Marine Policy 127 (2021) 104432 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Marine Policy journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/marpol Alternative seafood marketing systems foster transformative processes in Mediterranean fisheries Sílvia Gómez a, *, Francesc Maynou b a Department of Social Anthropology, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Building B-Campus UAB, Bellaterra 08193 Cerdanyola del Vallès, Barcelona, Spain b Institut de Ciències del Mar (CSIC), Psg. Marítim de la Barceloneta 37–49, 08003 Barcelona, Spain A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T Keywords: Local fisheries have often limited influence on the pricing dynamics due to their low capacity of production and Seafood because they must compete with aquaculture products or imported seafood. As a response, new marketing and Marketing systems labelling initiatives, such as direct sale and certification of origin schemes, have emerged. In Catalonia and the Labelling Balearic Islands, over the last 15 years, these initiatives have been thriving in the interstices of the traditional Prices Mediterranean Sea marketing channels, which start at the auction as the first sale system and largely determine the ex-vessel prices. Direct marketing These initiatives represent a pragmatic effort to cope with the diminishing fisheries resources while adding value to the catches and helping to improve the sale prices. They are also a way to acquire larger market flexibility to face global challenges. We investigated emerging marketing and labelling initiatives by means of one discussion session, semi-structured interviews with fishers, fishmongers and other actors involved in the production, first sale and distribution of seafood. In this paper, we draw from 4 years of fieldwork in Catalonia and the Balearic Islands to investigate the history and evolution of alternative seafood marketing arrangements and why some have succeeded and others failed. The research provides an illustrative example of how fishers adapt and resist global market forces and calls into question the monopolistic structures grounded in the existing relationships between fisheries associations and middlepersons. The results of the fieldwork also highlighted the problem of adjusting catches to demand, and the conflicts of interest between the fisheries sectors, enterprises and fisheries associations. 1. Introduction doubling [4]. The increase in living standards, notably in mid and high-income countries, is one of the main factors increasing the food The introduction of large quantities of fish imports by the global consumption of products of animal origin in general and fish con­ seafood trade poses several challenges to local markets that use tradi­ sumption in particular [5,6]. Therefore, the domestic seafood con­ tional marketing systems, which are ill-adapted to new scenarios [1]. sumption does not account for the domestic seafood production in many Local fishers are losing control of the local market to large industrial nations, e.g., the EU relies significantly on imports to meet the national chains. Albeit this is affecting fisheries in different parts of the world, the demands for seafood products [7]. European countries consume almost production from local fish stocks in European countries bordering the 12.45 million tonnes of seafood each year – yet the domestic production Mediterranean Sea is much lower than the demand, making local fishers is only approximately 5.40 million tonnes; therefore, as much as 55% of unable to influence the ex-vessel price of their product under the pre­ seafood consumption must be met by imports [8]. However, these vailing marketing arrangements. Additionally, local fishers must face general figures mask an important heterogeneity in the fish production decreasing profitability due to declining wild fish stocks [2,3] and and fish consumption patterns in Europe. For instance, household con­ cannot transfer increasing production costs to ex-vessel prices due to the sumption of fresh fish in Spain is by far the largest in the EU [8] and fresh high-volume of seafood imports that dominate the market and deter­ fish is much more accessible in local markets than in other countries. mine the sale prices. Likewise, fresh fish are part of the most traditional cooking recipes [9]. Over the last 50 years, the globalization of seafood production has Nevertheless, fresh fish consumption has declined every year since 2014 resulted in the annual global consumption per capita more than [8]. Although fresh fish currently represents 44.4% of the total fish * Corresponding author. E-mail address: silvia.gomez@uab.cat (S. Gómez). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2021.104432 Received 10 May 2020; Received in revised form 3 February 2021; Accepted 4 February 2021 Available online 20 February 2021 0308-597X/© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). S. Gómez and F. Maynou Marine Policy 127 (2021) 104432 products consumed in households, its importance has decreased by 16% 2. Material and methods in only 9 years (2008–2016) [10], while the consumption of canned food and frozen seafood increased by ca. 10% over the same period [11]. In 2.1. Data 2016, Spain ranked as the fourth largest importer of seafood in the world [12]. However, seafood from aquaculture has been growing year after The work draws on ethnographic fieldwork and interviews to collect year [11]. Concretely, in Catalonia, approximately only 22% of the qualitative data in the context of two large research programmes seafood consumption is provided by fisheries from Catalonia [13]. developed between 2017 and 2020.1 The mix-methods approach to Commercial fishery catches in the Spanish Mediterranean are chan­ assess the socioeconomic sustainability of fishing communities in Cat­ nelled through the compulsory daily auction run by the fisheries asso­ alonia included semi-structured face to face interviews, participant ciation (Cofradía) of each fishing port, regulating the arrival time of observation and discussion sessions with stakeholders. This study draws vessels and the order of sale, usually to wholesalers, who serve as the on data extracted from 24 semi-structured interviews and 9 in-depth main traditional distribution channel to fish retailers and restaurants. interviews addressing issues such as social innovation and entrepre­ In the Mediterranean, the historical experiences of local manage­ neurship initiatives (marketing and labelling initiatives). The interviews ment are rooted in their own local fishing institutions. In the case of were conducted in the provinces of Girona and Barcelona between 2017 Spain, keeping the same ancient designation taken from the religious and 2020 after identifying, at an early stage, the alternative marketing medieval organizations or guilds, these institutions are the Cofradías, initiatives from Catalonia by browsing through online platforms. The which in former times ensured the access to resources to its members in data gathered online were incorporated in a database classifying the recognition of subjection to the political powers (Church and King). This information by the province of the initiative, name of the initiative, function was, to a certain extent, maintained historically throughout motivation, holder of the initiative, brief description, fish species mar­ different political regimes [14] until they were constituted as public law keted, geographic area of distribution, promotion activities, main corporations in 1943. At present, the Cofradías have a social and eco­ problems encountered in the development of the initiatives, and contact. nomic role in controlling the access to the resources (according to the This portfolio was constantly updated as new initiatives were detected territorial limits of fishing ports, schedules and time of fishing) and and others failed and with the more exhaustive information collected organizing the first sales via Dutch auctions [15]. from the interviews. The inventory of marketing initiatives (Table 1) Through the auction system, the ex-vessel prices are set, accounting enabled the decision to focus on the ethnographic data collection in the for the level of competition between buyers, based on the supply- provinces of Girona and Barcelona, where most of the new alternative demand relation [16], in a distribution channel ultimately interacting initiatives in Catalonia are concentrated (Fig. 1). with imports and fish farm products [7]. Add to this the important de­ The data on the Balearic Islands (Fig. 2) were collected through a mand oscillation throughout the year, which reaches an important peak discussion session in the frame of a meeting held at the Roses Fisheries during the tourism season, increasing the prices up to 20%. In addition Association (Cofradía from northern Catalonia) on the 13th of November to the limited capacity of local fishers to influence prices, the decreasing 2018 with 10 fishers from the Balearic Islands in an exchange visit fishery resources due to chronically overexploited stocks in the Medi­ organized by the Fisheries Local Action Group (FLAG) of the province of terranean [17] and the increase of imports must be added. As a result, Girona.2 The aim of the session was to exchange insights and experi­ Mediterranean fisheries show low fishing economic performance, which ences regarding marketing initiatives, certification schemes and co- is the main reason for the important decrease in the fleet size and the management plans. lack of intergenerational replacement observed in recent decades [18]. The semi-structured interview participants included fishers already As a response, several new marketing initiatives have emerged involved in some new marketing initiative and/or in some initiative in a locally to cope with these threats. These initiatives, which are promoted project and those just beginning to become involved. Note that some by fishers’ cooperatives, environmental companies, individual fishers or fishers were involved in more than one initiative according to the target collectively by the small-scale fisheries sector, range from direct mar­ species marketed and considering that some initiatives are focused on keting arrangements similar to those described in the USA and Canada single-species. In-depth interviews were conducted with the initiative as Community Supported Fisheries (CSF) [1,19,20] to the so-called holders and/or promoters. The interviews covered a large spectrum of alternative food networks [21], among others. Due to the novelty of socioeconomic questions referring to the marketing initiatives (see An­ these initiatives in Mediterranean fisheries, a knowledge gap exists nexes). All the interviews lasted between 1 and 2 h, and with the consent regarding the types of promoters (fisheries associations (Cofradías), of interviewee, they were recorded, transcribed and coded. The data private companies, individual fishers or companies, fisheries co­ collection process was aligned to the code of ethics of the American operatives or producer organizations undertaking marketing initia­ Anthropological Association (https://www.americananthro.org), and tives), methods, motivations and final objectives of these marketing all the information was duly anonymized.3 systems. The supply chains from production to consumption have been little studied in general [1]. To contribute to addressing this knowledge gap, this extended 2.2. Analysis ethnographic fieldwork explores the seafood marketing initiatives that were thriving in the interstices of the traditional marketing channels in The qualitative data regarding the origins of the initiatives, their Catalonia between 2007 and 2019, with information on the marketing main goals and motives have been analysed, and the different social systems from the Balearic Islands juxtaposed for comparison. The aim of this work is to investigate the different strategies that 1 attempt to cope with diminishing fish stocks and to improve the eco­ Note that already in 2015 in the frame of a research project on small-scale nomic performance of individual fishing units. The research also fishing at the Natural Park of Cap de Creus (province of Girona) the first examined how emerging strategies help to acquire larger marketing alternative initiatives were detected. 2 flexibility to face the fisheries’ current challenges, which are due to Fisheries Local Action Groups (FLAGs), are partnerships between the fishery actors and other local private and public stakeholders. EU-funded, they design decreasing marine living resources and a lack of generational and implement a local development strategy to address their areás needs, be replacement. they economic, social and/or environmental (see https://webgate.ec.europa. eu/fpfis/cms/farnet2/on-the-ground/flag-factsheets-list_en). 3 Code of Ethics of the American Anthropological Association (approved 1998) https://s3.amazonaws.com/rdcms-aaa/files/production/public/FileDo wnloads/pdfs/issues/policy-advocacy/upload/ethicscode.pdf 2 S. Gómez and F. Maynou Marine Policy 127 (2021) 104432 Table 1 Marketing initiatives between 2007 and 2019 (SSF: small-scale fishing; OTB: Bottom trawl; PS: Purse seine). Direct sale Promoter (entity) SSF, SSF + OTB/PS, Auction/No Auction/From the vessel End-user Product CSF/SCC OTB, PS to the middleperson Direct sale Environmental enterprise SSF, SSF+OTB/PS Auction Consumer groups Closed fish baskets Household (door-to-door) Household (door to door) through a fishmongera CSF/SCC Small-scale fisher enterprise SSF Auction Consumer groups Closed fish baskets Environmental Enterprise (in charge of distribution) Schools CSF/SCC Familial fishers enterprise SSF, OTB,PS Auction/From the vessel to the Consumer groups Closed fish baskets middleperson Household (door-to-door) Retailers Fish baskets per Restaurants customer demand Direct sale Environmental enterprise SSF Auction Household (point of sale) Closed fish baskets CSF/SCC Fisheries association (Cofradía) SSF No Auction Consumer groups Closed fish baskets CSF/SCC Familial fisher enterprise OTB Auction Household (door-to-door) Closed shrimp baskets Direct sale Fisheries association + SSF, OTB, PS Auction Household (door-to-door)a Fish baskets per distribution enterprise Wholesalers customer demand Retailers Processed products Supermarket CSF/SCC Small-scale fisher enterprise SSF From the vessel to the middleperson Restaurants Fish per customer demand CSF/SCC Fisheries cooperative SSF Auction Household (door-to-door) Fish per customer Restaurants demand Direct sale Individual small-scale fisher as SSF From the vessel to the middleperson Enterprise of distribution Shellfish per customer self-employed demand CSF/SCC Fisheries association SSF, OTB Auction Household (door-to-door) Fish per customer Restaurants demand Wholesaler Processed products CSF/SCC Fisheries association SSF, OTB Auction Household (door-to-door) Closed fish baskets Direct sale Fisheries association SSF No Auction Household (door-to-door) Fish per customer demand Direct sale Agricultural Cooperative SSF, OTB, PS Auction Household through agroshop Fish per customer CSF/SCC Fish Producers Organization SSF, OTB, PS Auction Household (door-to-door) demand (FPO) Wholesalers Retailers Restaurants Supermarkets Direct sale Fisheries association SSF No Auction Household (point of sale) Fish per customer Retailers demand Restaurants CSF/SCC Fish Producers Organization SSF, OTB Auction/No Auction Household (door-to-door)a Fish per customer Direct sale (FPO) Household (point of sale) demand Wholesalers Retailers a Distribution ways started in March 2020 with the lockdown decreted due to COVID 19. actors and institutions involved in the distribution chains, tracing the originally linked to social movements, provided an arena for producer different routes from the vessel to the consumer, have been identified and consumer activism, with the aim of re-embedding food markets in (Fig. 3). The values and non-market principles underlying the producer- the social fabric of communities and to tackle the environmental impacts consumer relationship, as expressed by the interviewees when that large agrifood value chains produce [32]. describing the initiatives, were used as the main codification criterion of Finally, the economic drivers, such as prices, have also been analysed the interviews (e.g., “authenticity”, “socio-sustainable”, “fairness”, to better understand what these initiatives represent economically for “trust”) using grounded theory [22,23]. The primary data have been both producers and consumers; however, an in-depth socioeconomic triangulated with the information compiled from the online initiatives’ analysis has not been performed as it is out of the scope of this research. websites, as well as by tracking the initiatives’ social media (Twitter and Facebook), news articles, and secondary complementary sources, which 3. Results helped to correctly frame the scope of the marketing initiative (e.g., legislation). According to this information and taking as reference the 3.1. Marketing seafood initiatives between 2007 and 2019 descriptions provided by Bolton [24] in the case of the USA and Canada and FARNET (The European Fisheries Areas Network) in the case of In 2007, the first Fish Producers Organization (FPO) was established Europe [20], the initiatives have been classified as SCC (Short Supply in the Province of Tarragona, with the FPO becoming the middleperson Circuit)/CSF (community supported fisheries) or direct sale. The liter­ (“buyer”) at the auction, along with regular fish buyers. Afterwards, in ature on alternative seafood marketing arrangements originally arose in 2008, in the province of Girona, a Fisheries association (Cofradía) the US and Canada in the early 2000 s, where the initiatives were pri­ associated itself with a distribution company to distribute the seafood marily based on the Community Supported Agriculture model [25]. The products they purchased at the auction. Additionally, between 2010 and main goals of these initiatives were to react to producers’ and con­ 2012, in the context of the multiplication of Alternative Food Networks sumers’ concerns about the environmental impacts, social, economic, as in Catalonia [33] (resulting from the 2008 financial crisis), several well as cultural consequences on rural communities that globalization seafood short supply chains and different direct sale initiatives started to and industrialization could produce [24–31]. These initiatives, emerge as the main counteraction measure to large agro-food chains 3 S. Gómez and F. Maynou Marine Policy 127 (2021) 104432 Fig. 1. Marketing initiatives in Catalonia. CSF/SCC Direct. [34–36]. These bottom-up initiatives took advantage of the responses of 58.8 of Council Regulation (EC) N◦ 1224/2009 and Royal Decree 418/ food-security movements to the economic and ecological crisis of that 2015 that enable the sale of a maximum of 50€ per day/consumer or moment. A mix of 15 individual and collective initiative types converged 1.5 kg per product. This quantity can be exceeded if the sale is for a at the same time along the Catalan territory in the course of the 2010s, single product. Finally, sales from a fishing vessel to a middleperson which either became consolidated or failed. On the other hand, it was (which is a commercial relation between two entities) are allowed ac­ the conflicts of interest between the fisheries and the middlepersons cording the Catalan Law 12/2013 of the 2nd of August on measures to arising in 2014 that boosted direct sale arrangements in the Balearic improve the functioning of the food chain. The transaction cannot be Islands (Mallorca), where the fishers organized themselves as an FPO more than 2500€, or 30% of the total product of one unit of production. (Table 1). The conflict dated back to the early 2000s and was motivated Despite the relatively large possibilities afforded by these legal op­ by the downward prices agreed among retailers before the actual auc­ tions, the auction price is always taken as reference, usually the daily tion. This unfair practice directly impacted fish prices and triggered average auction price, to establish the ex-vessel price, for example, in tensions between the fishers and retailers. It resulted ultimately in the those cases where the product is sold without passing through the auc­ fishers taking actions to obtain more bargaining power viz. constituting tion, whether the sale has been performed directly from the vessel to the an FPO. middleperson or the middleperson is a fisher enterprise (the vessel) or These different marketing initiatives that arose between 2007 and enterprise of fishers (even an FPO) that buys their own product. In any 2019 organized the sale of seafood according to different marketing case, the transaction costs are not avoided (note that fisheries associa­ arrangements at the interstices of the Dutch auction but under a legal tions (Cofradías) receive a percentage of each sale as a benefit to the umbrella that enables them different possibilities and helps them fulfil organization). Likewise, the fisheries associations (Cofradías) maintain the national requirements of the fish buyers’ registry and procure the their role in controlling the social aspects of access to resources to which compulsory note of first sale. The Dutch Auction system is the traditional all enrolled fishers are subjected. system of first sale in Spain’s Mediterranean fisheries. Since 2001 and under government permission, the sale without auction is allowed when 3.1.1. Community supported fisheries (CSF) or short supply chains performed at a recognized fish market or allowed establishment (Article Community Supported Fisheries (CSFs) or Short Supply Chains in 70 of Law 3/2001 of 26 March 2001 of State Sea Fisheries). Fisheries Catalonia (n = 10, 55%) are initiatives driven by fishers, who associate associations (Cofradías) are able to perform sales directly from the themselves to perform direct sales to consumers. The ideas of proximity, fishing vessel to the consumer without an auction according the Art. authenticity, cultural heritage, environmental values, the social values 4 S. Gómez and F. Maynou Marine Policy 127 (2021) 104432 Fig. 2. Marketing initiatives in the Balearic Islands. Direct sale CSF/SCC and Direct sale. associated with the fishing activity, fair price for the producers, to stabilization of the markets through adjustments between supply and ensure generational replacement and to improve product competitive­ demand and guarantee the yield of producers. ness not only with regard to the global market challenges but also locally The fishers, through these organizations, become middlepersons are all axioms that summarize the purposes of these initiatives. Some of themselves by purchasing their own products at the auction. Alterna­ the CSFs are “legitimated” by management plans, such as the co- tively, they can close a contract agreement with the fisheries association management plan established in 2012 for Sand eel (Gymnammodytes under administrative permission to obtain the product directly from the cicerelus) [37] but also the deep-water shrimp (Aristeus antennatus) vessels (of their own property or from others) that take participate in the management plan in Palamós (province of Girona) and the management project at a negotiated price. This is, taking the auction price as the of the European eel (Anguilla anguilla) in the Ter river. Although short reference or mean price. Only an intermediary step between producers supply circuits are a marketing practice often associated with small-scale and consumers intervenes, in this case, the same fisheries marketing fishing, some bottom trawl fishers and purse-seiners (n = 5) are also entity. Therefore, the fisher is always placed at the heart of the trans­ involved. Several legal entities, i.e., from enterprise fisheries co­ action, aiming at controlling the marketing. Despite the price of sale operatives or Fish Producers Organizations (FPOs)4 to the fisheries as­ being established according to the auction average sale price, the sociation itself (Cofradías), give shape to these collective fishery perception of traditional buyers or middlemen is that these market organizations composed of a fisher’s family, kin groups, the entire channels are organized “off the system” (apart from the auction) and the fisheries association and/or the fisher’s partnerships. Whereas a coop­ prices are not transparent and create unfair competition. Indeed, this is erative designs a company formed by persons who join together on a not a new situation. The first failed alternative marketing arrangement voluntary basis to carry out business activities aimed at meeting their in Catalonia, the so-called “Giropesca”, already raised strong opposition economic and social needs and aspirations whose properties and bene­ from middlepersons to the point of boycotting the initiative. “Giropesca” fits are shared by all partners, the FPOs are entities in which the pro­ was an attempt to associate five fisheries associations from the Girona ducers can associate with the goal of constituting a mechanism for the province that intended to unify the auction systems into only one and to provide a unique certification scheme and traceability system to be more competitive [38]. 4 The production-consumption connection for the case of CSFs or SCC See REGULATION (EU) No 1379/2013 OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT is achieved by delivering fish baskets that directly reach the consumers, AND OF THE COUNCIL of 11 December 2013 on the common organisation of the markets in fishery and aquaculture products, amending Council Regulations who pick up the product at an agreed location or receive it at home. (EC) No 1184/2006 and (EC) No 1224/2009 and repealing Council Regulation Therefore, the delivery allows the tracing of different types of routes, (EC) No 104/2000. while strengthening a maritime-urban alliance, directly from the vessel 5 S. Gómez and F. Maynou Marine Policy 127 (2021) 104432 Fig. 3. Routes of the marketing arrangements. The traditional route is in orange. Note that (a) indicates “Enterprises”, which can be environmental enterprises, companies of fisheries with family links, or fisheries associated with companies, including some fisheries associations, which purchase the products through auctions and are usually in charge of the distribution of the product, where (b) “from the vessels to the middlepersons” refers to middlepersons, such as fishery companies with family links, or fisheries associated as companies or distribution enterprises that purchase the product directly from the vessel. to the consumer. The fish baskets are composed of seasonal fish, even phone. Unlike the delivery to consumer groups agreed through face-to- underutilized species, and are delivered to agro-ecological consumer face meetings between the fisheries organization and the families groups constituted by 30–40 families cooperatively organized to pur­ involved in the consumer group, the door-to-door system usually re­ chase the organic food basket on a weekly basis. Catalonia has a long sponds to individual online orders. The frequency oscillates between history on cooperative movements that date back from the 19th century once per year to weekly, and in some cases, their requests failed to with different episodes along the time. Although it was not until the complete, because the consumer did not find the product they were 2008 multidimensional crise that urban food provisioning networks looking for or the price was too high. Finally, the restaurants can also be appear through cooperative initiatives (often informally organized). supplied by CSFs (n = 6). Restaurants searching for “fish of quality” also These networks connect small-scale producers with agro-ecological highlight the direct connection to producers focused on the mutual consumer groups [33]. knowledge as the core aspect of a "value" production system. In the Although, they represent very few consumers, only between 10 and following words of one fisher participating in a CSF: 40 families per CSF (n = 4), they are the individuals that are most “And what they look for is not really traceability, they look for the interested in establishing meaningful socioeconomic and environmental fisherman, they look for that person, they look for that profession, they values through the food system. Consumers value the socioecological look for that territory, they look for that culture and that is what we have relationships established along the exchange network by linking pro­ to try to offer with our product, through our web page, our faces,.so that duction and consumption directly as a two-way environmental people can be eating in a restaurant and just know that this fish has been commitment process involved in a social relation of mutual knowledge caught by the boat H. and that the H. belongs to JM, from L′ Estartit, who between the fisher and end-user. One producer exemplified this with the fishes in this Bay and has caught it with this fishing gear and during this following statement: season and JM has brought it to this establishment” (Fisher from a CSF, “[we sell through the cooperative] To get more value from doing these province of Girona, 2018). things right, so as to have a group of consumers who value consuming a Overall, CSF implies a commitment involving both the producer and sustainably caught product, right? It’s a way of closing the circle" (.) the consumer to give value to the activity, the fishers and the fish in a "Because both I and my colleagues were well-known people in the fishing complex interrelated relationship covering all the food system. world (.) we told consumers where we were established, who we were and Authenticity, heritage, proximity and territory are notions that re- that our doors were open to come and see us” (Fisher from a CSF, localize the product distinguished from the large food chains, as illus­ province of Barcelona, 2017). trated by the following quote: As explained above, another type of route addresses a particular “I would never want to offer this in a distribution channel, because it is demand segment that values receiving fish baskets at home, through the false. You have to try to reach the final consumer, to move him. and to door-to-door system (n = 6). This option covers more consumers; say: Well, I have caught it for you, I go to find it for you, I go. to fish it for approximately between 200 and 400 consumers per year request fish you! And that he feels that, that I reach him, and. while he eats it, he says:. baskets directly from the fishers through their online marketplace or by 6 S. Gómez and F. Maynou Marine Policy 127 (2021) 104432 ‘Oh, here it is. I will not find this in the market, no matter how hard I look Although the fishers remain at the core of the marketing system, they for it, I will not find it !!’" (Fisher holder of a CSF, province of Girona, differ from the CSF in that the initiative does not answer to any type of 2019) socioeconomic and environmental project but is a strategy of marketing that, in some cases, is motivated by the logistic circumstances stemming Only in three cases (n = 3) is the product served also to retailers from the absence of an auction. In particular, it refers to small coastal (fishmongers), although this is the less common route. In one other case villages hosting a few small-scale fishers, such as in the Balearic Islands (n = 1), fishers introduced fish at schools aiming to provide fish con­ (Menorca, Eivissa and Formentera) or in the province of Girona sumption education and to search for other more stable potential dis­ (Cadaqués, L′ Estartit). tribution channels options. Nevertheless, direct sales can also be offered by middlepersons or The certification schemes accompanying these initiatives expedited environmental enterprises that, under a sustainability criterion, estab­ by the same fisheries association or CSF, label and territorially locate the lish the connection between the producer and consumer via agro- product with the aim to guarantee its traceability, mainly by identifying ecological food consumer groups or door to door (n = 2) to individual the community of fishers and the place of fishing (“pesca brava”, “Cap de households by delivering fish baskets of seasonal fish and underutilized Creus”, “peix de la Barceloneta”, “Gamba de Palamós”, “Angula del fish. In these cases, a project involving the middleperson and consumers Ter”), or alternatively, the fishing gears and the sustainable fishing committed to an exchange network based on trust that certifies that the usually associated with the SSF (“Peix nostrum”). The divulgation of product comes from a sustainable production system, preferably from certification schemes has come to give publicity to a single species (e.g., small-scale fisheries. This trust relationship is grounded partly on the Aristeus antennatus) of a specific fishing port (Palamós), thus causing knowledge that the middleperson has about the fishing activity and the consumers to associate it with quality, to the point that restaurants use seafood. Activities of training in preparing and cooking fish, as well as this label to promote this product in their menus, even when its sourcing recipes are also offered as part of the service. Whereas these environ­ cannot be guaranteed. mental enterprises advocate alternative ways of producing and All these marketing initiatives try to be combined with recreational consuming and promote sustainability through responsible consump­ activities to give cultural and social value to the product and the activity tion, direct sale represents for individual fishers the possibility to of fishing. Activities such as workshops, fishing tourism, visits to the diversify the marketing activities. This works especially well for specific fishing port and speeches to divulgate the cultural heritage of fishing are “premium species” (e.g., sea urchins) that are highly valued by the local often offered by the same CSF. The objective is not only to disseminate market. Similar to the CSF, an agreement established between the the activity but also to dignify the profession and to discover an eco­ fisheries association, Catalan government and the individual fisher nomic diversification option to balance the shrinkage of the fishing guarantees the price negotiation, taking the auction price as reference. effort, as expressed in the following excerpt: In the case of the Balearic Islands (Eivissa and Formentera), the seller “We have always said that we want that the products that are created enters into a binding compromise to acquire all the vessel’s catch. In remain linked to the fishers’ world: itineraries, courses, talks, fishing contrast, environmentalist enterprises purchase the product from the tourism. That they remain linked to the fisher’s world. We feel that in the auction, as is traditional. Direct sales can also be on demand (n = 3); in long run it is very easy for the fisher to disappear and these activities this case, it is not a “closed basket”, and consumers can decide what they continue without him. This is what we believe that we have to avoid want to acquire, although they are always subjected to the season and happening, and we have to make these activities revert to the fisher and be catch availability. For instance, this is the case of an agricultural coop­ a complement to his economy. It could also end up being the case that a erative in the province of Tarragona that performs direct sales on de­ fisher takes someone for a sea trip, but doesn’t do work, doesn’t fish! … mand through the agro shop of the cooperative, which purchases the fish Our idea is that we have to try to fish less but fish better and explain it at auction. better. So, the ideal would be that in the long run we fish much less hours but what we earn fishing be useful,. [complemented] with fishing tourism 3.1.3. Diversity of prices to end-user and "alternative" sales, to have a decent salary, if not nobody will want to The great diversity of seafood product prices cannot enable the devote themselves to fishing. At the moment there is a very important establishment of a common pattern between the types of initiatives nor problem of generational change. That is to say, there are no new gener­ distinguish them according to socioeconomic consumer profiles. It is left ations who want to pursue a fishing career, because it is not attractive, to each organization to determine the final price, thus resulting in a because there is no fixed salary.” (fisher of a CSF, province of Barcelona, great variety of possibilities within the same marketing mechanism. The 2018). fish baskets have a fixed price according to a pre-payment scheme established by each consumer group’s self-management system. The fish The interviewees observe that the emotional bonds wrought by can be served clean and filleted, which increases the prices, to which experiencing one day of fishing through fishing tourism activities transportation and boxes are added, as well as a supplement for the strengthen the knowledge link established between the producer and workforce, depending on whether the fish has had to be prepared in a consumer embodied in the product. At the same time, it is a way to turn workroom. One of the reasons that customers lost interest in the original around to the fishing as livelihood by providing a new insight into the fish baskets was due to the time it takes to clean and prepare the fish. profession by incorporating cultural fishing promotion activities as part The quantity distributed can lower the prices by approximately 1–4 € per of the fishing work. fish basket. Nevertheless, those more environmentally committed con­ sumer groups prefer to purchase the whole fish, neither cleaned nor 3.1.2. Direct sale prepared, as a way to keep it in a fresher state. The prices usually Direct sales (n = 8) involving individual fishers or collectively as a oscillate between 10 and 28 € per fish basket of 2 or 2.5 kg of fish fisheries association (Cofradía) usually perform sales by avoiding any (approximately 10.50 €/kg), or 30–34 € per fish basket per 1.6 kg or type of middleperson or via one middleperson other than the fisher. The 1.8 kg (between approximately 8.50 and 10.50 €/kg), calculating a main driver of these initiatives is to promote the local product of prox­ marginal profit of a minimum of 2–3 €/kg, according to species and imity, which is a guarantee of quality, taking advantage of the purchase price, accorded with the fishers, even if it had been purchased arrangement potential of online marketplaces and social networks (e.g., at the auction. The relatively small differences in prices also depend on products can be posted on a web site, through an Instagram and/or the type of fish, for example, whether it is an underutilized fish or one Facebook account, and ordered through these same media means or that is more market valued. When the prices are arranged without simply by phone or WhatsApp). The direct sale method enables the passing through the auction, the final price increases sponsored by the spectrum of consumers to broaden, to improve prices and profitability. ethical criterion of offering a fair price. It is important to note that the 7 S. Gómez and F. Maynou Marine Policy 127 (2021) 104432 middlepersons respected the ethical price in past times, under a social increased consumer spending capacity and social and demographic tacit understanding that foreshadowed the corporative functioning of characteristics in Spain [40], the lifestyle and cultural changes condition the overall system. However, currently, the notion is being lost, as large consumption patterns. the new demand preferences encompassed with industrial chain middlepersons not directly involved in the fishing world the diversity of purchase possibilities within the increasing spectrum of are increasingly participating in the auctions. This concern is vividly current seafood market options have reduced the control of local wild illustrated by the following excerpt: seafood producers (fishers) over fish consumption. Not only has there been a reduction in fresh fish consumption but 50.6% of the fish is ac­ “Before, there was a bit of a code of ethics, the buyer, despite wanting to quired in superstores and supermarkets, with an increase of e-commerce buy the fish at the lowest possible price, had a certain code of ethics, and of 17.5% [41]. That is, the traditional route from fisher to auction to understood what the fair price was. That is, to follow the offer and the wholesaler to retailer [fish shop] to consumer (restaurant or household) demand logic, yes, but.naturally, at the moment. for example, now there is losing importance and fishers have to find new routes to deliver their are supermarkets that.-I do not say that it is negative, it goes well for other product to consumers. things-, but that they send a buyer who.is told to buy at the cheapest price The present-day market-society complex relationship has laid bare that you find can and the difference, goes to your salary, all what is saved the weakness of a corporative system protection that under socio-ethical here goes for salary bonus as incentive, right? The objective is to buy lower criteria could restrain the auction “supply and demand” logic to prevent and lower. Of course, this person. This is not sustainable for us, for our greater inequalities between producers while ensuring the minimum vessels” (fisher of a CSF, province of Barcelona, 2018) economic conditions for maintaining the fishers’ livelihoods. The in­ The fair price for producers is what is undermined as a result, but terviewees stated that the "fisheries world" revolved around a web of apparently, this does not really lessen the price for consumers nor offer acquaintances from different sectors of the value chain, sharing an im­ an alternative to traditional fishmongers whose products are sold at plicit compromise to balance the interests of everyone reflected in similar prices or with little difference in relation to direct sales, unlike auction system. the, direct sales arranged for “premium seafood” sold directly to res­ Socio-ethical codes, such as the cooperative social rules resulting taurants at higher prices, increasing the value of the product up to 2€ from a fisher (or fisheries association) intermediaries alliance relied on over the mean price at the auction, without specially affecting the mutual knowledge and balanced competition within an acceptable purchase price for the customer. moral frame of the transaction that ensured a fair price for producers. Since the loss of the fisheries associations’ bargaining power, the value “You pay 3 euros for a plate of Sand eel at the restaurant, and there you of the traditional seafood marketing system has been questioned. pay it. Of course, if a consumer asks me for 100 g of Sand eel and it this The unbalanced price competition is clearly affecting small size costs me 20€ /Kg + VAT + the fishmonger’s profit; 100 g will cost to the auctions with less volume, which face difficulties (threatening the consumer 10€ and the restaurant charges less. This is a good example for viability of the fisheries associations that at the same time depend on the the fisherman, a bad example for the variety of fish and the knowledge of income these auctions generate). These circumstances may also explain fish, because it is limited to one type of sale that is the sale to the res­ the relevance of direct sale and/or CSF/SCC in small fishing ports. taurants (directly), and I do not know what brings more because it does Furthermore, the scarcity of wild fish made the availability of sea­ not favor all fishermen. It is limited to a few” (Fishmonger, 2018). food product at the market much more unpredictable. Paradoxically, the This system is perceived as producing inequalities between fishers persons interviewed express that this situation indicated the need to practising different fisheries, since not all species have the same “price become “self-managed” or more “entrepreneur” in the sense of premium” nor can their fishers take part in a CSF organizing direct sales becoming disentangled from the fisheries association marketing system, to restaurants. Note that the great profits of selling directly to restau­ with the goal to enhance fishers’ marketing participation, enabling the rants depend on the species and the restaurant. The restaurants that possibility of adopting new marketing systems more aligned with usually purchase high premium species (e.g., European eel Anguilla present-day conditionings and improve economic performance. The anguilla) are not accessible to all customers. Although fishers still obtain traditional (Dutch) auction model is felt as devaluing the fishers’ pro­ fession and seafood resources. The auction system is probably much greater profits selling directly to restaurants, the margins of these res­ taurants continue to create a gap between the producers’ profits and the more fit to the mid-sized vessels (trawlers, purse seiners) that dominate in many Cofradías. consumers’ expenditure. Nevertheless, for many years, in small places without auctions and with few fishers, despite taking auction prices as Nevertheless, beyond the price being an important condition of economic performance, it is the cultural knowledge of seafood products, reference, the prices, which are usually fixed along all the fishing season, are negotiated with individuals with purchasing power. In these cases, their species and variety that is taken into consideration. This is, although seafood products have been generalized in consumer demand, the trend is to progressively become more specialized in a few high market valued and very demanded species, e.g., Spiny lobster (Palinurus the introduction of local fresh seafood into households’ menus is something specially bonded to culture and eating habits. The differences elephas). in the fish basket prices between organizations analysed in this study do not indicate a differential between socioeconomic consumer profiles, 4. Discussion: weakness and strengthens of the initiatives, between cooperation and entrepreneurship while what really establishes a difference are the culture and the habits. Although, in this study, this idea could be only pointed out as hypoth­ The Dutch auction system has dominated as the first sale system in esis, the results of several consumption studies highlight similar argu­ ments. Witkin et al. [42] pointed out how the consumers of CSFs in the Mediterranean Spain for a long time. Although this is the traditional first sale system, the Fish Producers Organization (FPO) was introduced in UK “preferred historically popular species” whereas the underutilized ones received less support. In Bulgaria, despite increasing seafood pro­ 1987 by the European Economic Community (ECC) but was relatively unsuccessful until recent times [15], given that there were strong as­ duction and imports, the lack of tradition in eating fish is underlined as the main driver of fish consumption, regardless of the price [43]. sociations in other areas of Spain. In Catalonia, the socio-political costs that would result from reducing the relevance of the Cofradías, which Overall, the studies on European consumption patterns stress that hav­ are traditionally rooted in the social fabric of fishing communities, it has ing a stronger or weaker habit of eating fish depends on a person’s food been pointed out by Alegret [39] as the main reason for the relative experiences and education over their lifetime [44,45]. Although Spain is resistance to constitute Fish Producers Organizations. considered one of the countries that consume more fish, the perception Despite the global increase in seafood demand based on the of fish as an inconvenient product is much more important. This affects the frequency of consumption [44], the species consumed and the type 8 S. Gómez and F. Maynou Marine Policy 127 (2021) 104432 of fish (whether it is already prepared for cooking or needs to be pre­ supply chains. That is, by interlinking social, environmental, economic pared). Connected with this premise, the lack of a “culture of the fish” and governance systems [48], which can be embodied in a fisheries that is intergenerationally transmitted, as is often highlighted by in­ lobby, therefore, increasing the internal competition for the local mar­ terviewees, is another important point added to the lack of knowledge in ket. Labels used to root the products within the frame of one territory selecting and preparing fish. This can boost the change of consumption (whether fishing port or fishers’ village) make consumers identify one from fresh fish to processed fish products, which are perceived as single product custodian of quality, environmental good practices and quicker and easier to prepare. proximity with one fishing port, therefore establishing scale paradoxes The supply based on what the ecosystem is able to provide even if the in which socioeconomic and ecosystems conservation criterion clash. consumers are unfamiliar with the species, is a risk assumed by envi­ The trajectories of the new emerging marketing initiatives have to be ronmentalist enterprises that perform direct sales as environmental understood in their territorial specific context, into the local institu­ conservation projects. Hence, different cooking workshops and courses tional framework in which they are inserted, their goals and the ca­ are offered by these marketing arrangements. The failures of two CSFs pacities of the fisheries to the elastic demand of consumers must be (n = 4 failed) were due not only to the difficulty of adjusting to the absorbed. scarce demand; in one case, there were not enough customers and in the The emerging initiatives have revealed the inequities in the “struggle other case, the excessive demand of school delivery overcame the ca­ for prices” with the traditional system. Traditional fisheries associations pacity of the SSF (schools demanded a fixed weekly quantity of fish and run the auction where all the fishers’ vessels sell their catch following an that could not possibly take into account the natural oscillation of order of arriving, giving priority to the local small-scale fishers who sell fisheries’ catches availability). The failure of the CSF was also related to the catch first, and second, the local trawl fishers. Afterwards, it is the the impossibility to meet the demand of those consumers that preferred turn of the catch of non-local vessels (again, following the order deter­ the fish prepared and cleaned, ready for cooking, which would have mined by a draw) [16]. Simultaneously, each fisheries association has its implied investment in a skilled workforce and fulfilling the sanitary own time of sale that can be different from the time of sale of neighbour requirements of the workplace. As stated by McClenachan et al. [29], fishing ports. The system is unfavourable for those selling last or those food skills impact food choices by limiting the foods that individuals are small fisheries association without auctions that have to sell in a fishing able to prepare. In contrast, those more successful initiatives showed port other than theirs. Otherwise, according to Fluvià et al. [16], the better flexibility in diversifying the distribution channel by addressing competition sponsored by downward Dutch auction system falls more the diversity of the consumers’ demands and needs. That is, by offering on the sellers than the buyers since the buyers know each other and often several possibilities and adapting to consumers’ lifestyles and values, promote pre-agreed start prices and act as if they were a single buyer, such as environmental protection, health, tradition, among others, these especially if they are few, as occurs in small auctions. companies were able to meet the market segmentation. Likewise, those Hence, some fisheries associations have succumbed to being assim­ provisioning systems offering sales through online platforms have been ilated by monopolistic large market chains, eliminating the auction and experiencing exponential growth in recent years. The CSF initiatives selling all catches completely to one unique marketing operator whose product did not distinguish between fleet segments (SSF, OTB and (wholesale), whereas other resist by implementing new marketing ini­ PS) have proven to be more resilient, while the short supply chains tiatives (fish baskets, online marketplace platforms) promoted by fishers promoted exclusively by an SSF were found to have more difficulties in or the fisheries associations themselves, or dismantling the fisheries maintaining the marketing channels than becoming more stabilized associations to become FPOs or, otherwise, adapting to the system by when they sell directly to restaurants or enterprises of distribution. establishing clusters of value chain promoting a set of alternative and Nevertheless, CSFs that are aware of lifestyle changes do not compete non-market values (through labels) of the product. Values are often lost with fishmongers but try to occupy a market niche of fresh food of within larger seafood supply chains but predicated in present-day proximity by restoring relational bonds that already existed in the market-base principles. Mediterranean that are deeply rooted in a culture of fishing and fish. As an example of what is ongoing in the Mediterranean and other CSFs can meet the progressively increasing great consumer segment that parts of Europe, our analysis of the wide spectrum of possibilities of is looking to meet their own aspirations, desires and commitments seafood marketing systems emerging in Catalonia and Balearic Islands through food as a meaningful focal point. shows how fishery governance systems have to take into account all the At the same time, CSFs can establish themselves as an opportunity for socioeconomic and ecologic cycle involving the food system to be fishers to be more economically resilient while at the same time effective. enhancing the ecosystem’s health by boosting fish target diversification The seafood value chains may produce impacts on ecosystems [49], [30], as is being promoted through the alternative food networks in inasmuch consumers’ elections are drivers of fishing strategies [48], as Tuscany, the Solidarity Purchase Groups, GAS (Gruppi di Acquisto Sol­ buyers exerting pressures on product requirements (quality, price, idale) [21]. Diversification implies consumer diversity or addressing environment conservation, health, tradition). Fisheries policy and different consumer segments, which could help counter the economic management have focused on commercial fish stocks, production, and and ecologic traps of specialization. Several scholars warn of the pos­ efficiency undermining ecological and social aims. As already stated by sibility of falling into the economic attractiveness of specialization, some authors, considering fisheries and seafood as part of food system targeting highly valued and demanded species, which can reproduce the [50,51] instead of just commodity [50] or be seen as natural resources same problems of conventional value chains. That is, aligning the fishing [51] would be an important step to effect change in that direction. effort with demand, impinging the overexploitation and, in turn, Seafood systems, which are complex and flexible, have to be embedded boosting complex dependency relations by, for example, producing a in adaptive co-management plans. Incorporation of food systems into fisher co-dependence to meet and sustain the market demand [29,30, the fisheries governance, specifically co-management systems, would 45–47]. imply to give more visibility to the fishing activity, making the fishing In our study, products in line with specialization are the object of co- gears and production systems, impacts and sustainable fishing practices management strategies, such as in the sand eel and deep-water shrimp known. Consumers usually have little information about production fisheries, also offered through CSF or online marketplace platforms of systems, for instance, fishing gears and their impacts of both the the fisheries association that balances conservation goals with economic small-scale fishing and the mid-size vessels (trawlers and purse seiners). performance to uncover an alternative outlet therefore integrating into Sustainability is usually certified through trust relationships estab­ the landscape of diversification of the distribution channels. The certi­ lished in direct marketing arrangements that connect producers with fication schemes linking the products with the tradition and local culture consumers, although this does not certify that the product is really of a fishing community and fishing port help build maritime clusters of sustainable or socially fair supporting fishers’ livelihoods (owner and 9 S. Gómez and F. Maynou Marine Policy 127 (2021) 104432 crew). The equitable work relations and fair workers’ incomes (e.g., Declaration of interest statement crew, seafood processors) are usually not incorporated as part of sus­ tainable fishing plans nor embodied by means of certification schemes in The authors declare no conflicts of interest. seafood products consumers purchase. Appendix A. Supporting information 5. Conclusions Supplementary data associated with this article can be found in the From our study, we highlight that the specificities of the seafood online version at doi:10.1016/j.marpol.2021.104432. market systems and governance institutions require specific attention to be able to place these emerging alternative initiatives, which do not References follow single structures nor are they promoted by the same entities. Although the line that distinguishes one type of sale from another is very [1] J.J. Pascual-Fernandez, C. Pita, H. Josupeit, A. Said, J. 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