CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS published: 31 March 2021 doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.637304 The Analysis of Interpersonal Communication in Sport From Mixed Methods Strategy: The Integration of Qualitative-Quantitative Elements Using Systematic Observation Conrad Izquierdo 1* and M. Teresa Anguera 2* 1 Faculty of Psychology, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain, 2 Faculty of Psychology, Institute of Neurosciences, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain Edited by: Miguel-Angel Gomez-Ruano, Polytechnic University of The objective to which this manuscript is oriented to is focused on the analysis of Madrid, Spain interpersonal communication in sport. The multimodal essence of human nature adopts Reviewed by: special characteristics in individual and team sports, given the roles that athletes Laszlo Hunyadi, University of Debrecen, Hungary adopt in different circumstances, depending on the contingencies that characterize Maria Jose Martinez-Patiño, each competition or each training session. The mixed methods framework allows us University of Vigo, Spain to advance in the ways of integration between qualitative and quantitative elements, *Correspondence: taking advantage of the proven possibilities of systematic observation, which we Conrad Izquierdo conrad.izquierdo@uab.cat can consider mixed method in itself, and which provides rigor and flexibility in the M. Teresa Anguera study of the communicative flow in sport. In any sport, the procedure followed by tanguera@ub.edu systematic observation may require direct observation, which is characterized by its Specialty section: high perceptiveness, or indirect observation, when it comes to verbal behavior or This article was submitted to documentary material. In all cases, the procedure is structured in three macro-stages: Movement Science and Sport Psychology, QUAL-QUAN-QUAL. In this work we start from a conceptual positioning about a section of the journal interpersonal communication, to later show the sequential gear in sports about obtaining Frontiers in Psychology qualitative data, its transformation into other types of data that are still qualitative but Received: 08 December 2020 have been structured, analyze them quantitatively, and return to a qualitative stage Accepted: 01 March 2021 Published: 31 March 2021 where the interpretation of the results is possible. This process of quantitizing constitutes Citation: the cornerstone that gives shape and structure to any research on interpersonal Izquierdo C and Anguera MT (2021) communication in sport that combines the fine nuances of qualitative data (a motor The Analysis of Interpersonal Communication in Sport From Mixed action, a gesture, an exclamation,...) with the power of robust quantitative data Methods Strategy: The Integration of analysis suitable for the treatment of organized qualitative data, which will provide Qualitative-Quantitative Elements qualitative feed-back. Using Systematic Observation. Front. Psychol. 12:637304. Keywords: sport communication, interpersonal systems, mixed methods, quantitizing, systematic observation, doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.637304 analysis interaction, social contexts Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 1 March 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 637304 Izquierdo and Anguera Systematic Observation in Sport Communication INTRODUCTION is extremely interesting, in order to know and evaluate the formation of these relationships, communicative styles, role The conceptual and empirical scope of communication in sport played by messages, promotion of coach-athlete relationships, is immense and undoubtedly polyhedral, and the unfolding of etc. In this sense, the influence that coaches generate on athletes is facets that are derived ranges from interpersonal communication undoubted. Athletes must not only perform, but also understand to health, through humanistic, organizational and media and reflect on what the coach tells them (Turman, 2003). Despite approaches, until reaching the 22 sub-disciplines that Billings the situation of “power”/power imbalance between athletes and (2017) highlights, and that are grouped into four blocks: (1) coaches, the interaction is markedly interpersonal in nature, and how a certain subdiscipline of communication relates to sport, to a large extent it tests coaches to gain complicity, persuade (2) specify the theories based on communication relevant to athletes, build a sincere relationship, and create a positive sport within the subdiscipline (3) search for jobs published that environment (Turman, 2017). This process is undoubtedly show the connection between sport and the subdiscipline of related to the prosociality between coaches and athletes (Turman communication, and (4) articulate possible directions for future and Schrodt, 2004). Likewise, the communicative style has a research within the framework of sport and the subdiscipline notable impact, and it is known from studies carried out (Turman of communication. and Schrodt, 2004) that the autocratic style of coaches negatively To this we must superimpose the methodological plan, correlates with the affection that athletes show to sport, to their undoubtedly rich, which is fundamental in its analysis. In this colleagues, and to the coach himself. context of diverse positions and dispositions that characterize The interaction between coaches and athletes takes place the research agenda in communication and sport, the challenge in very different contexts (informal sessions, preparation for of investigating interpersonal communication, incorporating competitions, half-times, conversations in the locker room, etc.), traditional issues (vs. media) of social and organizational which provides a wide range of communication possibilities psychology is considered by Wenner (2015), as an outstanding and different types of messages (Turman, 2017) whose study is provision to be developed under the name of Communication of great importance to delve into the analysis of interpersonal Studies and Sport. The objective of Wenner (2015) consists relationships between them. in highlighting the rich potential for an interdisciplinary fit From a conceptual perspective, according to Berger and between communication and sport, addressing new perspectives Calabrese (1975) it is interesting to highlight the influence offered by interpersonal, group, and organizational interaction in of the theoretical frameworks of social psychology and the sports contexts. convenience of working with theoretical proposals more focused Communication and the relationships it generates are central on interpersonal communication processes. The necessary in managing the perceptions of the various actors who have an coexistence between the adopted theory and the implemented active part in sport (athletes, coaches, managers, family members, methodology leads us to point out that we have suitable doctors, physiotherapists, journalists, etc.) and taking into theoretical frameworks. The construction of the relationship account the interrelation with one of the fundamental aspects, with the acquaintance (Newcomb, 1953), the aspects related which is performance (Cunningham et al., 2018). According to to the perception of the person (Kaplan and Anderson, 1973) Kassing and Matthews (2017), athletes are motivated by two-way and the bases proposed by Berger and Calabrese (1975) on the communication, which is sometimes informal, and the results reduction of the uncertainty in the development of interpersonal obtained show that their motivation is greater when the coaches communication are proposals that fit with the systematic give them support and take them into account. This would lead observation of the relationships that sport favors. Consider, for us to an interesting discursive perspective (Fairhurst and Putnam, example, the communicative exchanges between athletes, around 2004), referring to daily speech and the interactive network the behavior of the coach or with other social agents. developed, including, of course, online communications. These, Likewise, this conceptual framework contemplates different according to Riva (2002), consider an intergame from everyday levels of analysis, and in the same way that Knapp et al. (1973) interactions to reaching different communication levels, and studied the types of non-verbal behavior that occur in each phase depending on the organizational structures in which it is of a communicative exchange, we can contemplate a strategy that involved, considering, at the same time, that these constitute allows a structured procedure, both bottom up (inductive path) “a process constructed and enacted by its individual members” and top down (deductive path). Both ways must be possible in the (Fielding-Lloyd and Meán, 2011, p. 346). analysis of interpersonal communication structured as a problem Sport is characterized by generating a complex multi-level of systematic observation. network where competition, support, conflict resolution, and the The conceptual axes indicated and the foundations of the creation of new contacts are continuously converged, which, in development theory of interpersonal communication (Berger short, make up very diverse interpersonal relationships. In fact, and Calabrese, 1975), allow us to connect with the reality sport itself, according to Turman (2017) can be considered as an of interpersonal communication in sport, considering the interpersonal relationship, since it allows mediating relationships possibilities that systematic observation offers, and smoothing between athletes, coaches, families (in the case of children who out the difficulties posed by the traditional cracking between the practice it), etc. radical qualitative vs. quantitative options, already denounced by The connection between the conceptual framework of Reichardt and Cook (1986), among many other authors, apart interpersonal communication and research in the field of sport from other issues that are being developed in recent years, such Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 2 March 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 637304 Izquierdo and Anguera Systematic Observation in Sport Communication as the compensation for the deficit of perceptivity in indirect or point of departure was to give visibility and awareness of observation (Anguera et al., 2018b; Anguera, in press, 2020). a methodological practice, little taken into account when it Over four decades (1960-2000), most empirical studies carried comes to pointing out its background (Maxwell, 2016), based out in all the sub-fields of the Social Sciences, and also, on the combined use of quantitative and qualitative data with specifically, in interpersonal communication in sport, had been independence of the positivist or interpretative position held by proposed following a qualitative or quantitative methodological researchers (Creswell and Plano Clark, 2011). orientation. This position was consolidated by each of the two Without denying or minimizing the urgent need to promote options, which were in open confrontation, and radicalized over methodological training in mixed methods (Creswell and Plano time. It was precisely from the beginning of the century and the Clark, 2011; Mertens et al., 2016) that is up to the new millennium, around the year 2000, with variations according to challenges of social research and behavior, the purpose of this the countries that mixed methods began to be put into practice. It work is precisely to show that systematic observation can initially implied a complementarity between the two perspectives structure the complexity of the empirical-analytical situation of (qualitative and quantitative), to finally evolve to an integration communicative interaction in dyads and small groups (Anguera between qualitative and quantitative elements. and Izquierdo, 2006; Sánchez-Algarra and Anguera, 2013), not only complying with the characteristics of the Mixed Methods methodology (Bazeley, 2018), that require evidence on the INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION integration of qualitative and quantitative elements, but also FROM MIXED METHODS making its own and specific contribution, precisely because, in itself, it constitutes a mixed method (Anguera and Hernández- In line with pragmatic thinking (Rorty, 1982), in the field Mendo, 2016, 2019; Anguera et al., 2017a), throughout its QUAL- of interpersonal communication there is no approach to QUAN-QUAL macro stages. the production and use of knowledge based on the conflict If our way of synthesizing the position of scientists, affiliated between methodological perspectives. Smith and Wilson (2010) with the fields of interpersonal communication or mixed have summarized the main epistemological and ontological methods, is considered correct, we can fully incorporate these assumptions that scholars of interpersonal communication take two independent but related considerations about the coexistence into account when working under the scientific umbrella of post- of different methodological perspectives: first, (i) the good positivism also known as scientific realism (Pavitt, 1999), and practice of researchers committed to qualitative or quantitative that it is perfectly applicable to the field of sport. We refer methodology does not require them to choose between a certain to the dominant perspective (not the only one) of researchers line of methods and techniques (Creswell and Plano Clark, 2011; in interpersonal communication as the empirical or post- Levine, 2011) and, secondly, (ii) the criterion of flexibility and positivist orientation based on a body of assumptions aimed methodological adaptation takes precedence over time to make at promoting: (a) the moderate position in the confrontation decisions in favor of a methodological approach that qualitatively between empiricism and positivism; (b) the recognition of the and quantitatively structures the complexity of the object of study role played by the opinions of the observer and the predictability (Anguera et al., 2018a). of people’s actions; (c) the distinction between causal logic and According to these two statements, first of all, we address functional logic of theories; (d) the incorporation of the social a brief general overview on the programmatic proposal of and historical-cultural context; (e) the theoretical consideration the MM methodology promoted by the MMIRA (Mixed of the sense of control that the social actor has over his life. Methods International Research Association), whose most The refusal to take extreme positions on the side of empiricism relevant distinctive note is the integration of elements: data, or positivism and the acceptance that there is no single way results, procedures,..., qualitative and quantitative (Mertens et al., of investigating because different questions require different 2016). The next step has to do with the options of observing, answers are two features that help to reduce tension and avoid measuring and evaluating human communication processes. In the rejection of the study of the more complex qualitative aspects line with our interests, the selected methodological perspective of a socio-cultural nature that are part of the communicative is the analysis of the interaction (Poole and McPhee, 1985; interaction. What, then, is the position on the quantitative- Tardy, 1988; Brauner et al., 2018) focused on the studies that qualitative dichotomy? Levine (2011) pointed out that the useful formalize and compute the nominal data that inform about the and valuable of both methodologies in the field of social sciences, dynamics of the current interpersonal communication observed and, therefore, in sport, is to raise a reasonable doubt about in sport. Finally, the observation process linked to the analysis the veracity of the controversy between methodologies, holding of the interaction is deepened, adapted and extended to new that “. . . doing both qualitative and quantitative research well approaches on how to obtain a large quantity of qualitative may be too ambitious for many mere mortals” (p. 28). Somehow data and be able to manage, quantify and analyze ensuring the we understand that in interpersonal communication in sport rigor of the entire process. Specifically, the methodological guide the approach of Mixed Methods (from now on MM) is not for systematic observation is synthesized (Anguera and Blanco- encouraged by the difficulty of training researchers in both Villaseñor, 2001; Portell et al., 2015a,b; Anguera et al., 2018b) paradigms (Anguera et al., 2017b, 2021a). pointing out the strengths of the observational methodology On the other hand, MM is a transdisciplinary methodological and the dispositions that are taken to deal solvency with the movement in which engaged researchers participate with social weaknesses associated to the non-existence of measurement and behavioral studies (Creswell, 2016). The primary message instruments or standard qualifiers, and the potential biases Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 3 March 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 637304 Izquierdo and Anguera Systematic Observation in Sport Communication attributable to the behavior of the observer-coder. We conclude considerations (Mertens et al., 2016). In other words, the by summarizing the permeability and robustness attributes of the object of study, which is interpersonal communication in sports, systematic observation considered as a suitable and good strategy determines the methodology, and the methodology structures the of full integration in MMR. object of study. INTEGRATION IN MIXED METHODS SYSTEMATIC OBSERVATION AND RESEARCH: MULTI-PARADIGMATIC INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION IN MATRIX SPORT The concern for epistemic and social quality also defines Communication in sports, an area that deserves full attention the fundamental axes that move the discourse of the as an essential component of the fabric of inter and intra MM methodological perspective (Mertens et al., 2016): (i) organizational relationships (Pedersen et al., 2020), includes the requirement of rigor in the design of interpersonal two basic questions: what interlocutors do and say and how communication studies in sport applied to a wide variety of they interdependently weave domithe communications that keep problems detected or expressed in the sport communities, and them engaged in conversational activity until their closure. (ii) the scientific requirement to be able to share the validity of With the term “interaction analysis” we are referring to a the new knowledge obtained, which involves reproducing results grouping (cluster) of methods, techniques and perspectives of the research and transferring them to different contexts in the that have in common the identification, in their interactive field of sports. context, of sequences, patterns, uses of language, and so To this day, the MM community (Creswell, 2016; Mertens on, from the obtaining of preferably observational data. et al., 2016) recognizes having identified the main research Regarding the constellation of key terms that can guide the designs, the variants used and their application procedures. realization of research problems, Figure 2 lists five interpersonal Hence, we can verify the presence of solvent works in some areas, communication processes that can be structured as systematic and specifically in sport. However, the increase in examples of observation problems in the field of communication and validated designs with postmodern and emancipatory sensitivity sport studies. is lacking (Creswell and Plano Clark, 2011). It follows, therefore, The conversational encounter between athletes and coaches, that the bulk of the MM scientific production moves in the more between athletes, between athletes and their families, between pragmatic plane of the combination-integration of quantitative athletes and other social agents, etc., involves a visible and/or and qualitative data (Johnson and Onwuegbuzie, 2004; Teddlie audible interaction, direct, either face-to-face or mediated, or and Tashakkori, 2012; Bazeley, 2018). In addition, the problem indirect if the exchange is deferred (Poyatos, 1983). To refer to the of the evaluation of MM quality is a core issue (Fàbregues and interpersonal communicative encounter properly we adopt the Molina-Azorín, 2017). expression “face-to-face interaction,” highlighting the idea that The sustained effort to define the MM methodology in the behavior manifested in both poles of the interaction can be accordance with the issues that the most influential voices are understood as a dimension (and potential subdimensions) that raising at different moments of its trajectory has led (Johnson admits different degrees of activity according to the interpersonal et al., 2007) to point out some currently shared reference points situation that is studied from the individual reading of a book by the members of the MMIRA. to daily formal and informal conversations through exchanges MM research, committed to social reality, seeks to enhance the of written messages or voice notes (Nunes, 2020; Nunes et al. in quality standards of scientific research through the proposal of review). new evaluation designs (Greene et al., 1989; Greene, 2006, 2007) We will consider the methods of analysis of the interpersonal that combine different methodologies. The multi-paradigmatic communication supporting an objective-negotiated vision of dialogue feeds mainly (Shannon-Baker, 2016) of the pragmatic reality (not all representations of reality are equally acceptable) mentality of dialectical pluralism, which respects the variety of that structures the quantitative methodology committed to the points of view about the world and the ways of knowing reality social meaning and the meticulous control of the inference (Onwuegbuzie and Frels, 2013), and critical realism (Maxwell (Kendon, 1990; Bavelas et al., 2002; Levine, 2011; Krippendorff, and Mittapalli, 2010), which puts the accent on the partiality 2013). of knowledge, the importance of context, and on the influence Gathering the elements that we have just enumerated, we of emotions, beliefs and values given that they are also part of understand as interpersonal communication analysis (Bakeman this reality. and Gottman, 1997; Keyton, 2018) the systematic observation The MM integration emphasizes the central role of the study focused on the dynamic process of exchanges of research questions (Figure 1) when considering that they are interdependent behaviors (or actions) between two or more present in all the related phases of the methodological process people with the purpose of classifying them, identifying their and that the definition of the research problem through functions in the discourse or its structures (sequences, patterns, the questions that are posed is, in turn, directly related to repetitive cycles,...), including the context in which the verbal the central and guiding components of a rigorous scientific and non-verbal interaction is developed: interpersonal conflicts, study: purposes, theories and beliefs, methods and validity classroom, marriages, family, psychotherapy, work meetings, etc. Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 4 March 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 637304 Izquierdo and Anguera Systematic Observation in Sport Communication FIGURE 1 | Reciprocal relationship between Research Questions and Methodological Process. The necessary rigor in the process of obtaining observational data requires being able to verify its reliability in two different planes: on the one hand, the coders have to agree and be consistent in the procedure to be followed (unitizing reliability) and, on the other hand, the encoders will also have to show agreement in the classification given to the units (classificatory reliability). Reliability understood as agreement between observers is commonly tested with Cohen’s kappa statistic (Cohen, 1960) or other widely known and used coefficients -in addition to those collected in the HOISAN free program (Hernández-Mendo et al., 2012). Data quality can be compromised by omission and commission biases introduced in the individual use of the categories. It is advised (Bakeman and Gottman, FIGURE 2 | Main keywords for interaction analysis through systematic 1997) to calculate agreement coefficients for each individual observation. category in addition to obtaining the overall coefficient of the instrument used. In terms of validity (Rogers and Millar, 1982; Tardy, 1988), we must take into account what the researcher wants to know about the interaction under study: (i) verify a theory Obtaining observational data involves segmenting the stream with the observational data obtained without including the of interpersonal communication behavior into units, classifying interpretations of the participants (observer-privileged or them according to a set of discrete categories and recording experienced mode); (ii) use a coding system to represent the the order or sequence in which the behaviors occur. The shared meanings of interpersonal communication between instrument of observation is conceived as a system for members of a culture (generalized subject-privileged or channeling information, which the researcher must adapt, if experiencing mode); (iii) identify the idiosyncratic meaning of he borrows it, or build it ad hoc according to the research the interaction that people who share a particular relationship problem addressed. have (restricted subject-privileged or experiencer mode). Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 5 March 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 637304 Izquierdo and Anguera Systematic Observation in Sport Communication These three modes of observation require different types is produced thanks to the matrix of codes constructed from the of evidence. sequence of co-occurrences (Figures 3, 4). The transformation of the qualitative record register is possible both in direct observation (Sánchez-Algarra and QUAL-QUAN-QUAL INTEGRATION Anguera, 2013) and indirect observation (Anguera et al., 2018b), APPLYING SYSTEMATIC OBSERVATION and both are possible in interpersonal communication in sport. METHODS In many fields of interpersonal communication application, such as in clinical psychology (Roustan, 2010; Roustan et al., The processes of systematic observation that make up the 2013; Anguera, 2017; Arias-Pujol and Anguera, 2017, 2020; analysis of interpersonal communication have been deepened Del Giacco et al., 2019, 2020; Anguera, in press, 2020), or in and enriched in the last 50 years, providing a neo-positivist educational psychology (Tronchoni et al., 2018; Belza et al., vision sensitive to the social burden of behavioral events 2019a,b; Escolano-Pérez et al., 2019; Sagastui et al., 2020), or in while proposing methodological controls, incorporating new family psychology (Cuervo, 2014), the focus on verbal, or vocal, technologies, developing powerful analysis techniques, and or both behavior is becoming more interesting, so that one more theorizes and protocols the procedure of observation as a step of the procedure is the transformation of the registry in a methodological option in the strict sense, and this fit is optimal code matrix. in the field of sport. In direct observation (Anguera, 2017), the modus operandi Creswell and Plano Clark (2011, p. 7) affirmed: “There are is already established, and for some years quantitative analysis three ways in which mixing occurs: merging or converging the of qualitative data has been carried out (mainly lag sequential two datasets by actually bringing them together, connecting the analysis, polar coordinate analysis of polar, detection of T- two datasets by having one build on the other, or embedding Patterns) (Anguera et al., 2021b) which have been systematized one dataset within the other so that one type of data provides according to the code matrix format, where the columns a supportive role for the other dataset” (highlight is done by correspond to the dimensions or sub-dimensions of the us). This appointment has a fundamental relevance, which is observation instrument developed ad hoc, and the rows still increasing because it has been backed by practically all the correspond to each of the observation units. The connecting is relevant MM researchers. operating, through the transformation of the qualitative data that Indeed, of the three forms of integration that schematize, make up the record. It is an indisputable integration, given that merging is usually used when initially or at successive moments we operate quantitatively on data that is textual, which we have of time we have qualitative and quantitative information; only organized, and are essential when we start with individual connecting when the data is processed, among the many cases and we are interested in accessing a hypothetical multiple possibilities available; and embedding when a minority data type case. It does not follow the proposals of Sandelowski et al. (2009), is nested in data of a different nature, and predominantly. but we attest to its effectiveness, which we have repeatedly tested. The process of systematic observation is perfectly located in In indirect observation, obviously, greater methodological the connecting, given that the scientific procedure that supports it controls are required, in order to avoid the risk of inference, corresponds to the three major stages QUAL-QUAN-QUAL, and but the path to follow is also configured (Anguera et al., 2018b; between the first two is where quantitizing is located, so much Anguera, in press, 2020). The most complex issues are in the studied today (Anguera et al., 2020). construction of the indirect observation ad hoc instrument, and In the first place, and in the field of interpersonal in the application of the text segmentation criterion in units. communication, we graphically show the three major stages in In indirect observation we intend the “liquefying” of the text the procedure of systematic observation, which is a scientific (resulting from the transcription of the communicative flow), procedure, but with some peculiarities that characterize it which although it can be considered arduous depending on the (Figure 3). theoretical frame of reference, and the contextual environment in We are particularly interested in highlighting the quantitizing which it is carried out, offers great methodological possibilities, focus, between the QUAL and QUAN stages, about which much with a certainly innovative cutting, as is the use of codes has been written in recent years. Prestigious mixed methods that have been obtained in the registry -even in programs of authors have referred conceptually, and also technically, to indirect observation (Anguera, in press, 2020). For example, if quantification (Creswell et al., 2003) and to everything that the ATLAS.ti program has been used, all the codes that appear involves the transformation of data (Sandelowski et al., 2009). in the window on the right are arranged in the form of a code But the great difference with observational methodology (Portell matrix, so that the beginning of each row corresponds to the et al., 2015a,b), in favor of this, is that the quantification is beginning of the text unit. In the studies carried out, we know more robust, since it is not only based on the counting of that the quantitizing has been able to be carried out without behavior occurrences, that is, in the frequency, but in the other problem from the text, and then applying a T-Patterns technique primary parameters (Bakeman, 1978; Sackett, 1987; Bakeman (Magnusson et al., 2015; Anguera et al., 2018a; Casarrubea et al., and Gottman, 1997; Anguera and Blanco-Villaseñor, 2001; 2018) or applying sequential analysis of delays and analysis of Bakeman and Quera, 2011) of order and duration, which present polar coordinates (García-Fariña et al., 2018). a progressive order of inclusion. This quantitizing is situated To continue to guarantee scientific accountability, the QUAL- between the first qualitative and quantitative macro-stages, and QUAN-QUAL conversion must engage and shape the process Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 6 March 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 637304 Izquierdo and Anguera Systematic Observation in Sport Communication FIGURE 3 | Macro steps of systematic observation process: QUAL-QUAN-QUAL. FIGURE 4 | Integrating data, Quantitizing, and analysis in systematic observation: Steps (row 1), Control process (row 2), and Accountability (row 3). of inferring, discussing and concluding the interpretation of context, Bavelas et al., 2002, p. 110) on the results obtained results. The interpretation must be qualitative and based on the through robust quantitative analysis of the data sequences communicative acts and their consequences (how the participants recorded in the studies of direct or indirect observation of do social actions and what for. . . in its immediate communicative interpersonal communication in sport. Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 7 March 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 637304 Izquierdo and Anguera Systematic Observation in Sport Communication In effect, the interpretation of communicative behavior the four families of concurrent, sequential, conversion, and (Poyatos, 1983; Bavelas and Chovil, 2000) is sustained by fully integrated designs, up to the recent reflection on the assuming the intentional and inferential character of social integration of the data and the results obtained with the MM interaction in the communicative context of exchanges methodology (Maxwell, 2013, among other contributions). We (Bateson, 1972). Other fundamental aspects of interpersonal have incorporated as a reference for the MM framework the communication are variability, cohesion, and coherence with the reflection that argues the complete integration of qualitative and context (interview, personal papers, reports, rating scales, etc.). quantitative elements. We have approached the exhibition taking On the other hand, the micro-analytical record of visible and as a starting point the consideration that systematic observation audible communicative interpersonal behavior (stages 1 and 2 of is a positive scientific methodology in the strict sense, with the quantitizing process) that includes the use of highly elaborate an application protocol that covers all the components of the notational systems (Anguera and Izquierdo, 2006; Izquierdo scientific method, regulates the conduct of the methodological and Anguera, 2018), makes it possible to identify the linguistic process and promotes commitment to quality controls and good resources of the interlocutors when they have a common or research practice. specialized exchange. For example, the linguistic movement The attribute of permeability is part of the process that we markers that correspond to fleeting comments produced from have just defined and that crystallizes in a deep elaboration of the listener position, the turn and turn change markers, the units of observation, recording and interpretation. Without expressive communicative acts, symbolic gestures performed this formalizing step of the units, the quantitization would lose with the body, socio-affective adjectives, etc. its operative force as a connecting element between the macro- Regarding the interpretation of the results that integrate stages of the systematic observation process. From a systemic the quantitative and qualitative analysis within the scientific point of view, the need for this synergistic connection emerges community in the field of sport, the similarities and disparities as a result of the reallocation of permeable boundaries between that other authors have obtained should be commented on, the qualitative and quantitative elements (Sánchez-Algarra and making a substantive and methodological self-criticism of the Anguera, 2013; Anguera et al., 2017b, 2018b). work carried out, and suggesting those elements that may lead We are convinced that our work will allow interpersonal to a continuation of the investigation. communication scholars in sport and MM researchers to We understand the power of the process of the three consider the possibilities and rigor offered by the observational QUAL-QUAN-QUAL macro-stages, summarized in Figure 4, methodology conceived as an integrated QUAL-QUAN-QUAL that fortify the mixed methods approach. Namely, the initially process applied to the analysis of communicative interaction in qualitative information obtained in the record, which is a wide range of sports situations. extremely rich for the intended purpose, allows a wide range of quantitative and qualitative analysis-interpretation, AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS integrating both. All authors listed have made a substantial, direct and intellectual CONCLUSION contribution to the work, and approved it for publication. In this work we have set out to study interpersonal FUNDING communication in sport, taking advantage of the wide opportunities offered by systematic observation, as a scientific The authors gratefully acknowledged the support of the procedure that guarantees objectivity and rigor in the various Spanish government subproject Integration ways between stages of this procedure. For its materialization, we have qualitative and quantitative data, multiple case development, focused on the systemic purpose of integrating qualitative and and synthesis review as main axis for an innovative future quantitative data forming transparent, rigorous and committed in physical activity and sports research (PGC2018-098742- research designs with knowledge (exploratory and explanatory) B-C31) (2019-2021) (Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y and decision making (based on formal evaluations). The Universidades/Agencia Estatal de Investigación/Fondo Europeo complexity of the interpersonal communication situations of de Desarrollo Regional), that is part of the coordinated daily life in different sports agents (athletes, coaches, families, project New approach of research in physical activity and managers, physiotherapists, journalists, etc.) and the important sport from mixed methods perspective (NARPAS_MM) weight arried by the necessary incorporation of different data (SPGC201800X098742CV0). In addition, authors thank the sources and analysis techniques, has led researchers in mixed support of the Generalitat de Catalunya Research Group, GRUP methods to propose successive approaches to link the different DE RECERCA I INNOVACIÓ EN DISSENYS (GRID). methods included in the MM designs, from the distinction Tecnología i aplicació multimedia i digital als dissenys between component designs and integrated designs, through observacionals (2017 SGR 1405). 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Sci. 56, 774–788. doi: 10.1177/0002764211433795 Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 10 March 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 637304 Izquierdo and Anguera Systematic Observation in Sport Communication Tronchoni, H., Izquierdo, C., and Anguera, M.T. (2018). Interacción Wenner, L.A. (2015). Communication and sport, where art participativa en las clases magistrales: fundamentación y construcción thou? epistemological reflections on the moment and field(s) de un instrumento de observación [Participatory Interaction in Lectures: of play. Commun. Sport 3, 247–260. doi: 10.1177/216747951 Theoretical Framework and Construction of an Observation Instrument]. 55847 Publicaciones. Facultad de Educación y Humanidades del Campus de Melilla, 48, 81–108. doi: 10.30827/publicaciones.v48i1.7331 Conflict of Interest: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the Turman, P.D. (2003). Athletic coaching from an instructional communication absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a perspective: the influence of coach experience on high school wrestlers’ potential conflict of interest. preferences and perceptions on coaching behaviors across a season. Commun. Educ. 52, 73–86. doi: 10.1080/03634520302465 Copyright © 2021 Izquierdo and Anguera. This is an open-access article distributed Turman, P.D. (2017). “Sport as interpersonal communication,” in Defining Sport under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The Communication, ed A. C. Billings (New York, NY: Routledge), 165–177. use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the Turman, P.D., and Schrodt, P. (2004). New avenues for instructional original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original communication research: relationships among coaches’ leadership behavior publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. and athletes’ affective learning. Commun. Res. Report 21, 130–143. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these doi: 10.1080/08824090409359975 terms. Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 11 March 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 637304