Journal of Environmental Management 291 (2021) 112728 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Journal of Environmental Management journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jenvman Research article Balancing ecology, economy and culture in fisheries policy: Participatory research in the Western Mediterranean demersal fisheries management plan Sílvia Gómez a, *, Francesc Maynou b a Dep. Social and Cultural Anthropology, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Building B-Campus UAB, 08193, Cerdanyola del Vallès, Bellaterra, Spain b Institut de Ciències del Mar, CSIC, Psg, Marítim de la Barceloneta 37-49, 08003, Barcelona, Spain A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T Keywords: Fishing communities in the Mediterranean Sea face challenges in dealing with Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) Participatory research ecosystem-based management measures aimed at reducing fishing effort and implementing partial closures of Common fisheries policy fisheries. The Participatory Action Research method is used here as a “pilot experience” to gather reactions from Demersal fisheries fishers, scientists and fisheries managers to the Western Mediterranean Multi-Annual Demersal Fisheries Plan Cultural heritage (WM MAP) by identifying needs and concerns, but also alternatives to maintain the viability of the fishery. The Marketing systems Mediterranean sea data gathering process consisted on a structured questionnaire administered during a workshop to 40 stake­ Stakeholder engagement holders involved in Spanish fisheries in the Mediterranean, followed by an open discussion session. The results show that fishers disagree with the new regulations, which they perceive as yet another layer of restrictive regulations for an industry that faces major challenges and currently has low profitability, whereas scientists tended to agree more with the WM MAP than the administration or the fishers. Nevertheless, all stakeholders agree that the values of the cultural heritage of fisheries and the exploration of alternative marketing systems should balance the productivity-based approach to fisheries policies followed so far, that have shown signs of failure. According to stakeholder perceptions, this would improve the economic and social viability of fisheries, as well as highlight the value of fishing activity and its social prestige. Integrating the value of cultural heritage and post-production processes into the CFP would improve stakeholder involvement in fisheries policies. Through participatory research methods the ecosystem-based management approach could be embedded in a community-based approach, integrating its social actors in a proactive attitude and considering fisheries as a human activity socially and culturally rooted in the environment, which would enhance the effective imple­ mentation of fisheries policies. 1. Introduction measures have not helped redress the chronic overexploitation of fish stocks and have resulted in undesirable socioeconomic consequences for The global trend of fisheries overexploitation has resulted in the need the fishing industry, notably a strong reduction of the fleet (30% for EU to reduce fishing effort in all European seas, which has been a central Mediterranean member states, from ca. 51 000 in 1995 to 36 000 in management strategy in the European Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) in 2016, Maynou, 2020) and the destruction of jobs in the fisheries sector. recent decades (EU Reg. 1380/2013) (Penas Lado, 2016). For the The CFP measures to mitigate this structural adaptation have been Mediterranean Sea fisheries, the CFP has implemented, from its incep­ limited to promoting the diversification of fishers’ activities and subsi­ tion, a set of specific technical measures that have not been reviewed dizing the lack of employment opportunities (EC 2369/2002, European along time (Sánchez-Lizaso et al., 2020), primarily based on limiting Fisheries Fund (EFF) 2007–2013, European Maritime Fisheries Fund fishing effort and gear characteristics; but notably, no catch limits are (EMFF) 2014–2021, Council Regulation (EC) No 1198/2006), or simply applied, in contrast with European Atlantic fisheries (EU Reg. to compensate exit from the sector (Pita et al., 2010a). Meanwhile, 1967/2006) (Smith and Garcia, 2014; Vasilakopoulos et al., 2014). The fisheries resources have not recovered (Vasilakopoulous et al., 2014) * Corresponding author. E-mail address: silvia.gomez@uab.cat (S. Gómez). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.112728 Received 9 October 2020; Received in revised form 13 January 2021; Accepted 27 April 2021 Available online 6 May 2021 0301-4797/© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). S. Gómez and F. Maynou Journal of Environmental Management 291 (2021) 112728 confirming the failure of fisheries management (Cardinale et al., 2017; the successful implementation of specific policies (Garza-Gil et al., 2015; Hogg et al., 2013; Smith, 2013; Vielmini et al., 2017), while ignoring the Tafon, 2019; de Vos et al., 2016). However, little attention has been paid problem of fleet overcapacity (Gómez and Maynou, 2020). to the concerns, needs, constraints and new opportunities that policy The new multi-annual plan for demersal fisheries in the western implementation can produce in everyday fisheries activity, which relate Mediterranean (Regulation (EU) 2019/1022 of the European Parliament to socio-cultural, economic and biological issues. By considering social and of the Council of June 20, 2019, OJEU L172/1) introduces the and cultural drivers underlying the economic ones, together with the concept of maximum allowable fishing effort, which consists in a ecological goals, management systems could adjust to the requirements reduction of fishing time available to demersal fleets adjusted to the (economic performance, cultural welfare, job creation, ecosystem con­ available stocks (Sánchez-Lizaso et al., 2020). Despite the shortcomings servation) that different dimensions’ demand, so as to make the imple­ of effort control to avoid overexploitation (Cardinale et al., 2017; Viel­ mentation of management measures more effective. mini et al., 2017), the WM MAP continues to make emphasis on the effort control regime for demersal trawlers, which now will be based on 1.1. The integration of social and cultural aspects in fishery management the total annual number of allowable fishing days per vessel (Bellido et al., 2020; Sánchez-Lizaso et al., 2020). The capping of fishing days is In the framework of the new European ecologically-oriented policy complemented by local seasonal closures or other measures approved for the next years, economic development (understood as “Blue Econ­ during the implementation phase, such as establishing fisheries omy”), the restoration and preservation of marine ecosystem services go restricted areas for European hake nurseries (EU Reg. 2019/1022). The together (EU, 2020). The human dimension is recognized as a compo­ specific implementation details of the WM MAP are left to individual nent of ecosystems that integrates economic, social and cultural factors, member states (for Spain the definite version was published in the which are interdependent with biodiversity (CBD, 1993; Khakzad et al., Official Journal on May 2020: APA/423/2020, https://www.boe.es/eli/ 2015). The elucidation of this complex socio-ecological interplay has es/o/2020/05/18/apa423). The WM MAP is implemented by the fish­ been conceptualized through the ecosystem services (ES) approach. As eries management authorities of the member states, by listing the an integral tool that emerged for socio-ecological assessments in polit­ number of days per year when the vessels of different segments of ical agendas, the concept of ecosystem services relies on ecological demersal fisheries can operate. For operative purposes, the plan divides functions supporting life and lifestyles for human wellbeing by the demersal trawl fleet in two broad segments: vessels operating on providing products, regulating the benefits of ecosystem processes, and coastal mixed fisheries and vessels operating on deep-water crustacean supporting the production of all other ecosystem services (Hirons et al., fisheries. Each fleet segment is in turn divided into four sub-fleets, ac­ 2016; Martin et al., 2016). Unlike provisioning, regulating and sup­ cording to vessel length (6–12 m, 12–18 m, 18–24 m and larger than 24 porting services, intangible and subjective cultural services are m length overall). The objectives of the plan are to align fishing op­ non-measurable (e.g. sense of place, heritage, bequest) flowing from the portunities with biological productivity, based on the biological refer­ human intellectual and spiritual interaction with ecosystems, and it ence point “fishing mortality at maximum sustainable yield” (Fmsy), proves difficult to specify their contribution to meet needs and well­ which should be achieved by 1st Jan. 2025 with a progressive reduction being, and consequently, to integrate them into management (Cabana (up to 40%) of the fishing effort from historical levels (art. 7 of et al., 2020; Cooper et al., 2016; Martin et al., 2016). APA/423/2020). The actual effort reduction will be set each year, based Despite recent advances in developing conceptual frameworks and on the status of the demersal stocks, according to annual assessments new methods to integrate cultural ecosystem services (CES) into policy (art. 13 of APA/423/2020). The objectives aiming to ensure environ­ decision-making (Cabana et al., 2020; Gould et al., 2019), the CES mental sustainability should be consistent with achieving economic, valuation and assessment still remain complex. The complexity is partly social and employment benefits, but they are expected to exacerbate due to its contextual and place meaning (Fish et al., 2016; Maund et al., socioeconomic consequences (reduction of the fleet, incomes and work 2020) bonded to social actors’ experiences, background and character­ salary conditions) endangering the continuity of the fishing industry, istics (Hirons et al., 2016; Maund et al., 2020) that perform activities eroding cultural well-being of communities dependent on fishing that interact with the environment. In an effort to uncover the socio­ (Gómez and Maynou, 2020) and accelerating the loss of potential cultural perspectives from ecosystem services (ES) some approaches ecosystem services for local development. Financial incentives have not propose to distinguish conceptually CES from social and cultural values been sufficient to boost fishers towards labour mobility, at least in (Scholte et al., 2015). Hence, whereas cultural ecosystem services reflect southern Europe, where there are evidences of the weight of family the non-material well-being, sociocultural values reflect both material cultural ties and attachment to the community (Pita et al., 2010a). (e.g. food) and non-material values (e.g. sense of place and cultural The new policy measures aligned with the technical measures have heritage) (Scholte et al., 2015). Therefore, market values and so far focused on the recovery of fish stocks. They are expected to pro­ non-market-values are interconnected in activities such as fishing that duce new socio-economic challenges that fishers perceive as new ten­ we understand as a livelihood that performs an economy rooted in social sions they will have to face, in addition to depleted aquatic marine living institutions and cultural values, interacting in ecological cycles (Gómez resources, global change, pollution, market competition, changing and Maynou, 2020). Therefore, social and cultural aspects resulting consumption patterns, limited institutional capabilities, and inconsis­ from this complex socio-ecological relationship are product of this tence of EU fisheries policies at local scale despite the efforts in the human-nature interaction defined throughout historical processes that regionalizing process of decision-making (CFP, EU Reg. 1983/2013) produce identity and define heritage. Heritage, also refers to material (Raicevich et al., 2018). Alternatives to biologically centered conven­ culture (e.g. fishing gears) that embody the knowledge produced tional management proposals (Berkes, 2003; Gómez and Maynou, 2020) through this locally-established relationship with the environment in point out to a more comprehensive and interdisciplinary deploying fishing decisions (Gómez, 2018). Accordingly, we understand ecosystem-based approach (Garcia et al., 2003), and encompassing heritage as that cultural legacy that may make sense in contemporary human dimensions as a tool to improve the effectivity of management. society to cope with transformation processes (Gómez and Lloret, 2017), Whereas the primary focus has been ecological outcomes and biological but also as “that part of the past that is selected at present for economic, recovery, sociocultural dimensions underlying human-environmental cultural, political or social purposes” (Graham, 2002: 1006). Heritage interactions (from production to consumption) that impact on ecosys­ valuations have been pointed out as opportunities for use, recreation, tems have been little considered in policy making. Scientists stress the and education at the same time that supporting economic coastal need of understanding the contents of management plans by all stake­ development and fostering community engagement in management holders and, conversely, that fisheries managers have a correct under­ (Claesson, 2011). Its integration in management have been suggested standing of stakeholders’ perceptions involved, which is important for under integrative complexity theory that considers the multiple links of 2 S. Gómez and F. Maynou Journal of Environmental Management 291 (2021) 112728 heritage values with economic, social, natural and political dimensions is a methodology based on “phenomenology, ethnography and as drivers for the protection of nature and culture (Khakzad, 2015). case-study method” (Khan and Chovanec, 2010:36) and implies a pro­ Likewise, multifunctionality theoretical framework points out towards cess of participatory research aiming to provide solutions to real-life the unfolding of the diverse functions of fisheries, encompassing the problems (Tolentino et al., 2015). Designed to follow a environmental, economic, social, and cultural goods and services. This community-based approach, the method relies on the co-production of relatively new concept in fisheries, introduced in agricultural EU’s knowledge with an action-oriented component to address certain Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) in the 2000s (Knickel et al., 2004) is problems or improve specific situations based on local interests and tentatively introduced in fisheries and as Urquhart points out (2013) concerns (Trimble and Berkes, 2012) in order to enhance stakeholders’ rarely seen in policy. Multifunctionality is characterized by the jointly well-being. Unlike Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) and Rural Rapid production of multiple commodity and non-commodity outputs (NCO) Appraisal (RRA), PAR is not limited to transfer knowledge from experts when some of these NCOs are “externalities” or “public goods”, the to communities in shared learning between locals and experts in the markets for these goods are poor or lacking and not balanced by har­ exchange process of scientific knowledge and experience knowledge vesting level, therefore jeopardizing social welfare linked to joint pro­ (Chambers, 1994). Participatory Action Research (PAR) requires that all duction of NCOs (e.g. non-provisioning ecosystem services, cultural participants take part in the whole process of research development as heritage) (Mulazzani, 2019). Ensuring the sustainable and environ­ co-researchers from the beginning. In the design of the research, iden­ mentally sound production of public (externalities, NCOs) and private tifying social problems to define the research problems, in data collec­ goods involves an ecological, economic and sociocultural balanced cycle tion (e.g. self-sampling), in the evaluation and consequent actions to be as a whole at the interface of production-distribution-consumption; and taken. taking into account that fishers may provide other goods beyond food As “pilot experience”, and together with the evaluation of fishers’ provisioning (e.g cultural heritage, identity, recreation, employment, perceptions, a commonly used method (Maynou et al., 2018; Pita et al., environmental stewardship) (Mulazzani, 2019). 2010b; Villasante et al., 2016), this paper aims to identify the main Nevertheless, the weakness of bottom-up participatory process limits contentious issues of fisheries management in the Spanish Mediterra­ sociocultural resource valuations and assessments (Claesson, 2011). nean by gathering stakeholders’ concerns as a first stage of PAR. This Fisheries management, at the intersection of ecology, economy, and bottom up procedure seeks to bring together stakeholders and re­ social and cultural principles, need to be approached with methods searchers in the co-creation of knowledge as it offers an alternative capable to integrate this complex fishing cross-sectorial system. Within analysis of reality in an inter-related process where different viewpoints this framework, stakeholder engagement has to be deployed into every and understandings are represented. PAR involves a cyclic rather than a stage of policy design and decision-making. linear process of research that implies the continued contrast between the progress of researches and stakeholders’ viewpoints, moving from 1.2. Participatory Action Research within the framework of new the theory to the practice and vice versa. Researchers and stakeholders perspectives and approaches to fishery management remain partners throughout the research process, ensuring the “true participation” of stakeholders as participants (Khan and Chovanec, Since promoting sustainable use of resource through community 2010). In this way, social concerns and needs can become research participation is a declared goal of the EU 2013 reform of the CFP, new problems for, in a step forward, assess the actions undertaken (working approaches aiming at facilitating the integration of socioeconomic and together to design research and collect data) in order to address the environmental dimensions in decision making have initiated a trend management gaps in providing solutions. Therefore, the method is based towards more involvement of stakeholders (Leite and Pita, 2016). on reflection, data collection, and action aiming to tackle concerns and Nevertheless, up to now, participatory approaches ranging from “func­ to identify new opportunities through the involvement of stakeholders tional participation” to “co-management schemes” and “decision sup­ who, in turn, may take actions to address them together with scientists. port frameworks” are driven by the administration (national or regional) Here we explore the potential of Participatory Action Research, to enhance the governance of specific fisheries and/or adhering to a which consists in identifying the concerns of fishers (and other stake­ predetermined “management model” (Leite and Pita, 2016). Although holders) and collecting perceptions on management measures in order advances have been made by assembling stakeholders (scientific, man­ to provide knowledge on problematic points as well as overall concerns agers, fishers) to create knowledge in providing bio-socioeconomic and needs to facilitate the implementation of effective fisheries man­ advice for decision-making; the integration of sociocultural aspects is agement in the Mediterranean Sea, using as motivating example the still lacking. In short, as Mikalsen and Jentoft highlight (2008: 174) contentious implementation of the recently adopted Western Mediter­ “management decision-making is rather a consultative decision-mak­ ranean Multi-Annual Plan for demersal fisheries. ing” (Mikalsen and Jentoft, 2008) that is limited by the CFP existing structures (Leite and Pita, 2016) and it would require to be institu­ 2. Materials and methods tionalized to produce binding decisions (Macher et al., 2018). The consultative and advice processes providing these participatory schemas A multi-stakeholder workshop was organized in the frame of the XII for decision-making following pre-settled directives (Leite and Pita, annual meeting of the Scientific Forum for Spanish Mediterranean 2016), do not enable to capture properly the stakeholders needs and Fisheries (http://www.pescaforo.net), convened in Almería (Spain) on concerns -more sensitive to sociocultural aspects- that beyond advising, 17–18 September 2019. Two researchers acted as facilitators in the two collecting stakeholder knowledge and perceptions, should be integrated phases of the session. in the implementation of fisheries policies. Unlike Participatory modelling (PM) systems, PAR does not involve a The involvement of rural communities in development and man­ modelling component (using software) and is a bottom-up driven agement policies was the main driver of Participatory Action Research investigation. Despite the PM can reduce unexpected scenarios difficult (PAR) from the 1970s onwards, in Latin America and some countries to avoid through PAR, they tend to produce simplifications of reality from Asia (Fals Borda, 1987). As Trimble and Berkes (2012) assert, the (Voinov and Bousquet, 2010). Nevertheless, one of the PAR goals aims method aims at combining theory, action and participation committed to produce sharing experiences and mutual understanding of stake­ to further the interests of disadvantaged groups. By the end of the 1990s holders’ problems. Also, to identify potential opportunities to, finally, and the 2000s some studies and social intervention programmes started jointly commit to take actions. Hence, the influence that social inter­ to use this methodology in fishing communities and for fisheries man­ action may produce on opinions accounting for the different social roles agement (Conway and Pomeroy, 2006; Hartley and Robertson, 2006; and positions stakeholders occupy in social system, is constitutive of this Wiber et al., 2009; Nurick and Apgar, 2014; Tolentino et al., 2015). PAR participatory process (Tolentino et al., 2015), sensitive to conflicts of 3 S. Gómez and F. Maynou Journal of Environmental Management 291 (2021) 112728 interest and divergent values. As an adaptive method that is flexible to the implementation of the WM MAP. Following Hein et al. (2006) and contextual requirements there is not a unique way to develop it. Hauck et al. (2016), stakeholders are defined as “any group or individual Workshops are the usual format, with variable attendance of stake­ who can affect or is affected by ecosystem services”, in our case the holders (from tens to hundreds) (Graef et al., 2019; Nurick et al., 2014; services concerned are primarily food provisioning in the form of sea­ Tolentino et al., 2015) that in some phase of the workshops may be food products and non-market values such as cultural services. Stake­ grouped (e.g. in discussion groups) by social profile, knowledge and holders of type fisher were represented by owner-operators and crew priorities as control groups to reduce possible contextual bias and/or to members of bottom trawlers from the Fishers’ Organizations of Anda­ ensure that all voices can express themselves. In some cases, face-to-face lusia, Valencia and Catalonia. Scientists included fisheries biologists interviews are also collected in addition of workshop discussion sessions from the Spanish Oceanographic Institute, the University of Alicante and (Trimble and Berkes, 2013). biologists employed at WWF or performing consultancy work. Finally, In this study, a mix-method approach has been adopted combining the fisheries administration in our questionnaires were represented by data gathered through a questionnaire with data obtained from a dis­ fisheries managers from Andalusia, Murcia, Valencia and the Balearic cussion session during the multi-stakeholder workshop, organized in Islands. All the attendants are representative actors involved in EU two phases. In the first phase, the questionnaire, elaborated specifically fisheries policies implementation at local level whether as regional for the workshop, was administered to participants. This consisted of 43 administration, scientists providing data for evaluating the more suit­ close-ended and open questions, with the purpose of obtaining a wide able way, or fishers conducting fisheries practices in compliance with overview of the main fisheries opinions and perceptions while other the measures. questions focused on management measures more recently adopted The basic aspects of the regulation were recalled in the first part of (WM MAP). To elicit the perceptions of stakeholders we followed the the workshop during a ½ h presentation by the authors and staff of the methodological approach of survey research used in applied social Spanish General Secretariat for Fisheries to the conference participants. research (Hilton et al., 2019). The second part of the workshop consisted Afterwards, another ½ h was allocated to participants to individually in a discussion moderated by the facilitators in charge of guiding the complete the questionnaire, which was collected by the authors on the deliberation of the arguments and ensuring the participation of spot. From the 110 persons present in the conference room, 40 returned everyone (110 attendants). Grouping the attendants by smaller discus­ valid questionnaires, which can be considered a high response rate since sion groups was dismissed, as the purpose was to stimulate the discus­ after 20 answered questionnaires new concepts and results tend to sion and to establish a space of dialogue between different stakeholders diminish (Villasante et al., 2016). Finally, the exercise, in a second part, from all fishing communities of Spanish Mediterranean coast, and was followed of 1 h open discussion session. respective managers affected by CFP policies. Furthermore, one of the The questionnaire consists of questions suitable for quantitative and goals of PAR consists in encouraging the group “to establish relation­ qualitative analysis. All questions that were statistically analysed ships with other groups, making up networks and associations that (Suppl. Mat. Annex 1, Tables 1–3) were closed questions, and the level of facilitate change at different levels, and establish solid foundations for agreement of the respondent with the proposition was determined on a sustainable development” (Guzman et al., 2013: 4). Facilitators may act 5-point Likert scale (strong disagreement, disagreement, neutral, as “social bridges” to overcome differences between social actors agreement, strong agreement). For three qualitative questions, the re­ (Léopold et al., 2019). For this purpose, the facilitators start by spondents were asked to rank their preferences and treated statistically. launching one or two general open questions (e.g. How do you see the There were three additional open-ended questions that were examined future of the fisheries? How do you see the state of resources? How do qualitatively. you think fisheries may improve its economic performance?) to boost the discussion. The main goal was to produce a reflection on fisheries 2.2. Analysis development challenges and opportunities. The discussion was open and did not follow a structured script but, like an informal conversation, let 2.2.1. Statistical analyses of the questionnaire the information flow according to the course of dynamic participation The ordered multinomial responses to the quantitative questions processes and insights exchange. It enabled to bring up a storytelling of (from strong disagreement to strong agreement) were subjected to a chi- divergent interests, concerns, and needs which are revealed expressing square test to examine whether the percentage of responses on the 5- feelings, complaints, disappointments, opinions and viewpoints under­ point scale were significantly different from the expected 20 percent mining economic, political but also social and cultural aspects wrapping in each category. In addition, the ordered multinomial responses were up values of fishing. The deliberations and exchange of viewpoints were analysed with ordered logit regression (Adkins and Hill, 2011) to noted in situ and audio-recorded. Interviewees’ data were confidentially examine the effect of the predictors –stakeholder type or age– on the treated. The questionnaires and discussion session analysed in this paper level of agreement to a given question. For each question, a set of four provide the first findings on fishers’ concerns, obstacles and new candidate models (m) were considered: m0: null model (i.e., no pre­ opportunities. dictors), m1: single predictor stakeholder type, m2: single predictor age, and m3: predictor stakeholder and age. Models with interaction of the 2.1. Data collection two terms in m3 were not attempted, due to the limited amount of data (n = 40). The four models were estimated for each quantitative question The questionnaire was organized in three blocks: block A, with using routine polr of the MASS R library (Venables and Ripley, 2013). questions related to the current situation of fisheries in the Mediterra­ The model selection process followed information-based inference and nean Sea, block B, with general questions on fisheries management, and the model with lowest AICc (Akaike Information Criterion with bias block C, with specific questions on the implementation of the Western correction) was chosen for interpretation (Burnham and Anderson, Mediterranean demersal fisheries multiannual management plan (WM 2017). MAP) (EU Reg. 2019/1022). In this section, questions about socioeco­ Additional to the quantitatively analysed questions, the question­ nomic and social and cultural aspects of fishing were introduced. The naire contained three multiple-choice questions (A04, A08, C02) questionnaire was anonymous but contained a header asking about the (Table 4), allowing the respondent to rank their preferences, and three job and position of the person, age and gender. Job and position helped open-ended questions (C07, A4.12, A4.14, A14) were the opinion of the classify the respondents in three categories of stakeholders: fishers, respondent could optionally be written. fisheries administration and fisheries scientists. An English translation of the questionnaire is provided in Supplementary Material 1 (Annex 1). 2.2.2. Analysis of the open discussion We identified the types of stakeholders relevant for the discussion of Deliberations were transcribed and classified by categories in a 4 S. Gómez and F. Maynou Journal of Environmental Management 291 (2021) 112728 Table 1 Table 1 (continued ) Summary results of Bloc A (see also Fig. 1). We combine “Strongly Agree” and Question Prevalent Model Results Interpretation “Agree” as agreement with the question and “Strongly Disagree” and “Disagree” opinion with disagreement. The questions have been shortened (see Appendix 1 for full A12. Need for The majority OLRM results text). The full model results are in Appendix 2. OLRM: Ordered Logistic – valorization of (87.5%) did not show Regression Model. fishing heritage agreed any effect of Question Prevalent Model Results Interpretation stakeholder type opinion or age A13. Favour The majority OLRM results – A01. The real state of 45% of OLRM results Fishers were much innovation in the (87.5%) did not show exploitation is in respondents showed that less likely to agree commercialization agreed any effect of agreement with the agreed stakeholder type with the question of seafood products stakeholder type scientific diagnostics was important than scientists or or age in explaining administrators, A15. Fishers are 22.5% of OLRM results The odds ratio for agreement with ratio of correctly informed respondents showed that age age was 1.10, agreement of the management agreed was important suggesting that scientists to fishers plans in explaining older respondents 14.97 agreement tended to agree A02. Small scale The majority OLRM results Fishers were much with the question fishing is viable (70%) agreed showed that less likely to agree A16. Fisheries 32.5% of OLRM results Fishers were 4.83 stakeholder type with the question administration have respondents showed that times more likely to was important than scientists or adequate resources agreed stakeholder type agree with that in explaining administrators, for control and was important question than agreement with ratio of monitoring in explaining administrators, agreement agreement while scientists scientists to fishers were much more 5.20 sceptical than A03. Large scale 37.5% of OLRM results – administrators fishing is viable respondents did not show (odds ratio 0.13) agreed any effect of stakeholder type or age A05. The fishing sector The majority OLRM results Fishers and matrix according to the content of issues raised along the open discus­ needs to apply (82.5%) showed that administration sion. These categories coded are: *Management, within management proactive changes agreed stakeholder type were practically subcategories have been identified as **Regional management, was important neutral in this **Community/Local management (referring to fisheries associations), in explaining question (odds ratio **Self-management (referring to individual fishers’ entrepreneurship). agreement 1.09), but scientists tended to strongly *Alternative marketing systems; *Social innovation and entrepreneur­ agree, with ratio of ship; *Responsible consumption; *Divulgation of fish consumption; agreement *Sustainability, with subcategories **social sustainability, **economic scientists to sustainability, **Ecologic sustainability; *Work relationships, with administration of 5.19 and to fishers subcategories **Fair work conditions; **Labor risks and security, of 4.78 **Mental and physical welfare; *Intergenerational replacement; *Social A07. Technical and The majority OLRM results The odds ratio of image of fishers. scientific research (82.5%) showed that fishers to This information extracted from the statements have been incorpo­ can help improve agreed both administration was rated in an excel database file to facilitate data comparisons and in­ profitability stakeholder type 0 while that of and age was scientists to terrelationships among the information, in order to interpret suitably important in administration was the meaning and the sense of each assertion pronounced. explaining 0.33, i.e. basically agreement mostly 2.2.3. Mix-method analysis administrators agree. Interestingly, Drawing on mix type of data (closed-ended, multiple-choice and the odds ratio of age open-ended questions, and qualitative data from a discussion session) was 0.94, the analysis combined quantitative and qualitative data. The data from suggesting that the questionnaire and data of the open discussion have been contrasted younger to produce accurate data to avoid omissions and shortcomings for respondents tended to agree example in statements socially and culturally informed. The open- A09. The viability of The majority OLRM results – discussion enabled to identify variables and relations necessary to un­ the fishing sector is (75%) agreed did not show derstand motives and attitudes of the valorizations and perceptions threatened by any effect of revealed through questionnaires. At the same time, it captured conflicts internal factors stakeholder type of interest between stakeholders. Also, those stressors (such us market or age A10. The viability of The majority OLRM results – challenges), and specificities that shape fishers’ decisions, viewpoints the fishing sector is (77.5%) did not show and reactions according to each distinct local context and by the pace of threatened by agreed any effect of daily political, ecological and socioeconomic unpredictable scenarios. external factors stakeholder type or age A11. Need for The majority OLRM results Differences 3. Results valorization of local (95%) agreed showed that between seafood products stakeholder type stakeholders were 3.1. Quantitative questions was important not large, with the in explaining odds ratio of Forty valid questionnaires were processed, 16 each from fishers and agreement scientists to fishers equal to 1.22 scientists and 8 from fisheries managers. In all cases, the ordered multinomial responses to the questions were significantly different from 5 S. Gómez and F. Maynou Journal of Environmental Management 291 (2021) 112728 Table 2 Table 2 (continued ) Summary results of Bloc B (see also Fig. 2). We combine “Strongly Agree” and Question Prevalent Model Results Interpretation “Agree” as agreement with the question and “Strongly Disagree” and “Disagree” opinion with disagreement. The questions have been shortened (see Appendix 1 for full B11. Fishers should be 97.5% of stakeholder practically text). The full model results are in Appendix 2. OLRM: Ordered Logistic integral participants respondents type was unanimous, fishers Regression Model. in management plans agreed important in and scientists had Question Prevalent Model Results Interpretation explaining higher levels of opinion agreement agreement with the question than B01. Trawls with 40-mm 40% of OLRM results Fishers tended to administration cod-end meshes have respondents showed that agree more with (odds ratio 13.37 good selectivity agreed stakeholder this question (4.83 and 5.80, type was times more than respectively) important in administrators and explaining 1/0.31 = 3.32 agreement times more than scientists) the 20 percent in each category that could be expected if the pool of B02. Trawling threatens 35% of OLRM results Younger respondents did not have clear preferences about the questions. The small scale fishing respondents showed that respondents scores obtained are shown in Figs. 1–3 for blocks A to C. Tables 1–3 agreed age was tended to agree report summarily the information in the figures as well as the multi­ important in with this question, nomial model results (Suppl. Mat. Annex 2). explaining with an odds ratio agreement of 0.95 In Block A, respondents tended to agree or strongly agree with the B03. Small scale fishing Only 10% of OLRM results – majority of questions, with only 4 questions (A01, A03, A15, A16) threatens trawling respondents did not show showing agreement lower than 50% (Fig. 1). Questions A15 and A16 agreed any effect of were questions with a high percentage of neutral responses (Fig. 1). stakeholder type or age Table 1 shows that in those questions where stakeholder type was B04. Both types of 32.5% of OLRM results – important in explaining the level of agreement, fishers tended to give commercial fishing respondents did not show contrasting opinions to administrators and even more markedly, were at are threatened by agreed any effect of variance with scientists’ perceptions. For instance, in A01 (reliability of recreational fishing stakeholder scientific results) and A02 (viability of small-scale fishing) the fishers’ type or age B05. Time limits are 60% of OLRM results Scientists agreed perception was less optimistic than administration and scientists. In effective against respondents showed that more with this question A16, fishers felt that the fisheries administration has adequate overexploitation agreed stakeholder question than resources for control and monitoring, contrary to the prevalent opinion type was fishers (odds ratio among the administration itself or to that of scientists. For some ques­ important in 6.18) or explaining administration tions, the agreement of the respondents with the question was very high agreement (4.07) (75% or more) and did not vary across stakeholder type or age (e.g. A09, B06. Close seasons are 72.5% of OLRM results Scientists agreed A10, A12, A13): these are questions related to internal and external effective against respondents showed that more with this threats or the need of valorization and innovation. In question A03 there overexploitation agreed stakeholder question than was low level of agreement (37.5%) and no difference among stake­ type was fishers (odds ratio important in 5.45) or holder types, suggesting that the viability of large-scale fishing (e.g. explaining administration bottom trawling and purse seining) is universally perceived to be low. agreement (1.17) Age was an important explanatory predictor in very few cases, but it is B07. The Landings 15% of OLRM results Although revealing to remark that younger respondents tended to agree with A07 Obligation is effective respondents showed that disagreement was (importance of technical and scientific research for the profitability of against agreed stakeholder more prevalent, overexploitation type was scientists tended to fishing units) and disagree with A15 (fishers are correctly informed of important in agree more with management plans), suggesting that younger generations have higher explaining this question than information needs. agreement fishers (odds ratio In Block B (Fig. 2 and Table 2), five questions had low levels of 5.45) or administration agreement (B01 to B04 and B07). In the case of B03 and B07, (1.17) disagreement was higher than 50%. Regarding the questions related to B08. Fisheries 85% of OLRM results Older respondents management of trawl fishing, fishers tended to agree more than the management should respondents showed that tended to agree other stakeholders than the current 40-mm cod ends have appropriate be adaptive agreed age was with thus selectivity (B01). Interestingly, fishers tended to have perceptions at important in questions (odds explaining ratio 1.04) variance with scientists and fisheries administrations on effort control agreement management measures (B05, time restrictions, and B06 close seasons). B09. Adaptive 87.5% of OLRM results – In these last two questions, although the predominant opinion was of management should respondents did not show agreement, fishers had higher disagreement. The perception on the take into account agreed any effect of social and economic stakeholder effectiveness of the Landings Obligation (B07) was predominantly aspects, not only type or age negative, although scientists showed marginally more agreement. biological aspects Regarding questions on alternative fisheries management (B08–B10) all B10. Fisheries 95% of OLRM results – respondents tended to agree that fisheries management should be management should respondents did not show adaptive and take into account integrally socio-economic aspects. In not be limited to agreed any effect of productivity, but also stakeholder question B11 agreement was practically unanimous, but administrators distribution, type or age showed relatively less agreement than the other two stakeholder types commercialization with the issue of including fishers in the elaboration and implementation and consumer needs of management plans. The answers to three questions related to OLRM results Although showed that agreement was perceived conflicts between fisheries actors (trawlers, small scale fishing units, recreational fishing) produced low scores for agreement (35% or 6 S. Gómez and F. Maynou Journal of Environmental Management 291 (2021) 112728 Table 3 Table 3 (continued ) Summary results of Bloc C (see also Fig. 3). We combine “Strongly Agree” and Question Prevalent Model Results Interpretation “Agree” as agreement with the question and “Strongly Disagree” and “Disagree” opinion with disagreement. The questions have been shortened (see Appendix 1 for full C12. Employment 65% of OLRM results text). The full model results are in Appendix 2. OLRM: Ordered Logistic – should have priority respondents did not show Regression Model. agreed any effect of Question Prevalent Model Results Interpretation stakeholder opinion type or age C13. 90% of OLRM results – C01. CFP should 40% of OLRM results Scientist tended to Commercialization respondents did not show prioritize technical respondents showed that agree more with and valorization of agreed any effect of measures to improve agreed stakeholder this question than seafood should be stakeholder trawl selectivity type was fishers (odds ratio prioritized type or age important in 36.89) or C14. Valorization of 82.5% of OLRM results – explaining administrators fishing culture and respondents did not show agreement (odds ratio 3.449) knowledge transfer agreed any effect of C03. Valorization of 32.5% of OLRM results – stakeholder discards would respondents did not show type or age enhance profitability agreed any effect of C15. Integrate 87.5% of OLRM results – stakeholder maritime culture in respondents did not show type or age fisheries policy agreed any effect of C04. Three month close 45% of OLRM results Fishers and stakeholder season between 50 respondents showed that scientists tended to type or age and 100 m depth will agreed stakeholder agree more with C16. Valorization and 70% of OLRM results – be beneficial to type and age this question than dissemination of respondents did not show demersal resources were important fisheries knowledge, maritime agreed any effect of in explaining administrators culture and natural stakeholder agreement (odds ratio 1.81 heritage by means of type or age and 7.20, touristic activities respectively) and scientists showed higher agreement than fishers (3.98). Table 4 Younger Ranking of multiple-choice questions. For each option, we show the times it was respondents tended to have a more ranked first or second, and the average ranking across respondents. favourable opinion Times Times average (odds ratio 0.95) ranked 1st ranked 2nd score C05. The WM MAP 37.5% of OLRM results – limits the activity of respondents did not show A04: Which are the main problem affecting Spanish Mediterranean fisheries? bottom trawlers but agreed any effect of 4.1 Overexploitation of resources 18 4 3.00 not of small scale stakeholder 4.3 Pollution 4 9 4.47 demersal fishing type or age 4.6 Concurrence among seafood 5 9 4.74 units products C06. Focusing the 45% of OLRM results The opinion of 4.11 Normative, regulations and 3 7 4.84 management of respondents showed that fishers and management demersal resources agreed stakeholder administrators was 4.5 Limited interest of younger 4 4 5.03 on 5 target species is type was similar and generations in fishing/lack of family insufficient important in predominantly support explaining neutral (odds ratio 4.2 Climatic change 2 6 5.38 agreement 1.03), while 4.9 Production costs 5 7 5.41 fisheries scientists 4.12 Lack of political representativeness 8 2 5.60 tended to agree 4. 10 Low commercial viability 3 6 5.81 (odds ratio 7.90) 4. 13 Organizational constraints of the 3 2 6.44 C08. MSY as main 32.5% of OLRM results – fishing industry fisheries respondents did not show 4.4 Lack of qualified workers 2 1 6.61 management agreed any effect of 4.7 Concurrence with other extractive 4 2 7.14 objective is stakeholder activities, such as recreational fishing appropriate type or age 4. 8 Inequality in the remuneration 4 0 7.67 C09. Fisheries 95% of OLRM results – system (share system) management should respondents did not show A08: Which type of research requires further effort? be complemented agreed any effect of 8.4 Biological and ecological research 23 8 1.70 with socio economic stakeholder 8.3 Economic research 13 11 2.18 objectives type or age 8.2 Cultural and social research 10 7 2.60 C10. The conservation 75% of OLRM results The opinion of 8.1 Technological research 9 9 2.70 of the marine respondents showed that fishers and C02: What should be done with unwanted catches brought to land under the Landing environment should agreed stakeholder administrators was Obligation? be given more type was similar (odds ratio 2.4 Distribute to charity 21 6 1.77 importance important in 1.19), while 2.1 Sell to reduction industry for 11 12 2.31 explaining fisheries scientists fishmeal or fish oil agreement tended to agree 2.2 Sell to pharmacoceutical industry 5 8 2.69 (odds ratio 3.28) 2.5 Nothing, continue discarding 12 8 2.97 C11. The fishing 52.5% of OLRM results Younger 2.3 Sell to cosmetic industry 5 7 3.17 industry should respondents showed that age respondents tended contribute to the agreed was important to have a more creation of non- in explaining favourable opinion less in question B02–B04), with no effect of stakeholder type. fishing zones, against agreement (odds ratio 0.94) The questions of Block C (Fig. 3 and Table 3) were related to the compensation Management Plan for Western Mediterranean demersal fisheries and possible improvements. The basic tenets of the Common Fisheries Policy 7 S. Gómez and F. Maynou Journal of Environmental Management 291 (2021) 112728 perceived that bottom trawling was excessively penalized compared with small scale fishing (C05), which is remarkable when considering that practically all regulations in the WM MAP affect only trawlers. Regarding questions C09 to C15, concerning measures complementing the current implementation of the WM MAP, respondents showed high levels of agreement, with little differences among stakeholder types. Respondents showed very low levels of disagreement with the impor­ tance of taking into account socio economic objectives (C09), employ­ ment (C12), commercialization and valorization (C13), and cultural aspects (C14, C15). The need for environmental conservation, in addi­ tion to fisheries conservation, reached also high levels of agreement, although here the opinion of scientists was clearly more favourable (C10). The creation of non-fishing zones at the initiative of the fishing industry even with economic compensation (C11) received moderate support (52.5%), although it is remarkable that younger respondents Fig. 1. Frequency of responses by n = 40 respondents to questions in Bloc A. tended to have a more favourable opinion. SD: Strongly disagree, D: Disagree, N: Neutral, A: Agree, SA: Strongly Agree. 3.2. Multiple-choice, open-ended questions and open discussion The rankings observed in three multiple-choice questions (Block A A04 and A08; Block C C02) are shown in Table 4. The results show that overexploitation was perceived to rank first as the main problem affecting the commercial exploitation of fisheries resources and 18 of the 40 respondents ranked it first. Second in importance, with similar rankings, are pollution, market concurrence from aquaculture-based products or imports, and excessive regulation of the fishing sector. In the open discussion fishers manifested their feeling of being seen by other stakeholders (and society) as the only responsible for the state of fisheries resources and being “punished” for this with ever growing legislation, while other concurrent factors (such as pollution) are rarely considered in policies. It was pointed out that trawl fisheries have an important role in food provisioning, employment and the livelihood of fishers’ organizations, fish auctions and related services and the new regulation threatens the viability of trawl fisheries. Fig. 2. Frequency of responses by n = 40 respondents to questions in Bloc B. SD: Strongly disagree, D: Disagree, N: Neutral, A: Agree, SA: Strongly Agree. Family support connected to generational replacement was also perceived as an important problem, ranked in the fifth position, although generational replacement is not homogeneously perceived in all the fishing locations. The qualitative analysis of the statements showed that Southern Mediterranean Spanish autonomies (e.g. Murcia, Andalusia) had a more optimistic view, contrasting with the pessimist sensation in northern autonomies of absolute lack of generational replacement that can jeopardize the continuation of the activity in the near future (particularly in Catalonia). During the 1-h open debate, fishers’ organizations representatives and scientists from southern Spain explained different initiatives developed over the past 5 years with the main goal to give value and social prestige to the profession of fisher (e. g. video documentaries), specially for the case of small-scale fisheries. The inequality in the remuneration system was ranked the last problem affecting Spanish Mediterranean fisheries and only 4 respondents of the 40 considered it as the major problem. The traditional share remuner­ ation system helps cushion fisheries economic risks (Guillen et al., 2017) but is not necessarily the fairest system in distributional terms. The lack Fig. 3. Frequency of responses by n = 40 respondents to questions in Bloc C. of qualified workers was not considered very important, ranking in SD: Strongly disagree, D: Disagree, N: Neutral, A: Agree, SA: Strongly Agree. third-to-last position in importance over the 8 possible options in the questionnaire. and the WM MAP (questions C01–C08) showed levels of agreement Regarding A08, 23 respondents ranked first the proposition that below 50%. Fisheries scientists tended to reach higher agreement on biological research is needed, while economic research ranked second. these questions. In particular, the perception of fishers of the need to Research on fishing technology was perceived as less important. improve trawl selectivity (C01) was rather negative (odds ratio scientists Notwithstanding this result, the integration of fishing and maritime to fishers of 36.89). Fisheries scientists tended to agree more on the culture in management plans, as well as knowledge transfer into fish­ benefits of a seasonal three-month closure between 50 and 100 m (C04) eries policy, was considered very important, regardless of stakeholder and on the interest of focusing the management of fisheries demersal type, by >80% of respondents. Also, the dissemination of maritime resources on the 5 target species (C06). The valorization of discards culture by means of touristic activities was considered important (70%) (C03) and the objective of MSY (C06) had 32.5% agreement with no (Block C C14, 15 and 16). Fishers tended to be reluctant to accept difference across stakeholder types. Only 37.5% of respondents measures constraining the fishing activity (Block C C11) and expressed a clear desire to keep fishing as livelihood. However, respondents are 8 S. Gómez and F. Maynou Journal of Environmental Management 291 (2021) 112728 aware that there should be a change of focus to redress the situation that MAP. Similarly, as it happens elsewhere in Europe (van Ginkel, 2001), technical control measures have failed to achieve. Finally, regarding the fishers clearly expressed the will to continue fishing despite difficulties question of former discards under the remit of the Landing Obligation, impinging the economic viability of fisheries and to be aware of the low the option of distributing these catches to charity was ranked first by 21 levels of commercial stocks because of overexploitation. Nevertheless, respondents, despite the explicit prohibition in the regulation of most respondents tended to agree with propositions related to the need destining this product to human consumption. of giving more value to the high-quality product of local fisheries as a Among the opinions expressed in relation to fisheries policy, many way to improve fisheries viability. Adding value to local heritage, respondents expressed their disconformity with the Common Fisheries complementing commercial fishing with cultural activities or inno­ Policy in terms of being far from reality or being insufficiently flexible vating in commercialization of seafood products were also aspects with with local problematics. Specifically, in relation to the seasonal three- high level of agreement. The respondents felt the necessity of better month closure between 50 and 100 m (C04), specific zoning was seen integrating socio-economic, cultural and heritage aspects into manage­ as more beneficial, rather than closing the entire bathymetric range ment plans. Exploiting the potential of fishing cultural heritage has 50–100 m. already been pointed out as a key tool to readapt small-scale fishing to Deficiencies in the application of the European/national/local reg­ face market challenges and give added value to sustainably fished sea­ ulations and excess of (sometimes contradictory) regulations were also food products (Gómez, 2018; Gómez and Lloret, 2017). Also, the values mentioned. Some respondents claimed that the fishing sector should be of cultural heritage have been highlighted in artisanal small-scale fish­ directly involved in fisheries management or at least co-management eries as guarantor of marine custody. Artisanal small-scale fishing is schemes be more generalized (compare with the high level of agree­ identified by fishers themselves as an “attitude to fishing” imprinting ment with proposition B11 above). fishers’ decisions on “how to fish” according to cultural values which On the other hand, many opinions coincided that the way forward to have been transmitted throughout generations (Gómez and Lloret, ensure the viability of the fishing industry should give more importance 2017). Conversely, cultural heritage and values as vehicle towards to post-productive processes: diversification of commercialization/dis­ sustainable fishing have not been too much developed in large-scale tribution channels, improve marketing strategies, create innovative fishing (particularly trawl and purse seine fisheries). In this sense, re­ products and other solutions to add value to the fisheries landings. The spondents also highlighted that the transfer of fishers’ knowledge has to focus of the discussions was largely on alternative marketing systems, be taken into consideration in fisheries policies. highlighting that “sustainability” implies not only fishing in accordance It is important to note that all these aspects, that were strongly with MSY, but also seeking appropriate marketing channels to ensure supported in the responses to the questionnaires, are usually not taken “social sustainability”. While the fishers stressed that they were making into account, or only in vague and general terms, in the Common efforts to comply with measures to ensure environmental sustainability, Fisheries Policy. Basic tenets of the CFP, such as MSY as the main economic sustainability was not ensured, but rather put at risk. The idea guiding principle in fisheries management (Penas Lado, 2016), did not of sustainability was often suggested throughout the discussions without receive a strong support. Neither did, other important pillars of this it being clearly defined what it was or if all the participants understood policy, such as improving selectivity or the Landing Obligation, the the concept in the same way. Social sustainability was sometimes specific aspects of the WM MAP, such as prohibiting trawling between referred to when it was clear from the context that it was more a ques­ 50 and 100 m or basing the management objectives onto 5 target spe­ tion of the economic sustainability of fishing vessels. Working condi­ cies. Obviously, fisheries scientists tended to agree with the proposition tions and wages were not perceived as an issue of sustainability. more often than the other two stakeholder types in questions on fisheries The discussions opened a rich debate about the different distribution management. channels and the possibilities of self-managed fish commercialization Overall fishers tended to disagree with all questions related to fish­ initiatives, independent from the traditional model of auction central­ eries management, particularly limitations to fishing effort, but showed ized control, to enhance the marketing of seafood. Different emerging much higher levels of agreement than the other types of stakeholder innovative initiatives, from online sale to direct provisioning from with the proposition that the 40-mm square mesh is sufficient. The producers to retailers, were also discussed (e.g. online direct seafood latter, combined with the negative perception of the need to incorporate sale organized by a fishers producers organization from Almeria: more technical management measures in fisheries policy, reflects a https://delbarcoalamesa.com/). Bottom up participatory management conservative approach to seafood production, that is, an attitude to was also explicitly encouraged by representatives from the local avoid having to change the way bottom trawl fishing is carried out. The administration, who are self-perceived as facilitating agents, whose expressed need to integrate post-production initiatives together with tasks consist of providing the necessary logistic and administrative cultural heritage and tourist activities into management plans could be structure to support fishers’ initiatives. That is, devolving to fishers the an opportunity for institutionalizing fishing sustainability by linking the responsibility for the development of measures and initiatives to fishers’ commitment to resource protection with livelihoods at the improve the sector. Several initiatives conducted in Catalonia were interface of production, distribution and consumption under sustainable explained, specially focused on the culinary knowledge of fishers and criteria (ecological, sociocultural and economic) (Gómez and Lloret, fish gastronomic values in promoting the seafood products (Alegret, 2017). Several initiatives have pointed out the need to progress towards 2013). Divulgating responsible consumption was also another issue that “multifunctionality” in small-scale fisheries in Europe (Urquhart and was tackled in the discussion session but specially the need to divulgate Acott, 2013; Salmi, 2015; Malorgio et al., 2017; Prosperi et al., 2019), as the beneficial values of consuming fresh fish of proximity educating a model of multidimensional (economic, sociocultural, environmental) consumers by, for instance, diversifying the distribution channels to the integrated development. The main functions supported by these systems school canteens, hospitals, geriatrics and other public bodies. A measure go through interrelated employment, food security and environmental that could be supported by administrations and that it was pointed out as functions with social and territorial ones (that refer to cultural heritage another possible marketing option. and tourism). Environmental conservation is ensured through sustain­ able ways of production, new ways of marketing and value chains. 4. Discussion Under a “non-productivism” paradigm (Prosperi et al., 2019), defined by less productivity tied to a diversified and multifunctional form of fish­ Our results show that stakeholders in Mediterranean Spanish fish­ eries (Mulazzani et al., 2019), non-market values of fishing (cultural eries are aware of the difficulties facing the viability of the fishing in­ heritage) are convertible into added values for seafood marketing dustry and the challenges posed by the Common Fisheries Policy and, together with the development of touristic activities. Fishers cultural more specifically, the implementation of the recently approved WM wellbeing is ensured at the same time that fishing activity as livelihood, 9 S. Gómez and F. Maynou Journal of Environmental Management 291 (2021) 112728 which beyond food provision may provide other goods and services (e.g. incomplete integration of fishers’ viewpoints, needs and requests what recreational activities, wellbeing, employment, preservation of cultural could enhance the management plans enforcement. heritage and environment). Whereas fishers demonstrated to be willing Participatory Action Research has proved to be an appropriate to stay in fishing despite its low economic viability, their answers point research method that should be considered from the outset of policy out that they would be willing to reduce fishing in exchange of development, as it is a realistic method for testing and informing EU and improving the economic performance of the activity through marketing national management plans against local concerns, needs and alterna­ and recreational activities. Commercial and non-commercial values tives that fishermen can develop to meet the challenges of fisheries. would be complementary. The multifunctional paradigm, although very Adaptive management requires context-specific research methods to little developed in fisheries, is nevertheless taking shape as fishers’ ini­ understand complex socio-ecological systems subjected to uncertainties tiatives and practices, regardless of EU policies and institutions (Gómez (Léopold et al., 2019). Hence, “PAR is particularly appropriate for and Maynou, 2021). Notwithstanding of potentialities these systems addressing complex human and ecosystem relationships” (Parkes and may provide, the pioneer experiences developed in agricultural settings Panelli, 2001: 86). Although participatory frameworks cannot be received criticism in the academic literature that noted the limits of the formally institutionalized, governance issues emerging from stake­ system rooted on localism that could reproduce corporatist privileges holders’ engagement can influence the fisheries policies implementation (Dupuis and Goodman, 2005). by Member States. Biologically-based fisheries management measures are perceived by Participatory Action Research involves stakeholders who, on the the fishing industry as restrictions on the fishing activity and are seen as basis of the reflections, express needs and concerns from their own inefficient in helping to reverse ever-decreasing catches or improving experience which researchers can use as reference points to be taken into vessels’ profitability. New layers of restrictive regulations are not well account in research, whose results can be continuously monitored and received by traditional fishing communities that have to face, addi­ contrasted with stakeholders, and if appropriate take remedial action to tionally, new challenges such us the globalization of the market, changes improve the circumstances. Equity, by ensuring that different points of in consumer habits and marine pollution. Similarly, the results of Tafon view are taken into consideration in participatory research, is ensured (2019) point out that Polish small-scale fishers show signs of “fatigue” while not only addressing ecological objectives but also the economic, because of continual socio-political transformation and reorganization social and cultural aspects inherent in fishing activity. of the institutional framework in which they carry their activity, and, Fishers estimate that large scale measures (top to bottom) lag behind consequently new policies can only expect to receive very low support. the initiatives of fishers’ organizations and certain communities are On the positive side, if the fishing industry could transform heritage already currently testing local co-management or self-management rules culture into an economic asset (Jiménez de Madariaga and García del to redress the overexploitation problem. As discussed by Boccardi and Hoyo, 2019), the product of this traditional activity would procure an Duvelle (2013) community management of natural resources, grounded added value to partially offset the overall negative picture. Moreover, it on cultural heritage and local ecological knowledge can often be seen as would give social value to a profession that at times feels discredited by “green” by default. Fisheries sector in the Spanish Mediterranean has fisheries managers and the public in general as a threat to marine re­ been historically regulated through their own institutions (known as sources, boosting self-confidence in the profession and making it “Cofradías”: fishers’ organizations or guilds, of medieval origin that perhaps more attractive to younger generations. were constituted as public law corporations in 1943 and are now in Although the factor age had a relatively low power of explanation, charge of organizing schedules, access to resources per fishing com­ perhaps due to insufficient contrast of age among participants (25–60 munity and the first sale) that socially legitimate regulations and engage years old, average 44), it is interesting to note that in those questions fishers’ communities’ in fisheries management (Franquesa, 2005; Hogg where age was statistically significant, younger respondents tended to et al., 2013; Raicevich et al., 2018). To reach mutual trust and trans­ have a more progressive attitude towards the propositions that the parency, the role of the own fishers’ organizations should be taken into fishing industry should be more proactive in steering changes or the account, which, along the time, have been crucial to engage fishers in need for more technical and scientific research in fisheries. scientists and managers’ projects and through which the implementa­ In summary, propositions regarding fisheries management, as laid tion of regulations should pivot in co-management. Nevertheless, note out in the Common Fisheries Policy in general and the WM MAP in that co-management implies good representation systems giving voice particular, were not universally perceived as good solutions to the to all participant in the decision-making (Hogg et al., 2013; Jentoft et al., problem of the viability of demersal fisheries in the Spanish Mediter­ 1998). Therefore, it is a question of the own fishers’ organizations to ranean. Although the existence of internal and external critical factors ensure the equitable representation of all members from fishing com­ was recognized by all three stakeholder types, fishers tended to perceive munities. On the other hand, co-management grounded on local com­ negatively limitations to their activity or the introduction of new, ever munities as bottom-up participatory system, while pledging the more restrictive, management measures. In general, all respondents devolution of power to individuals by empowering communities, is also tended to agree on the need of more proactive and adaptive fisheries stressing the entrepreneurial ethos which could reproduce some of the management, rather than prescriptive management based on complex axioms and values of neoliberalism discourses and practices. For regulations that are sometimes difficult to implement and enforce. To example, by strengthening inequalities between larger and smaller facilitate the successful implementation of the WM MAP it is important communities, or semi-industrial fleets against small scale fleets, with to make fishers integral to the decision-making process. As with any different business development potential, which can intensify competi­ other policy, fishers’ views and knowledge are vital to its successful tion between them. implementation (de Vos et al., 2016; Garza-Gil et al., 2017). Fisheries governance should progress from top-down prescriptions led by fisheries 5. Conclusions agencies with the technical assistance of fisheries scientists towards co-management schemes where all relevant stakeholders can contribute The imbalance between biologically based management measures to formulate solutions in conditions of mutual trust and transparency (de that are applied independently of the socio-economic sphere and the Vos et al., 2011; Lleonart et al., 2014). Despite the objective of region­ cultural assumptions that shape fishing activity as a whole do not allow alizing the process of decision-making laid out in the CFP (EU Reg. for effective implementation of fisheries policies. Instead, incorporating 1983/2013) it has been shown that this has not helped to substantially the point of view of the direct social actors so that they appropriate the increase local fisher communities’ participation in the decision-making policies and take their own actions, will ensure the incorporation of the process (Raicevich et al., 2018). According to our results, this is not only human dimension into the rigidity of a set of rules for an activity that has a question of lack of political representation, but also a problem of an important socio-cultural component, and which has traditionally 10 S. Gómez and F. 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