ORIGINAL RESEARCH published: 28 January 2021 doi: 10.3389/fnsys.2021.598383 The Effect of Media Professionalization on Cognitive Neurodynamics During Audiovisual Cuts Celia Andreu-Sánchez 1,2*, Miguel Ángel Martín-Pascual 1,3 , Agnès Gruart 4 and José María Delgado-García 4 1 Department of Audiovisual Communication and Advertising, Neuro-Com Research Group, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain, 2 Serra Húnter Fellow, 3 Technological Innovation, Instituto Radio Televisiòn Española (RTVE), Corporaciòn RTVE, Barcelona, Spain, 4 Division of Neuroscience, University Pablo de Olavide, Sevilla, Spain Experts apply their experience to the proper development of their routine activities. Their acquired expertise or professionalization is expected to help in the development of those recurring tasks. Media professionals spend their daily work watching narrative contents on screens, so learning how they manage visual perception of those contents could be of interest in an increasingly audiovisual society. Media works require not only the understanding of the storytelling, but also the decoding of the formal rules and presentations. We recorded electroencephalographic (EEG) signals from 36 participants (18 media professionals and 18 non-media professionals) while they were watching audiovisual contents, and compared their eyeblink rate and their brain activity and connectivity. We found that media professionals decreased their blink rate after the cuts, Edited by: Alessandro E. P. Villa, suggesting that they can better manage the loss of visual information that blinks entail Neuro-Heuristic Research Group by sparing them when new visual information is being presented. Cuts triggered similar (NHRG), Switzerland activation of basic brain processing in the visual cortex of the two groups, but different Reviewed by: Jose L. Pardo-Vazquez, processing in medial and frontal cortical areas, where media professionals showed a University of A Coruña, Spain lower activity. Effective brain connectivity occurred in a more organized way in media Guy Cheron, professionals–possibly due to a better communication between cortical areas that are Université Libre de Bruxelles, Belgium coordinated for decoding new visual content after cuts. *Correspondence: Celia Andreu-Sánchez Keywords: neurocinematics, professionalization, expertise, connectivity, visual perception, film cuts celia.andreu@uab.cat Received: 24 August 2020 INTRODUCTION Accepted: 05 January 2021 Published: 28 January 2021 Professionalization in anything requires expertise along with a long-time training. As a result, Citation: experts have acquired, through experience, the perceptual skills to make fine discriminations (Klein Andreu-Sánchez C, Martín-Pascual and Hoffman, 1993). Professional athletes have extraordinary skills for learning complex visual MÁ, Gruart A and Delgado-García JM scenes (Faubert, 2013). It has been previously proven that professionalization has an impact on (2021) The Effect of Media Professionalization on Cognitive cognitive neurodynamics in many brain areas. Event-related desynchronization (ERD) in alpha Neurodynamics During Audiovisual and beta frequency bands during action observation is sensitive to expertise in contemporary Cuts. dance. In addition, looking at dance movements evokes desynchronization effects in professional Front. Syst. Neurosci. 15:598383. dancers, but not in non-dancers (Orgs et al., 2008). The influence of motor expertise on action doi: 10.3389/fnsys.2021.598383 observation has also been proven with expert dancers (Calvo-Merino et al., 2005). Expert baseball Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience | www.frontiersin.org 1 January 2021 | Volume 15 | Article 598383 Andreu-Sánchez et al. Media Professionalization Effects players show differential activity in their post-task resting affects viewers’ perception. While cuts in chaotic and fast state consistent with motor learning, and functional differences audiovisuals increase brain activity in the visual cortex, found between expert and non-expert baseball players suggest suggesting an increase of attentional scope, cuts in organized and variability in subcortical white-matter pathways (Muraskin et al., continuous movies increase brain activity in the prefrontal cortex 2016). Taxi drivers show navigation-related structural changes (Andreu-Sánchez et al., 2018), where higher processing areas are in their hippocampi (Maguire et al., 2000, 2006). Expertise located. Interestingly, a study on a very concrete editing rule– in aesthetics modulates cognitive processing and the response the 180◦ rule, which says that two edited shots of the same event in reward-related brain areas (Kirk et al., 2008). The case of or action should not be filmed from different angles that violate musicians may be one of the most studied. For example, it spatial continuity–showed that differences in perception were not has been found that brain structures, including primary motor linked to visual attention but to sensorimotor activity (Heimann and somatosensory areas, differ between musicians and non- et al., 2016). musicians (Gaser and Schlaug, 2003). Professional violinists To detect the effect of media professionalization on the exhibit higher activity in the primary auditory cortex during the viewing of audiovisual cuts, here we have investigated differences execution of a musical piece compared with amateurs, suggesting in brain activity after the cut between media and non- an increased functional strength in the audio-motor associative media professionals. We addressed this goal by analyzing and connectivity (Lotze et al., 2003). Finally, musical expertise is comparing in the two groups the spontaneous eyeblink rate related to altered functional connectivity during audiovisual (SBR), the EEG brain activity, and brain connectivity. integration (Paraskevopoulos et al., 2015). Regarding audiovisual expertise, we have previously found that media professionalization has an impact in visual perception MATERIALS AND METHODS (Andreu-Sánchez et al., 2017b). Media professionals are watching screens steadily over time (taking concomitant decisions with Subjects a high level of attention), and decrease their eyeblink rate not Thirty-six participants (30 males and 6 females) took part in only when watching media works, but also when looking at live this experiment. Eighteen were media professionals (mean events (Andreu-Sánchez et al., 2017a). Media professionals are age: 43.89 ± 8.79; 15 males and 3 females), and the rest constantly paying attention to cuts since those are one of the most were non-media professionals (mean age: 44.06 ± 7.53; 15 common tools for audio-visual editors. Cuts segment narrative males and 3 females). All had normal or corrected-to-normal content, playing a critical role in the proper understanding of vision. For being part of the media professional group, observed visual material (Zacks et al., 2010). Their use has been subjects had to have a job related to video edition, including increasing in cinema in the last few decades, reducing the average taking decisions related to media editing. Media professional length of shots (Cutting et al., 2011). Cuts interrupt the visual participants were producers, assistant producers, cameramen, information that a movie is presenting to viewers, who are image controllers, documentalists, graphic designers, post- nevertheless not conscious of them, provoking a phenomenon production editors, sports commentators, and video editors. called edit blindness (Smith and Henderson, 2008). Both the Media professionals were mostly recruited from the Spanish attentional level and the awareness of cuts depend on the edit Public Television (RTVE) installations in Barcelona. Non-media construction. A chaotic and non-organized style of edition, professionals were carefully chosen outside this criterion. plenty of cuts, decreases viewers’ eyeblinks compared with a They were individuals who did not make decisions related classical edition having fewer and more-organized cuts, and even to media editing and audio-visual cuts in their work. Non- more compared with a one-shot style without cuts (Andreu- media professional participants were journalists with no media Sánchez et al., 2017b). Since eyeblinks can be understood as editing responsibilities, computer specialists, administrative attentional markers when watching movies (Nakano et al., 2009), and management assistants, telecommunication engineers, it is important to note that cuts can have a big impact on the electronics technicians, stylists, specialists in prevention of management of viewers’ attention. Also, memory is better for occupational risks, and executive producers with no artistic information presented after related cuts compared with unrelated profile. Subjects did not receive any economic compensation for cuts between two unrelated scenes (Lang et al., 1993). But this participating in this investigation. event segmentation is linked not only to the style, but also to the meaningful changes in narrative situations (Zacks et al., 2010). In fact, movie viewers move their eyes based on the Ethics Statement presented content (for example, to the current speaker in a After a detailed explanation of the study, written informed depicted conversation), suggesting that despite the changes that consent was signed by all participants. Experiments were carried cuts make in a visual scene, viewers tend to adapt their visual out following guidelines, procedures, and regulations for human behavior to the content (Germeys and D’Ydewalle, 2007). research of the University Autònoma de Barcelona and approved Event-related potentials (ERPs) after the cut are coherent by its Ethics Commission for Research with Animals and with studies on early discrimination of visual stimuli (Thorpe Humans (CEEAH; file number 2003). All experimental sessions et al., 1996). Activity flows from the primary visual zones to were performed at the Neuro-Com Laboratory located at the somatosensory and prefrontal areas (Andreu-Sánchez et al., Spanish Public Television Institute (IRTVE) in Sant Cugat del 2018). Besides, the style of edition in which cuts are inserted Vallès, Barcelona, Spain. Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience | www.frontiersin.org 2 January 2021 | Volume 15 | Article 598383 Andreu-Sánchez et al. Media Professionalization Effects Stimuli and Experimental Design on MATLAB R2013a (The Mathworks Inc., Natick, MA, USA) For the experimental sessions, we created four visual stimuli under a MacOS version 10.9.5 (Apple Inc., Cupertino, CA, USA). with the same duration (198 s) and narrative content, but with We filtered the signal from 0.5 to 3 Hz, applied Brainstorm’s different formats. All stimuli had the same visual content with eyeblink detector, and manually checked the collected results different style of edition. The action consisted of a man who (Tadel et al., 2015). We analyzed original data from Fp1, Fp2, and entered a room with a black background, sat at a desk, juggled EOG electrodes. Following Nakano and Kitazawa (Nakano and with three balls, opened a laptop, looked up some information Kitazawa, 2010), we also checked the results collected with the in books, wrote something in the laptop, closed it, ate an apple, HD-video camera of participants’ faces. To do so and using UNIX looked directly into camera, and left the room. Stimulus 1 was Time for synchronization purposes, we manually played the HD- a one-shot movie; stimulus 2 was a movie edited according to video frame by frame while looking at the time of each eyeblink classical Hollywood rules (Bordwell et al., 1985); stimulus 3 was detected by the Brainstorm’s detector and checking that it was a movie edited according to MTV style (Bordwell, 2002); and in fact an eyeblink. We did not find differences with the other stimulus 4 was a live performance. All stimuli were randomly recording procedures. We quantified the rate of SBR/min. We presented to all participants [see Andreu-Sánchez et al. (2017b) compared two different variables: group (SBR of media vs. non- for details]. The order of presentation of the four stimuli was media professionals) and cut (SBR 1 s after the cut vs. SBR within randomized with the 24 possible combinations to avoid the the rest of the stimuli) through Whitney Rank Sum Tests and impact of sensory adaption and effect of fatigue. The presentation t-tests. To determine normality of data we carried out a Shapiro- of each stimulus was preceded of 30 s of a black screen. Stimulus Will test. The statistical analysis was carried out with Sigmaplot 2 presented 33 cuts and stimulus 3 presented 79 cuts. Since 11.0 (Systat Software Inc., San Jose, CA, USA). the interest of this study was to analyze differences in media professionals compared with non-media professionals while viewing audiovisual cuts, for the present paper we just analyzed Event-Related Potentials, Event-Related Spectrum data collected during the presentation of stimuli 2 and 3. A total Perturbances, and Power Spectrum of 4,032 potential cuts (112 cuts per participant) form the sample We first analyzed EEG data to obtain ERPs, event-related used in this investigation, before discarding bad data. The task spectrum perturbances (ERSPs), and power spectrum. We for participants consisted in just watching the visual stimuli. created a study in EEGLAB (Delorme and Makeig, 2004) Video stimuli were presented on a 42-inch HD LED display open-source version 2019_1, running on MATLAB_R2020a (Panasonic TH-42PZ70EA, Panasonic Industry Iberia, Madrid, (The Mathworks Inc.) under a MacOS High Sierra version Spain), and participants were placed 150 cm in front of the 10.13.6 for comparisons and statistical analysis. Previously, screen. Stimuli were presented and synchronized with the for pre-processing the data, we had used EEGLAB 15.3 on Paradigm Stimulus Presentation (Perception Research System MATLAB R2013a under a MacOS version 10.9.5. We used a Incorporated) and the NIC Offline software (Neuroelectrics, spherical BESA R template for channel location. We band-passed Barcelona, Spain). data with 0.5 and 40 Hz. We processed the data in 1,500 ms windows (from 500 ms before each cut to 1,000 ms after it). For Data Acquisition rejecting artifacts, bad channels, and wrong data, we used visual Continuous EEGs were recorded using a wireless system inspection and the ADJUST plug-in (Mognon et al., 2010) for (Enobio R , Neuroelectrics), with 20 electrodes placed according EEGLAB, after applying independent component analysis. To to the International 10–20 system [O1, O2, P7, P3, Pz, P4, locate dipoles, we used the DIPFIT plug-in (Oostenveld and P8, T7, C3, Cz, C4, T8, F7, F3, Fz, F4, F8, Fp1, Fp2, and an Oostendorp, 2002). We analyzed ERP signatures for different external electrode used for electrooculogram (EOG) recording] periods of the 1,500-ms epochs (−500 to 1,000 ms) through referenced to electronically linked mastoid electrodes [see a three-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) taking as factors Martín-Pascual et al. (2018) for details]. The EOG electrode was the following: (1) professionalization (media professionals, non- positioned vertically at the infraorbital ridge and the lower outer media professionals); (2) scalp area, with three scalp areas canthus of the left eye and was used to monitor eyeblinks. Data (frontal area with F7, F3, Fz, F4, and F8 electrodes; central area were sampled at 500 Hz. In order to have a good quality of with C3, Cz, and C4 electrodes; and parieto-occipital area with EEG signal, participants were asked to wash their hair before P7, P3, Pz, P4, P8, O1, and O2 electrodes); and (3) latency, with attending the session and to avoid any chemical product (such as three time windows (400–600 ms after the cut, 600–800 ms after a hair spray or similar) on it. An HD-video camera (Sony HDR- the cut, and 800–1,000 ms after the cut). We approached ERSPs GW55VE, Sony Corporation España, Barcelona, Spain) recorded in somatosensory area through an unpaired t-test between the at 25 frames/s participants’ faces with a close-up for contrasting electrodes of this specific scalp area. For power spectra analysis, their eye movements and eyeblinks during the analysis of the we analyzed the alpha band (8–12 Hz) for the same three scalp eyeblink rate. areas through Mann-Whitney Rank Sum tests. Analyses were done to contrast differences between media professionals and Data Analysis non-media professionals. Before approaching tests, we checked Spontaneous Eyeblink Rate normality of data with Shapiro-Will normality test. Statistical For analyzing the SBR of each participant, we processed analysis was carried out with EEGLAB Statistics Toolbox and original data with Brainstorm open-source version 3 running Sigmaplot 11.0 (Systat Software Inc.). Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience | www.frontiersin.org 3 January 2021 | Volume 15 | Article 598383 Andreu-Sánchez et al. Media Professionalization Effects Brain Connectivity We computed the average connectivity of GC in the 18 non- We approached brain connectivity from functional and effective media professional participants and in the 18 media professional connectivity analysis. We used clean datasets resulting from the participants after the cut (0–1,000 ms), with a baseline (−500 to 0 described filtering and used the MATLAB toolbox HERMES ms). We did 100 surrogates, with a false discovery rate correction (Niso et al., 2013) for brain connectivity analysis. (FDR) of Type 1 (q = 0.1), MaxDistance 1.5. We did a t-test Functional connectivity can be defined as the temporal to reveal significant differences (p < 0.05) between groups and correlation of a neurophysiological index measured in different plotted them. brain areas (Friston et al., 1993). It implies a temporal For both types of connectivity analysis, we obtained dependency of neuronal activation patterns of anatomically binary outcomes for connectivity relations. Non-significant and separated brain regions (van den Heuvel and Hulshoff Pol, significant relations (p < 0.05) were obtained based on this binary 2010). For analyzing functional connectivity, we used the method approximation among all pairs of electrodes. of phase-locking value (PLV), which detects synchrony in a More information about the implementation of these indices precise frequency range between two recording sites (Lachaux in HERMES is available elsewhere (Niso et al., 2013). et al., 1999). PLV uses responses to a repeated stimulus (in this case, cuts) and looks for latencies at which the phase difference between the signals varies little across trials (phase-locking). RESULTS Given two series of signals (x and y), and a frequency of interest (f), the PLV method computes a measure of phase-locking Spontaneous Eyeblink Rate between the components of x and y at frequency f, for each We identified substantial differences in the SBR related to media latency (Lachaux et al., 1999). So, PLV makes use only of the professionalization. Firstly, we obtained the mean SBR in the relative phase difference and is defined (Niso et al., 2013) as: first second following the cut. While, among all participants, the mean SBR after the cut was 11.07 ± 7.66 min−1 , in non- N media professionals the mean SBR after the cut was 14.94 ± 8.43 D E 1 X i1φ (tn ) PLV = ei1φ rel(t) = e rel min−1 , and in media professionals it was 7.21 ± 4.25 min−1 . The N statistical comparison showed significant differences between the n−1 q 2 2 two groups after the cut (Mann-Whitney U Statistic = 60.5, T = cos1φrel (t) + sin1φrel (t) (1) = 434.5, n = 18, p = 0.001, Mann-Whitney Rank Sum Test). Then, we obtained the mean SBR for the rest of the stimuli. For where <.> indicates time average. 1φrel = φx – φy , where φ is the all participants, the mean SBR was 12.33 ± 7.61 min−1 . In non- phase calculated from the Hilbert transform of x and y signals. media professionals, the mean SBR was 15.79 ± 8.72 min−1 , and We computed the averaged connectivity of PLV in the in media professionals 8.87 ± 4.23 min−1 . We also found, as 18 non-media professional participants and in the 18 media expected, statistically significant differences between groups for professional participants, with 100 surrogates of the original data, the rest of the stimuli (Mann-Whitney U Statistic = 79.5, T = and compared functional connectivity between the two groups 415.5, n = 18, p = 0.009, Mann-Whitney Rank Sum Test). In a in theta (4–8 Hz), alpha (8–12 Hz), low beta (12–20 Hz), high previous study (Andreu-Sánchez et al., 2018), we found that a cut beta (20–28 Hz), and low gamma (28–40 Hz). For the statistical decreases eyeblink rate in viewers during the second following analysis, we applied a t-test with multiple comparisons with false it. Here, we wondered if those differences would be different discovery rate Type 1 (q = 0.1) to the data with 100 surrogates. depending on media professionalization. We found that they are. We looked for significant differences (p < 0.05) between groups. In media professionals, cuts have a greater impact with a decrease Effective connectivity can be understood as the simplest of SBR [t(17) = −2.99, p = 0.008, paired t-test], while cuts seem experimental time-dependent circuit that replicates the timing not to have such an impact in non-media professionals [t(17) = relationships between the recorded sources (Aertsen and Preißl, −1.14, p = 0.269, paired t-test]. These results suggest that, in 1991). It studies the influence that one neural system exerts over line with previous studies (Andreu-Sánchez et al., 2017a), there another (Friston, 1994). For analyzing effective connectivity here, is a media professionalization effect in visual perception of media we used classical linear Granger Causality (GC) (Granger, 1969). contents (Figure 1). The concept behind GC is that for two simultaneously measured signals x(t) and y(t), if one can predict the first signal better by incorporating the past information from the second signal than Event-Related Potentials and by using only information from the first one, then the second Event-Related Spectrum Perturbances signal can be called causal to the first (Wiener, 1956; Granger, We found an effect of media professionalization in ERPs during 1969; Niso et al., 2013). The argument is that when x influences the viewing of audiovisual cuts. As previously reported (Andreu- y, then if you add past values of x(t) to the regression of y(t), an Sánchez et al., 2018), we found significant effects related to scalp improvement on the prediction will be obtained. GC from y to x area [F(2, 306) = 32.367; p < 0.001] and scalp area x latency (predicting x from y) can be defined (Niso et al., 2013) as: [F(4, 306) = 3.647; p = 0.006]. Interestingly, here we also found an effect of professionalization and scalp area [F(2, 306) = 4.822; p = 0.009]. With a Holm-Sidak method for post-hoc pairwise multiple   V x|x GCy→x = ln (2) V x|x, y comparisons, we found significant differences between groups in Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience | www.frontiersin.org 4 January 2021 | Volume 15 | Article 598383 Andreu-Sánchez et al. Media Professionalization Effects FIGURE 1 | SBRs in non-media (red) and media (turquoise) professionals, during the first second after a cut and during the rest of video stimuli without cuts. frontal [t(0.264) = 2.034, p = 0.043] and central [t(0.724) = 5.587, p Alpha Band < 0.001], but not occipital areas (Figure 2). It has been reported that cuts provoke an increase of alpha power Based on previous studies linked to somatosensory area in parieto-occipital electrodes (Andreu-Sánchez et al., 2018). differences related to expertise (Gaser and Schlaug, 2003; However, here we did not find statistically significant differences Orgs et al., 2008), we looked at ERSPs in that specific in the alpha band (8–12 Hz) between media and non-media area, and found that there were differences in C3 (Figure 3). professionals in any of the studied areas either before or after the Media professionals showed greater activity between 7 and cut: frontal area, before the cut (Mann-Whitney U = 131, T = 11 Hz just after the cut, and a lower activity at those 364, n = 18, p = 0.335, Mann-Whitney Rank Sum Test); frontal frequencies between 200 and 300 ms after the cut. This may area, after the cut (Mann-Whitney U = 156, T = 339, n = 18, be linked to a mu rhythm desynchronization, understood as p = 0.862, Mann-Whitney Rank Sum Test); somatomotor area, the attenuation of power in the alpha band recorded over before the cut (Mann-Whitney U = 158, T = 329, n = 18, p = central scalp locations as a reflection of a motor cortex activity 0.912, Mann-Whitney Rank Sum Test); somatomotor area, after (Pfurtscheller, 1977; Pfurtscheller and Lopes da Silva, 1999; the cut (Mann-Whitney U = 145, T = 316, n = 18, p = 0.602, Debnath et al., 2019). Differences found here could depend Mann-Whitney Rank Sum Test); parieto-occipital area, before on the media professionalization expertise. No such differences the cut (Mann-Whitney U = 132, T = 363, n = 18, p = 0.351, were found in Cz or C4, but this would be coincident Mann-Whitney Rank Sum Test); and parieto-occipital area, after with non-symmetric and contralateral sensorimotor activity the cut (Mann-Whitney U = 126, T = 369, n = 18, p = 0.261, (McFarland et al., 2000). Mann-Whitney Rank Sum Test). Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience | www.frontiersin.org 5 January 2021 | Volume 15 | Article 598383 Andreu-Sánchez et al. Media Professionalization Effects FIGURE 2 | Scalp map after the cuts of the three analyzed time windows (400–600, 600–800, and 800–100 ms) of media and non-media professionals. FIGURE 3 | ERSPs in non-media (left) and media (middle) professionals, in electrode C3. The right image shows in pink the statistically significant differences between the two groups (unpaired t-test with no correction method for multiple comparison, p < 0.05). Brain Connectivity cut (Figure 4). In the theta band (4–8 Hz), we found some Phase-Locking Value minor greater connectivity in non-media professionals in P7- We found some significant differences between the two groups P3 and Pz-O2, and in media professionals between Cz and in functional connectivity in all the studied bands after the F7. This suggests a higher functional connectivity in the theta Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience | www.frontiersin.org 6 January 2021 | Volume 15 | Article 598383 Andreu-Sánchez et al. Media Professionalization Effects band in parieto-occipital areas for non-media professionals and Hoffman, 1993). Maybe media professionals can better and in prefrontal area for media professionals. In the alpha manage the fact that cuts are going to be followed by new visual band (8–12 Hz), we also found a higher functional connectivity information that needs to be decoded, and thereby avoid the loss in occipital area in non-media professionals, while media of information that blinks entail, while non-media professionals professionals showed greater connectivity in central-frontal areas are not so aware of cuts, showing a greater edit-blindness. connection (Cz-Fz) and left parietal-frontal connection (P7–F7). The context in which a cut is inserted and the situation to We analyzed the beta band for low-beta (12–20 Hz) and high- which a viewer pays attention affect visual perception (Zacks beta (20–28 Hz) components. We found that in both cases, media et al., 2010; Heimann et al., 2016). It is logical to think that professionals presented a higher functional connectivity between cuts trigger an increase of activity in visual cortex that flows crossed sources (P3–F8), while non-media professionals did not toward medial and frontal areas (Andreu-Sánchez et al., 2018) show a higher PLV index at any point. In low gamma (28– as other visual stimuli do (Thorpe et al., 1996). But since top- 40 Hz), we found that media professionals had a higher functional down directionality has been recently reinforced (Cheron et al., connectivity, mostly in frontal areas (F3, Fz, Cz-Fp2, F4-Fp1, 2014; Halgren et al., 2019) it is important to keep researching F4-Fp2, F8-Fp2), and, again, a crossed flow (P3-F8). Non-media about neuronal flows when watching audiovisual works. To professionals did not show a higher PLV index at any source in date, using EEG signals for estimating the directionality of the low gamma. neuronal flows is debated (Nolte et al., 2008) so further research should be done to complete this work. Here, we found that there Granger Causality are differences between media and non-media professionals in With the aim of comparing effective connectivity between frontal and medial areas, while not in the visual cortex. In those media and non-media professionals after the cut, we analyzed frontal and medial zones non-experts presented a higher activity Granger causality. We obtained some significant differences consistent with previous studies (Hill and Schneider, 2006). in connectivity between groups (Figure 5). According to our Apparently, cuts start the same (or a very similar) activation of results, non-media professionals show a more dispersed GC basic brain processing of the new visual information presented, index in their brain activity, while media professionals’ GC but how that visual content is managed by the two groups differs connectivity is much more concise since it is mostly concentrated afterwards. In most cases, non-media professionals require a in visual cortex, somatomotor, and frontal areas. And there is higher level of activity to process the visual information. One of statistically significant higher activity in media professionals than the most interesting differences was found in the somatosensory in non-professionals in all three of those areas: occipital, medial area in C3. Media professionals showed a greater decrease of and frontal. electrical activity at around 200–300 ms after the cut in C3, and this may be related to mu rhythm suppression during the DISCUSSION observation of actions performed by other persons (Gastaut and Bert, 1954; Muthukumaraswamy et al., 2004); but in this In videos and movies, cuts provoke an artificial interruption case mu rhythm would also be affected by the expertise of the of the narrative content. They are constantly used to present observer. Since previous studies revealed that mu suppression different visual information through different shots and visual is sensitive to degree of familiarity (Oberman et al., 2008), it compositions. A film is a stream of edited moving images could be thought that media professionalization would bring a consisting of hundreds or thousands of individual camera shots greater familiarity with media editing. Moreover, it is interesting patched together (Heimann et al., 2016). But regardless of the to note that according to our results, the cut–and maybe other several times per minute that cuts are present in a film, viewers formal characteristics of the stimuli–could also affect mu rhythm are rarely aware of them, due to the so-called edit blindness suppression during the watching of videos. Our results invite us (Smith and Henderson, 2008). Previous studies showed that to keep researching on event-related synchronization (ERS) and cuts inhibit viewers’ eyeblink rate (Andreu-Sánchez et al., 2017b, desynchronization (ERD) in mu rhythm not only when watching 2018). However, here we found that this happens with a clearer motor activities in videos (Rayson et al., 2016) but also when impact on media professionals, suggesting that this group is more approaching the language of film (Heimann et al., 2014). This is sensitive to cuts. The rate of blinking has been proven to decrease something that should be further investigated with aimed works when a cognitive operation is performed (Holland and Tarlow, for better understanding. 1975; Wong et al., 2002). Some studies have shown that watching The alpha band has been linked with changes in attention a film reduces viewers’ eyeblink rate (Patel et al., 1991; Andreu- (Reeves et al., 1985; Klimesch et al., 1998; Aftanas and Sánchez et al., 2017a), and it has been proposed that this decrease Golocheikine, 2001; Sauseng et al., 2005). Following on from may be a strategy to minimize the loss of visual information the difference of eyeblink rate found here between groups, and (Nakano et al., 2009). The constant presentation of new visual since eyeblinks are understood as markers of the attentional state information by cuts may be related to the decreased blink rate of subjects (Ponder and Kennedy, 1927; York et al., 1971), we in viewers. And the fact that media professionals decrease their were interested in looking for differences in alpha frequencies. eyeblink rate after cuts significantly more than do non-media However, we did not observe significant differences in alpha professionals may be related to the idea that experts can see what band in any of the studied areas. It has been found that is not there and gain the ability to visualize how a situation has alpha frequencies influence whether a visual stimulus reaches developed and to imagine how it is going to turn out (Klein awareness (Mathewson et al., 2009). Since we did not ask Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience | www.frontiersin.org 7 January 2021 | Volume 15 | Article 598383 Andreu-Sánchez et al. Media Professionalization Effects FIGURE 4 | PLVs in non-media (turquoise) and media (red) professionals in different spectral bands: theta (4–8 Hz), alpha (8–12 Hz), low beta (12–20 Hz), high beta (20–28 Hz), and low gamma (28–40 Hz). Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience | www.frontiersin.org 8 January 2021 | Volume 15 | Article 598383 Andreu-Sánchez et al. Media Professionalization Effects FIGURE 5 | Granger causality in non-media (left) and media (middle) professionals, after the cut (0–1,000 ms, with a baseline of −500 ms before the cut), with significance level based on 100 surrogates. On the right, in pink, the statistically significant differences between the two groups (t-test, p < 0.05). Those results correspond to the higher GC indices in media professionals compared with the non-media group. No higher GC indices in non-media professionals were found. participants if they were aware or not of cuts, this connection suggest that media professionals would increase the connectivity should be further studied. While the role of beta oscillations in between primary perceptive areas (such as the visual cortex) visual processing and attention is less clear (McCusker et al., and more-cognitive processing areas (such as the prefrontal 2020) further studies could approach if beta band in media area). But the most-significant differences found between the professionals could be linked with the attention to visual stimuli two groups were in the low gamma band (28–40 Hz). According (Michalareas et al., 2016). Since it has been hypothesized that beta to our results, media professionals showed greater functional oscillations may be stronger if the maintenance of the status quo connectivity related to the frontal area in this frequency band. is predicted than if a change is expected (Engel and Fries, 2010), This may reflect differences in a participant’s current state of it would be interesting learning about expectance to change while attention or expectation (Hanslmayr et al., 2007) and could be watching audiovisual works by the group of media professionals. related to the tendency of gamma to increase during novel stimuli Despite the problem of the volume conduction for stablishing (von Stein et al., 2000). true synchrony (Lachaux et al., 1999) or coherency (Nolte et al., As already explained, we approached differences in effective 2004) through biological tissue toward measurement sensors connectivity between groups through GC. It is presented as (scalp electrodes in this study), here dynamic measurements of a framework to quantify the asymmetric causal interactions functional and effective connectivity were approached through between regions of the cortex and brain states (Sánchez- the PLV and the GC index, respectively. PLV is, of the many Campusano et al., 2011; Courellis et al., 2017). This measurement phase synchronization measurements available in the literature, is fundamental for describing observed data in terms of directed one of the most used (Lachaux et al., 1999). It evaluates functional functional interactions (Seth et al., 2015). Here, we found connectivity through the instantaneous phase difference of the differences in effective connectivity between the two groups signals under the hypothesis that connected areas generate in occipital, parietal, medial, and frontal areas. Overall, media signals whose instantaneous phases evolve together (Bruña et al., professionals showed high GC indices in three independent 2018). Cuts cause a synchronization effect (Andreu-Sánchez areas: occipital, medial, and frontal. It has been possible to et al., 2018), but results reported here suggest that media and distinguish GC in the activity within those areas. However, in non-media professionals show different functional connectivity non-media professionals, the GC found was much less organized when watching cuts. Although those differences are discrete and the connectivity was mostly within all different scalp areas in most of the analyzed frequency bands (theta, alpha, and (see Figure 5). This suggests that effective connectivity may low and high beta), the general trend found here is a higher occur in a more organized way in media professionals due synchronization flow between posterior and frontal areas in to a better connectivity within areas that are coordinated for media professionals. This suggests differences in functional decoding new visual information after cuts. We found that the connectivity related to the expertise in media. Apparently, connectivity originating in those three areas (corresponding with media professionals would increase this kind of connectivity visual cortex, somatomotor area, and frontal area) was stronger after viewing cuts, compared with non-professionals. This could in media professionals. This is coincident with previous studies be related to higher or faster conscious processing of the that attributed stronger connectivity in professionals compared visual information after the cuts, or to a possibly lower edit with control groups to the learning undertaken because of blindness (Smith and Henderson, 2008) in this group. Our results their expertise (Sreenivasan et al., 2017), and that suggested Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience | www.frontiersin.org 9 January 2021 | Volume 15 | Article 598383 Andreu-Sánchez et al. Media Professionalization Effects an increased neural efficiency in the brain of highly skilled ETHICS STATEMENT individuals (Bernardi et al., 2013). The fact that that higher connectivity in media professionals occurs in visual cortex could The studies involving human participants were reviewed and be related to the importance of that area for visual processing in approved by Ethics Commission for Research with Animals and their daily work. Something similar would occur in the frontal Humans (CEEAH). Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona. The area, where higher cognitive processing of the visual information patients/participants provided their written informed consent to may be happening. Nevertheless, further studies would be needed participate in this study. to determine whether relevant differences between the two groups in somatosensory cortex could shed more light on this AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS specific brain area, so many times connected to mu rhythm desynchronization and its possible relation to the mirror neuron CA-S, MÁM-P, AG, and JMD-G experimental design and wrote system (Muthukumaraswamy et al., 2004; Pfurtscheller et al., the article. CA-S and MÁM-P carried out experiments and data 2006). analysis. All authors contributed to the article and approved the There are dozens of experiments tracking learning or expert submitted version. performance. Patterns are beginning to emerge showing that learning and skilled performance produce changes in brain FUNDING activation depending on the brain structure and the nature of the skill being learned (Hill and Schneider, 2006). The present This study was supported by grants from the Spanish Ministry study extends other studies of expertise showing that expertise of Economy and Competitiveness (BFU2017-82375-R) and the and professionalization impact on cognitive neurodynamics Spanish Junta de Andalucía (BIO-122 and PY18FR_823). (Bilalić, 2017). Learning how media professionals approach the perception of audiovisual works’ may be useful in those areas ACKNOWLEDGMENTS that use screened content for training specific capabilities, such as aeronautics, some professional sports, or even basic education, We thank participants in this study. We also acknowledge: the among others. Institute of Spanish Public Television (IRTVE) for support and facilities, Bruno Tagliaferri for technical help during the design of DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT stimulus presentation, Juan Antonio Gamero for support in the edition of movie stimuli, and Santiago Gómez for constructing The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be the experimental set-up. We also thank Mr. Roger Churchill for made available by the authors, without undue reservation. correcting the English of the manuscript. REFERENCES Bordwell, D., Staiger, J., and Thompson, K. (1985). Classical Hollywood Cinema: Film Style and Mode of Production to 1960. 1st Edn. London: Routledge. Aertsen, A., and Preißl, H. (1991). “Dynamics of activity and connectivity doi: 10.2307/1772109 in physiological neuronal networks,” in Nonlinear Dynamics and Neuronal Bruña, R., Maestú, F., and Pereda, E. (2018). Phase locking value revisited: teaching Networks, ed H. G. 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Neurosci. 22, 2917–2926. doi: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2005.04482.x Conflict of Interest: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the Seth, A. K., Barrett, A. B., and Barnett, L. (2015). Granger causality absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a analysis in neuroscience and neuroimaging. J. Neurosci. 35, 3293–3297. potential conflict of interest. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4399-14.2015 Smith, T. J., and Henderson, J. M. (2008). Edit blindness: the relationship between The reviewer GC declared a past co-authorship with two of the authors AG attention and global change blindness in dynamic scenes. J. Eye Mov. Res. and JMD-G to the handling editor. 2, 1–17. doi: 10.16910/jemr.2.2.6 Sreenivasan, K., Zhuang, X., Banks, S. J., Mishra, V., Yang, Z., Deshpande, G., Copyright © 2021 Andreu-Sánchez, Martín-Pascual, Gruart and Delgado-García. et al. (2017). 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