. Macro-traces associated with the TCT3 forming method. a1. Subcircular flat areas on the external topography. b1. Long oblique discontinuity associated with
subcircular configurations in the radial plane. b2. Curvilinear fractures (1) and burrs (2) that merge together in circular elements. These macro-traces suggest the
forming process of the belly with circular elements, probably each formed by a spiral coil (patches), partially juxtaposed among them. Edition & photography:
J. Cámara.


the forming technique of bases from the ones that uses several assembled                  patches that were partially juxtaposed to form entire ceramic vessels
elements (TCT1) or an oval-shaped disc (TCT2). The interpretation of                      (Fig. 7). However, in those vessels with only partially preserved profiles,
the assembled elements used in the TCT1 method may correspond to                          the juxtaposition of patches is only recognised in the belly. This may be
several oval elements similar to the one that is used in the TCT2 forming                 because the vessels were entirely formed by juxtaposed patches or,
method, although this hypothesis needs to be proven by other analytical                   contrarily, because the forming sequence combined the use of juxta­
methods.                                                                                  posed patches and the use of coils to build the upper parts and rim.
    The forming process with juxtaposed circular elements (TCT3) was                          Precisely, in several vessels in which the upper part and the rim are
interpreted by comparing macro-traces with a series of recognisable                       formed by coils, the forming process of the belly cannot be recognised.
traces – curvilinear fractures, burrs, an uneven topography and circular                  This is because of the low degree of preservation of the belly (n = 2) or a
flat areas (Fig. 8a1) – documented in the ceramic assemblages from                        consequence of degradation and partial preservation of macro-traces (n
several Early Neolithic sites from the Western Mediterranean (Gomart                      = 13) (Table 3). In fact, these vessels also have partial macro-traces – e.
et al., 2017; Manen et al., 2019b). In Cueva de El Toro, these series of                  g., sub-circularities and laminar fractures with wavy edges – preserved
traces suggest that these elements may also correspond to similar                         in the belly, for which insufficient referential ceramic series have been

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J. Cámara Manzaneda et al.                                                                                          Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 37 (2021) 102936


Fig. 9. Macro-traces observed in TCT4 forming method. a1. Horizontal variation on the external surface of the rim. The edge presents a ridge which allows its
distinction on the external topography. b1. Cross-section of the base with parallel fissures to the surface. The orientation of particles and voids is vertical. b2. Detailed
view of a cross-section of the belly: the paste is compressed and the distribution of porosity and particles is parallel to the surfaces. c1. Horizontal and diagonal
grooves on the internal surface of the rim with internal striations, marked edges and flat sections. c2. Internal surface of the belly with linear striations, protruding
grains (grainy texture) and particle extractions. c3. Bidirectional grooves on the internal surface of the base. Together, these macro-traces suggest that the base and
the belly were moulded over a convex support whereas the rim was formed by horizontal coils and an external overlapped coil. The internal surface was subsequently
smoothed (base and belly) and scraped (rim). Edition & photography: J. Cámara.


reported to identify their forming process. In these cases, the technical                 5.2. Comparison between pot-forming sequences and morpho-decorative
origin of macro-traces must be verified by the application of other                       features
methodologies.
    The moulding process (TCT4) of the base and the belly was only                            A first comparison between ceramic forming processes and morpho-
recognised by examining macro-traces in a globular vessel that does not                   decorative traits has been conducted, which enables to propose several
present decorations. This forming process reflects a set of traces related                initial hypotheses regarding the correlation of these ceramic features
to the use of an internal support, although it cannot be confirmed                        during the Early Neolithic occupation of Cueva de El Toro.
whether it was moulded by a mass or by assembled elements since the                           The use of coils is linked with ceramic products of different shapes
internal structure is compressed and the topography regularised. In this                  and sizes. In those vessels with preserved belly profiles, this forming
regard, the hypothesis that the moulding process was performed by                         sequence is recognised in vessels with ovoid shapes, with collar and
using circular elements detected on this site cannot be ruled out.                        globular shapes, the latter being predominant in the ceramic assemblage
    Finally, the last forming process concerns the pinching technique                     (Fig. 2: 9862, 9431, 88/1509, 41900). The forming process with circular
(TCT5) which is associated to a small-size vessel without decors.                         elements also comprises vessels with a globular shape and collar (Fig. 2:

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J. Cámara Manzaneda et al.                                                                                     Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 37 (2021) 102936


Fig. 10. Macro-traces observed in the TCT5 forming method. a1: Irregular and vertical cracks located at the external and internal surface of the rim. a2: Individual
hollow placed at the bottom of the base. Its shape is quadrangular and prompts vertically towards the inner surface of the belly. These macro-traces suggest the
forming of the vessel by pinching from the base to the rim. Edition and photography: J. Cámara.


Fig. 11. Box plot diagram with the distribution of coil height measures of the belly and the upper part from each ceramic individual (A) and scatter plot comparing
coil height and wall-thickness measures of the belly (red squares) and the upper parts (green circles) from each ceramic vessel (B). Coil heights between 7.9 and 9.7
mm (1), 10.1–16.4 mm (2) and 17.6–19.1 mm (3). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of
this article.)


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J. Cámara Manzaneda et al.                                                                                     Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 37 (2021) 102936


Fig. 12. Macro-traces associated with the attachment systems with grip elements. a1: External laminar fracture in the midpoint of the spout. a2: Laminar fracture and
section of the broken edge of the spout with a hemispherical depression. These traces suggest that the spout was attached both by a simple hook (a1) and pinched
(a2). b1: Detached handle with a laminar fracture which preserve two hemispherical depressions. These traces suggest that handles were added by partial insertions,
pinching the edge of the handles. c1 & c2: Both broken ends of a geminated handle, which preserve the inner surface of the geminated vessel (black dashes). The
edges show the protuberance used to insert completely the handle (white dashes).


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J. Cámara Manzaneda et al.                                                                                Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 37 (2021) 102936


18127), while the vessel moulded over a convex support is only related            (northwest France) (Gomart, 2014), Balatonszárszó-Kis-erdei-dűlő
to a globular shape (Fig. 2: 8330). Hence, these forming processes seem           (Hungary) (Kreiter et al., 2017) and Bylany (Czech Republic) (Neu­
to be used in the production of several vessel shapes (TCT1) or the same          mannová et al., 2017; Thér et al., 2019), where forming sequences vary
typology of vessels (TCT3 & TCT4).                                                according to the gestures with which coils are assembled and deformed.
    Conversely, some forming methods were only identified in particular           Hence, the assembly gestures of coils documented at these sites – S/Z-
shapes and sizes of vessels. The use of the pinching technique (TCT5) is          shaped configurations with slightly or not deformed coils - display
restricted to a small-size vessel, which is also particularly located in a        similarities with the coiling technique with alternate overlapping
specific context inside the cave (Santana et al., 2019), isolated from the        documented at Cueva de El Toro.
rest of the ceramic production in the domestic area (Fig. 2: 6–235). The              In the context of the Western Mediterranean, there are also
forming of conical bases with a shaped disc (TCT2) have only been                 remarkable similarities between several vessels formed by circular ele­
identified in the two conical profiles preserved within the ceramic               ments documented at Cueva de El Toro and the spiralled patchwork
assemblage of Phase IV (Fig. 2: 6–339). This type of shape is widely              technology located at the first farming sites of Abri Pendimoun and
documented in the ceramic production from the southeast Iberian                   Arene Candide (Ligurian-Provencal Arc) (Gomart et al., 2017), as well as
Peninsula (Carvalho, 2011; Manen et al., 2007) and northwest Africa (El           la Farigoule 2, Peiro Signado and Pont de Roque-Haute (southeast
Idrissi, 2012; Martínez Sánchez et al., 2018). Thus, the hypothesis that         France, 5800–5600 cal. BCE) (Manen et al., 2019b). The Impressa pot­
the production of such vessels may be linked to the forming of the lower          tery from these sites show several traces that reflect the use of spiralled
parts with an oval disc cannot be ruled out.                                      patches to uniformly build ceramic vessels. In the case of Cueva de El
    Concerning grip elements, it is interesting to note that no joining           Toro, the morphology of macro-traces preserved in the ceramic assem­
system can be strictly associated with any specific type of handle. For           blage do not enable us to completely verify whether all these circular
instance, spouts and handles are attached with partial insertions by              elements were also formed by a spiral coil. If so, the evidence of this
pinching the walls or with complete insertions by drilling the walls. This        technology at Cueva de El Toro would reflect the continuity of this
suggests that these variations might correspond to distinct ways of doing         technique in more recent chronologies and its distribution in more
in the ceramic production methods or that the use of these systems was            remote areas from the Western Mediterranean, such as the southern
conditioned by functional factors in order to ensure the stability of             Iberian Peninsula.
handles and lugs on the walls.                                                        On the contrary, there are no currently available data on the forming
    When comparing forming processes and decorations, no clear rela­              of the first ceramic productions from the Western Mediterranean using
tion can be established between these two pottery features. As with               oval discs, the pinching technique or the moulding process. In particular,
shapes, vessels formed by coils comprise distinct decorations, including          the use of internal supports to shape the lower parts and belly of vessels
those vessels with only the upper part and rim preserved. Together,               is not currently documented for the Early Neolithic in Europe. The latest
these vessels include the majority of the decorations documented in               technological data reported suggests the use of concave supports in LBK
Phase IV: the use of incisions, impressions, applied cordons, boquique            contexts to shape bases that were previously made by spiralled coils
(stab-and-drag) and the application of almagra (Camalich Massieu and              (Gomart, 2014) or remarkably at Polgár-Ferenci-hát (Hungary) where
Martín-Socas, 2013). Vessels formed by circular elements are also                 the base and the belly of vessels are formed by coils and shaped by
associated with decorations that combine incisions and impressions, the           moulding against concave supports (Gomart et al., 2020). In contrast, in
almagra or the boquique.                                                          more recent chronologies the moulding technique over convex supports
    The surface decoration with almagra represents one of the most                is well-documented at Mines de Gavà (northwest Iberian Peninsula)
widespread decorations during the Early Neolithic in Andalusia (García            (Calvo Peña, 2019) and in the Aisne valley (northeast France) (Colas
Borja et al., 2014; Martín-Socas et al., 2018), while the boquique is             et al., 2015).
mainly concentrated in inland regions of the Iberian Peninsula (Alday
and Moral del Hoyo, 2011). In contrast, decorations with incisions and            6. Conclusions
impressions are documented across the Iberian Peninsula and southern
France in the late 6th millennium cal. BCE (García Martínez et al., 2011;             The technological study of the ceramic assemblage of Cueva de El
Guilaine and Manen, 2012; Oms et al., 2016). Results from Cueva de El             Toro provides the first empirical evidence of the techniques that were
Toro show that these decorations appear to be related to the forming              used in pottery-manufacturing processes during the Early Neolithic in
processes of coils and the use of juxtaposed circular elements. This              the south of the Iberian Peninsula. The results obtained based on the
possibility, along with the hypotheses formulated for the shapes, needs           examination of manufacturing traces reveal that several ways of doing
to be further investigated through the development of new research and            coexisted during the occupations of Phase IV at Cueva de El Toro. These
contrasted with other ceramic assemblages from Early Neolithic con­               ways of doing are represented by the use of coils – with alternate
texts with similar morpho-decorative features located in this area of the         overlapping and slightly or not deformed -, which predominate in the
Iberian Peninsula.                                                                forming of the upper part and rim of vessels; the juxtaposition of circular
                                                                                  elements and, in particular, the moulding process with convex supports.
5.3. Context and chronological framework of the first pottery forming             Precisely, the coil forming sequence and the use of patches identified on
processes during the Early Neolithic                                              this site also bear similarities with the pot-forming processes docu­
                                                                                  mented to date for the Early Neolithic in Western Europe. Furthermore,
    Current technological studies on the first pottery forming processes          this study reveals the use of other forming techniques – elements with
have revealed several trajectories regarding the technical practices used         oval shapes and the pinching technique – that are practically unknown
in pottery manufacture that spread with the Neolithisation process.               in Early Neolithic contexts from the Western Mediterranean. Altogether,
Overall, pottery forming processes identified in Cueva de El Toro fit with        these ways of doing may indicate that the communities who periodically
the forming-sequences documented in several Early Neolithic sites from            inhabited the cave during the Early Neolithic (5280–4780 cal. BCE 2σ)
the Mediterranean basin and Western Europe (Fig. 1). At Colle Santo               possessed and used different techniques to produce ceramic vessels. This
Stefano and Ripa Tetta (southeast Italy, 5800–5600 cal. BCE), the vessels         interpretation is also supported by comparing forming processes with
are built with thin or elongated, obliquely assembled (S-shaped con­              the typology of vessels, which reflect that different forming techniques
figurations) or superimposed (O-shaped configurations) coils (Angeli              can be used in the production of several pottery shapes. Moreover, no
and Fabbri, 2017; Colombo, 2017; Gomart et al., 2017). In Central                 clear relationship can be established when comparing these forming
Europe, coiling techniques are also widely documented in the ceramic              sequences with decorations, which may therefore suggest that decora­
production of several LBK sites, such as Cuiry-lès-Chaudardes                    tions were possibly not related to these technical features of ceramic

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J. Cámara Manzaneda et al.                                                                                        Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 37 (2021) 102936


manufacturing processes.                                                           by anonymous reviewers, which improved the earliest version of the
    This investigation has also been compared and contextualised with              paper.
the distribution of the first pottery forming processes discovered around
Western Europe during the Early Neolithic. The coiling technique and               Appendix A. Supplementary data
the patchwork technology, which appear in southeast Italy and south­
east France and the Ligurian-Provencal Arch respectively (Gomart et al.,              Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
2017; Gomart et al., forthcoming), is documented in Cueva de El Toro               org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2021.102936.
during the Early Neolithic occupation. This data, which must be further
investigated in new studies, may confirm the distribution of similar
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                                                                                        los recipientes cerámicos en las minas prehistóricas de Gavà. Dissertation,
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                                                                                   Calvo Trias, Manuel, García Rosselló, Jaime, 2014. Acción técnica, interacción social y
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence               práctica cotidiana: propuesta interpretativa de la tecnologíaAcción técnica,
the work reported in this paper.                                                        interacción social y práctica cotidiana: propuesta interpretativa de la tecnología.
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