Anuario de Psicología The UB Journal of Psychology | 51 U niv er sitat de B A RC E L O N A autora de contacto Montse Vall-llovera Underlying dimensions in mvall-llovera@uoc.edu Estudis de Psicologia i Ciències de l’Educació attitude towards technology in a sample of Spanish, Universitat Oberta de Catalunya Cinthya Camila Merma-Linares German and Indian women camila.ml02@gmail.com Departament de Psicologia Facultat de Ciències de l’Educació Universitat Rovira i Virgili Montse Vall-llovera, Cinthya Camila Merma-Linares, Joel Feliu Joel Feliu, Adriana Gil-Juarez Joel.Feliu@uab.cat Departament de Psicologia Social Abstract Àrea de Psicologia Social Background: The underrepresentation of women in the field of technol- Facultat de Psicologia ogy, their progressive disappearance from scientific and technological Universitat Atònoma de Barcelona careers, as well as women’s disaffection towards technology continues to Adriana Gil-Juarez prevail despite efforts that are being made. This article is an analysis of adriana.gil@urv.cat the early results of a study on women’s attitudes towards technology. Departament de Psicologia Bàsica, Evolutiva Method: We prepared a questionnaire about attitudes towards technol- i de l’Educació ogy building on previous research. By means of a convenience sampling, Àrea de Psicologia Evolutiva i de l’Educació followed by a snowball sampling strategy, we presented a questionnaire to Facultat de Ciències de l’Educació 497 women (Spanish, German and Indian). Results: By means of a Prin- Universitat Atònoma de Barcelona cipal Components Analysis, we have identified two dimensions: 1) Atti- tude related to the experience with technology entrenched in gender stereotypes; 2) Attitude to the ability to teach and learn ICT. Conclu- sions: Similarities have been shown among the groups of women of differ- ent nationalities, in terms of the interpretation of these dimensions, but not for the set of items summarized in each one of them. In addition, a Anuario de Psicología third dimension was obtained in the groupof women from India: attitude N.º 51 | 2021 | págs. 60-67 related to the role of gender in relation to technology. Enviado: 24 de octubre de 2019 Aceptado: 4 de octubre de 2020 Keywords Gender, attitudes, technology, information and communication tech- doi: 10.1344/anpsic2021.51.7 nologies. issn: 0066-5126 | © 2021 Universitat de Barcelo- na. All rights reserved. Dimensiones subyacentes en la actitud hacia la tecnología en una muestra de mujeres españolas, alemanas e indias Resumen Antecedentes: La infrarrepresentación de las mujeres en el ámbito tecno- lógico, sudesaparición progresiva de las carreras científicas y tecnológicas, así como la desafección hacia la tecnología por parte de las mujeres sigue prevaleciendo a pesar de los esfuerzosque se vienen realizando. En este tra- bajo analizamos los primeros resultados de un estudio sobre las actitudes hacia la tecnología por parte de las mujeres. Método: Construimos un UNDERLYING DIMENSIONS IN ATTITUDE TOWARDS TECHNOLOGY IN A SAMPLE OF SPANISH, GERMAN AND INDIAN WOMEN cuestionario de actitudes hacia la tecnología partiendo de investigaciones previas. Mediante un muestreo por conveniencia, siguiendo posterior- mente con una estrategia muestral de bola de nieve, lo administramos a 497 mujeres (españolas, alemanas e indias). Resultados: Mediante un análisis en componentes principales hemos identificado dos dimensio- nes: 1) actitud relacionada con la experiencia con la tecnología imbricada con los estereotipos de género; 2) actitud con respecto a la capacidad en enseñar y aprende las TIC. Conclusiones: Se han mostrado similitudes entre los grupos de mujeres de distintas nacionalidades en cuanto a la in- terpretación de las dimensiones, pero no para el conjunto de ítems que se resume en cada una de ellas. Además, en el grupo de mujeres de la India, se obtuvo una tercera dimensión: actitud relacionada con el rol de género frente a la tecnología. Palabras clave Género, actitudes, tecnología, tecnologías de la información y la comu- nicación. INTRODUCTION D espite efforts to reduce the digital gender gap through ferences in attitudes towards technology highlight aspects policies and strategies to encourage girls and wom- in their results which are not exactly encouraging, such en to be leaders in technology, apparently, they are as: women tend to have a less positive attitude in the not delivering the desired results (UNESCO, 2017; Eu- face of and towards technology in general; they show less ropean Commission, 2019). Li, Kirkup and Hodgson confidence in their abilities to learn and use it naturally; (2001, p. 415), identified that “most studies show that and the cultural and social context influences the gen- women are less enthusiastic and less trusting of technol- der differences observed with respect to attitudes towards ogy, spend less time on a computer, and are unlikely to ICT (Cai et al., 2017). choose a technology-related career”. This results in situa- Since the advent of ICT, the study of attitudes towards tions of under- representation of women in technological technology has constituted, and remains, an important contexts, such the progressive disappearance of women field of interest. That is why, in this article, we look at from scientific and technological careers (Castaño & the initial results of a study on women’s attitudes towards Webster, 2011; Instituto de la mujer y para la igualdad technology, specifically, their “beliefs related to how they de oportunidades, 2017), the low presence of women in value the use of technology and its social function” (Cai technological professions (Martínez-Cantos & Castaño, et al., 2017,from Fishbein & Bertram, 1962). In this case, 2017; OECD, 2017), and disaffection towards technolo- we are interested to know which dimensions underlie gy – which is manifested in more unfavourable attitudes women’s disaffection with technology, and which bring towards its use (Cai, Fan & Du, 2017). them closer to or move them away from it based on their During childhood, girls show technical abilities and technology-related beliefs. ICT skills equal to or better than those of boys (Aesaert In addition, it has been found that there is significant & van Braak, 2015). However, over the course of their variability between Western and non-Western countries. formative and professional lives, most studies highlight The non-Western countries show a higher percentage of the dwindling presence of women in the fields of infor- women present in the field of technology, especially in In- mation and communication technologies (ICT), and their dia and Malaysia, where it does not seem to be related to progressive abandonment of these fields (Gil-Juárez, Fe- male stereotypes. The research shows “a significant increase liu, Vall-llovera & Biglia, 2013). in the number of women pursuing a bachelor’s degree in In this context, there have been numerous studies car- Computer Science has been recently described in India, ried out over the past 20 years in which women’s use of where the field is even seen as being ‘woman-friendly’” and incorporation in ICT has been analysed. It has been (Vitores & Gil-Juárez,2017). So the cultural environment found that “in the last few years, despite the use of ICT is a variable to take into account to understand gender- appearing to have been equal between men and wom- ICT relationships. en, this has not been accompanied by the effective incor- Given the above, our intention is to identify the under- poration of women into the strategic sectors of training, lying dimensions of attitudes towardstechnology, through research and enterprise” (Gil-Juarez, Vitores & Feliu, a questionnaire about attitudes put together ad hoc and 2015, p. 82). In addition,empirical studies on gender dif- administered to Spanish, German and Indian women. 61 ANUARIO DE PSICOLOGÍA | 51 MONTSE VALL-LLOVERA, CINTHYA CAMILA MERMA-LINARES, JOEL FELIU, ADRIANA GIL-JUAREZ of technology, the time they spend compared to the men METHOD around them, and whether they were encouraged to do less technological studies than their male peers. The an- Participants swers to these questions is dichotomous. In this study, 497 women from three different national- The third section consists of 20 items written as af- ities participated voluntarily: 366 from Spain, 61 from firmations describing technology- related situations. Germany, and 70 from India. The sample was gathered Initially, this section consisted of 30 items which were through a convenience sampling, and then followed by a submitted for evaluation by three expert judges, who, sample snowball strategy (Lohr, 2000). The first contact after evaluation, then selected the 20 items to be in- was established through students of the virtual Practi- cluded in the definitive questionnaire. Of these, the top cum II on Young ICT Research and Gender, from the ten were positively formulated and the other ten were Psychology Degree programme at the Universitat Ober- inversely recoded (see the contents of the items in Ta- ta de Catalunya, who lived in Spain, Germany and In- ble 2). The format of responses used a Likert-type scale dia. By proximity, they contacted key informant women of 1 to 5 (1 = strongly disagree, to 5 = strongly agree) whom they approached directly, explaining the goals of (Likert, 1932). the research and inviting them to participate. In turn, they were asked to recruit other women through their social Procedure networks, encouraging them to participate. In this way, we generated a wide profile of women – in terms of age, Using Google’s electronic forms tool (Google Forms), we level of studies, and profession – from thethree countries ask closed women for their participation by email. This mentioned. The characteristics of the sample can be seen email outlined the objectives of the study and the condi- in Table 1. tions of participation, and a link to the questionnaire was In terms of their relationship with technology, 65.85% attached. Once these women had answered the question- of Spanish women reported havingaccess to computer sci- naire, they forwarded it to other women with whom they ence only at a user level, while this percentage was higher had a close relationship, through WhatsApp groups or by for women of German and Indian nationality – 86.9% email, for example. and 82.9% respectively. As for their perception of the The questionnaire was made available in three lan- time they had spent on technological learning compared guages (Spanish, German and English), and its trans- to the men around them, 34.7% and 48.6% – Spanish lation from Spanish was reviewed by experts in each of and Indian, respectively – indicated that they had spent the other two languages. In addition, prior to the census less time than men did, while, in the case of German questions, we included a brief description of the study, women, this reached 63.9%. In addition, only 25.7% how it was to be answered, and how long it would take to and 33.3% of Indian and Spanish women, respectively, complete; confidentiality and anonymity of the women were not as encouraged to do technical studies as their were guaranteed. male peers, while for German women this percentage in- Thus, we obtained a total of 647 completed question- creased to 60.7% of women. naires (440, 88 and 119 in Spanish, German and English, respectively). TABLE 1 Data Analysis We conducted a first analysis of the responses given to Instruments the 647 questionnaires in order to refine the data. In this The tool we used in this study was a questionnaire aimed phase, we eliminated 74 questionnaires from the initial at exploring women’s attitudes towards technology, the 440 in Spanish under the criterion of preserving those content of which we designed based on the results and that did not have missing values; 22 questionnaires in conclusions from previous research (Sánchez, Ortega y German were also eliminated for the same reason. Re- Vall-llovera, 2012; Gil-Juarez, Vitores & Feliu, 2015; Gil- garding the questionnaires in English, we removed 49 Juárez, Feliu, Vall-llovera, Calsamiglia y Conesa, 2015). of them on the basis of two criteria: 1) we chose the En- When drafting the questionnaire, we took into account glish-speaking country that had the most responses, which the essential aspects which must be considered to ensure was India, and 2) once the country was selected, we elim- its meticulous construction (Muñiz & Fonseca-Pedrero, inated those questionnaires which had been submitted 2019). withmissing values. The questionnaire has three sections. The first includes The data we analysed corresponded to 366 Spanish census information: age, country of birth and residence, women, 61 German women, and 70 English-speaking educational background, and profession. The second sec- Indian women. First, we carried out a descriptive anal- tion consists of three statements about the woman’s use ysis of the responses to the first and second sections of ANUARIO DE PSICOLOGIA | 51 62 UNDERLYING DIMENSIONS IN ATTITUDE TOWARDS TECHNOLOGY IN A SAMPLE OF SPANISH, GERMAN AND INDIAN WOMEN Table 1. Description – in percentages – of the Spanish, German and Indian samples, by age, level of studies, profession, and per- ception of their relationship with technology. Spain Germany India n = 366 n = 61 n = 70 Age < 20 1.4 3.3 51.4 21- 30 26.8 34.4 14.3 31 - 40 34.2 31.1 32.9 41-50 22.7 21.3 1.4 51-60 11.5 3.3 0 > 60 3.6 6.6 0 Level of studies completed Primary school 1.1 0 2.9 Secondary school 2.2 41.0 44.3 Technical school/Professional license 10.4 18.0 4.3 High school 15.6 0 0 University degree 70.5 36.1 47.1 Other 3.0 4.9 1.4 Profession High school student 3.0 3.3 42.9 College student 11.2 16.4 8.6 Part-time employee 5.7 12.3 14.8 Full-time employee 48.9 57.4 17.1 Self-employed 8.5 3.3 5.7 Unemployed 7.1 0 0 Full-time housewife/homemaker 2.7 0 18.6 Other 8.7 4.9 1.4 I have a very basic understanding of computers Yes 65.8 86.9 82.9 No 34.2 13.1 17.1 I spend less time learning about computers than the men around me Yes 34.7 63.9 48.6 No 65.3 36.1 51.4 I was not encouraged as much as my friends to study technology Yes 33.3 60.7 25.7 No 66.7 39.3 74.3 the questionnaire (Table 1). Later, an exploratory fac- tor analysis using a principal components method was RESULTS calculated for the 20 items of the third section of the Exploratory factor analysis questionnaire for each country. This was done in order to describe the structure of the relationships between them, According to the results of exploratory factor analysis for each of the three nationalities. Prior to the principal and adjustment criteria used to select the relevant com- components analysis, we recoded the inverse items so ponents (Viladrich et al., 1999), from each group we that those with high scores signified a positive attitude eliminated items with little or no relation to others (cor- towards technology. These analyses were performed with relations with a component of less than 0.3). Once these the SPSS Statistics v. 23 program. were eliminated, and after a second analysis (PCA) and varimax rotation, the model that best matched the orig- 63 ANUARIO DE PSICOLOGÍA | 51 MONTSE VALL-LLOVERA, CINTHYA CAMILA MERMA-LINARES, JOEL FELIU, ADRIANA GIL-JUAREZ inal data was that of two components for the groups of 6, it was removed from the Spain and Germany groups Spanish and German women, and three for the Indian for the same reason once the first PCA was carried out. women’s group. Table 2 provides asummary of the results However, this is not the case with item 1, which should obtained, as well as the internal consistency index – alpha not be taken into account for this group, like item 6, for Cronbach – for the total (αtotal) of the items preserved in this component (C1). Thus, we can consider that the first each group. component would summarize items 5, 7, 8, and 13 to 20, which make statements concerning experience with technology and underlying gender stereotypes. TABLE 2 Comparison of the three groups Group of Spanish women At this point in the analysis, we considered reflecting on We eliminated items 6, 10, 11, 12 and 14. From the what the three groups of women share, and what their rotated factorial solution, for the 15 items we kept, we differences are. The comparative summary can be found identified two conceptual groupings. On one hand, in in Table 3. component one (C1) items 1, 5, 7, 8, 9, 13, and 15 to 20 are summarized, the contents of which are basically related to the women’s experience with technology and TABLE 3 in which there are underlying gender stereotypes. On the other hand, the second component (C2) groups those Items 5, 7, 13, and 15 to 20 match in the three groups in items (2, 3 and 4) related to people’s ability to deal with the first component (C1). These share the same charac- technology, and to teach and learn it, i.e., the ability of teristics related to: enjoyment and/or difficulty, and chal- men and women to cope with information and commu- lenges or problem-solving in the field of technology. We nication technologies (ICT) (Table 2). therefore interpret that this set of statements would be part of a dimension in which the pleasure of facing a technological challenge is valued. As for items 2, 3 and 4, Group of German women which, in all three groups, have moderately high and even We kept 16 items, after deleting items 6, 8, 10 and 11, high correlations (> 0.8) in the second component (C2), which coincided with the group of Spanish women re- as we have discussed above, assess the capabilities of men garding items 6, 10 and 11. In interpreting the two-com- and women regarding ICT. ponent rotated factorial solution, we noted that items 12 In contrast, items 1, 8, 9, 11, 12 and 14, which coin- and 14, which directly relate to conceptions of gender cide with content which appeals to gender stereotypes stereotypes, are summarized in the first component (C1). in relation to ICT, in each group different components These are items that, together with items 1, 5, 7, 9, 13, are summarized. We note that for items 8 and 9, in the and 15 to 20, continue to refer to the experience with group of Spanish women, they correlate with the first technology, and in which there are underlying gender component (C1), and these coincide with the Indian stereotypes. In the case of the second component (C2), and the German group, respectively; while item 14 cor- items 2, 3 and 4, related to the capabilities of men and relates with the same component (C1) in the German women regarding ICT, are summarized again (Table 2). and Indian groups; and items 11 and 12 behave differ- ently in each of the groups. The low value for item 1 in the three-component solution for the Indian group is Group of Indian Women highlighted, although it does coincide in the correlation The model that best matched the original data was the in the same component for the groups from Spain and three-component model. In this case, previously, we de- Germany. Finally, item 10, which is the only statement leted a single item (10) and kept the remaining 19 for regarding the possibilities offered by ICT to reconcile analysis. The three-component solution grouped items private life and work, was an item that we removed for 9, 11, and 12 (C3) apart from the rest. Analysing their all groups given its null relationship with the other state- content, they are items that deal with the role of gender in ments. relation to the concept of technology (it is cold and lone- ly; fun and games), and who makes use of it. The second component (C2), in the cases of Spain and Germany, CONCLUSIONS summarizes items 2 to 4 – the capabilities of men and women regarding ICT. Finally, for the first component The results have shown us similarities among groups of (C1), in the rotated solution (Table 2), items 1 and 6 have women of different nationalities in the dimensions un- correlations of less than 0.3 with the other items summa- derlying women’s attitudes towards ICT. Thus, in a first rized therein. It should be noted that in the case of item dimension (C1) we can summarize that the attitude re- ANUARIO DE PSICOLOGIA | 51 64 UNDERLYING DIMENSIONS IN ATTITUDE TOWARDS TECHNOLOGY IN A SAMPLE OF SPANISH, GERMAN AND INDIAN WOMEN Table 2. The rotated factorial saturations (Varimax) obtained from the PCA, percentagesof total variance explained (% σ2t) and total Cronbach alpha coefficients (αtotal), for thegroups of Spanish, German and Indian women (the items which were removed from someof the groups are in italics). Germany India Spain (n = 61) (n = 70) (n = 366) C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2 C3 % σ2t 49.7 42.5 45.9 αtotal .860 .824 .824 Items 1. Computers are machines which are simple to use .434 .570 .130* 2. Men and women are equally capable of using .865 .544 .663 technology 3. Men and women are equally capable of teaching .856 .793 .696 computer technology 4. Men and women are equally capable of learning .915 .731 .572 computer technology 5. I really enjoy working with computers .783 .484 .648 6. If I was more advanced with computer technology, .105* my friends would admire me more 7. I enjoy solving computer problems .655 .657 .674 8. I would like to choose a computer science degree because .481 .541 it would allow me to work from home and have a more balanced professional and private life 9. It is not true that computer technology makes people .482 .447 .480 socially isolated 10. It is easier to have a balanced work and private life when working in technology 11. Girls who like technology are less feminine than others .344 12. Playing videogames is a boy’s thing .340 .603 13. When I have problems with a computer, it’s because .611 .692 .571 I’m really bad with them 14. I think that it is more acceptable for a woman to know .597 .340 less about computers than for a man 15. I’m not really interested in studying computer .777 .314 .745 science 16. I think that technology-related jobs are boring, .764 .612 .727 and I’m not interested in them 17. I don’t enjoy playing most videogames .487 .546 .529 18. I think that computer classes are boring .714 .638 .700 19. I’m more likely than a boy to stop working on a task .539 .803 .482 when presented with technological challenges 20. I use technology, but I don’t enjoy it .728 .740 .565 lated to experience with technology overlaps with gender women. In addition, in the case of the Indian women’s stereotypes, and, in a second dimension (C2), so does the group, we achieved a third dimension (C3): the attitude attitude regarding the ability to teach and learn ICT. related to the role of gender in technology. These differ- However, these matches are dependent on interpreta- ences between India, Spain and Germany, as well as those tion of the dimensions, but not dependent on the set of we have observed for the first dimension, may be attrib- items that are summarized in each of them. We refer in utable to the existence of cultural differences in terms of particular to the first dimension, in which the items that viewpoint and perception of ICT (Li & Kirkup , 2007; form part of it vary according to the nationality of the Vitores & Gil-Juárez, 2015). 65 ANUARIO DE PSICOLOGÍA | 51 MONTSE VALL-LLOVERA, CINTHYA CAMILA MERMA-LINARES, JOEL FELIU, ADRIANA GIL-JUAREZ Table 3. Convergences and divergences in the results of the solutions from the PCA between the Spanish, German and Indian women’s groups (in italics: coincidences in items to be deleted; in bold: coincidences in items grouped in the same components in thethree groups; with an asterisk: the deviations). Germany India Spain C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2 C3 % σ2t 49.7 42.5 45.9 αtotal .860 .824 .824 Items * 1. Computers are machines that are simple to use .434 .570 .130* 2. Men and women are equally capable of using .865 .544 .663 technology 3. Men and women are equally capable of teaching .856 .793 .696 computer technology 4. Men and women are equally capable of learning .915 .731 .572 computer technology 5. I really enjoy working with computers .783 .484 .648 6. If I was more advanced with computer technology, .105* my friends would admire me more 7. I enjoy solving computer problems .655 .657 .674 8. I would like to choose a computer science degree .481 .541 because it would allow me to work from homeand have a more balanced professional and private life 9. It is not true that computer technology makes .482 .447 .480 people socially isolated 10. It is easier to have a balanced work and private life when working in technology * 11. Girls who like technology are less feminine .344 than others * 12. Playing videogames is a boy’s thing .340 .603 13. When I have problems with a computer, .611 .692 .571 it’s because I’m really bad with them * 14. I think that it is more acceptable for a woman .597 .340 to know less about computers than for a man 15. I’m not really interested in studying computer .777 .314 .745 science 16. I think that technology-related jobs are boring, .764 .612 .727 and I’m not interested in them 17. I don’t enjoy playing most videogames .487 .546 .529 18. I think that computer classes are boring .714 .638 .700 19. I’m more likely than a boy to stop working on .539 .803 .482 a task when presented with technological challenges 20. I use technology, but I don’t enjoy it .728 .740 .565 The visual analysis comparing the results of the rotat- that appreciation is treated as something obvious” (Gil- ed solutions for the three groups has shown us that the Juárez, Vitores, & Feliu, 2015, p. 88). Finally, we should same subset of items is maintained, and summarized, in also mention those items in the different groups that have the first dimension (C1), specifically those whose con- been summarized in different dimensions, and that co- tent relates to the affinity for or interest in ICT and the incide with content that appeals to gender stereotypes in challenges it can offer, an attitude that can be interpreted relation to ICT that traditionally attribute pleasure (and as “being a girl [or woman] determines clear appetites their “mastery”) to men (Vergès Bosch, 2012). and tastes in terms of what can and cannot be done, and ANUARIO DE PSICOLOGIA | 51 66 UNDERLYING DIMENSIONS IN ATTITUDE TOWARDS TECHNOLOGY IN A SAMPLE OF SPANISH, GERMAN AND INDIAN WOMEN Limitations vida al teatro social: el caso de la brecha digital degénero. Universitas Psychologica, 14(4), 1583-1598. https://doi. org/10.11144/Javeriana.upsy14-5.imrv At the outset, we said that we were interested in knowing Gil-Juárez, A., Vitores, A. & Feliu, J. (2015). Del género a la the dimensions underlying women’s attitudes of proxim- tecnología y de la tecnología al género: repertorios interpre- ity to or estrangement from ICT. The first results ob- tativos de padres y madres sobre las chicas y los videojuegos. tained from a questionnaire answered by three groups of Revista Communication Papers, 4(6), 81-97. Retrieved from women of three different nationalities have revealed to http://ojs.udg.edu/index.php/CommunicationPapers/issue/ us, as we have already seen, two dimensions. However, view/22 the validity of the inferences and interpretations that can Instituto de la mujer y para la igualdad de oportunidades be made from the questionnaire, as well as their reliabili- (2017). Seminario mujeres y TIC, Mujeres en ciencia y tec- ty, must be tested in future surveys on the basis of the nología 2017. Retrieved from https://www.inmujer.gob.es/ results obtained. areasTematicas/SocInfo/SeminariosEncuentros/Mujer CienciaTecno2017.htm Li, N., Kirkup, G. & Hodgson, B. (2001). Cross-Cultural Acknowledgements Comparison of Women Students’ Attitudes Toward the In- ternet and Usage: China and the United Kingdom. Cyber The authors would like to thank Maria Teresa Abia Psychology & Behavior, 4(3), 415-426. https://doi. Moureau, José Manuel Acosta Rodriguez, Magdalena org/10.1089/109493101300210321 Aguilera Martínez, Esperanza Cases Marquez, Beatriz Li, N. & Kirkup, G. (2007). Gender and cultural differences in Delfa Rodríguez, Oscar Garrido Abril, Javier Méndez Internet use. A study of China and the UK. Computers & Rodriguez, Gemma Ramón Puigdengoles, María Nieves Education, 48(2), 301-317. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. 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