ORIGINAL RESEARCH published: 02 March 2021 doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.623312 Context Matters: Teaching Styles and Basic Psychological Needs Predicting Flourishing and Perfectionism in University Music Students Dora Herrera 1*, Lennia Matos 1 , Rafael Gargurevich 1 , Benjamín Lira 1 and Rafael Valenzuela 2 1 Department of Psychology, Pontifical Catholic University of Peru, Lima, Peru, 2 Department of Social Psychology and Quantitative Psychology, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain Professional musicians are expected to perform at a very high level of proficiency. Many times, this high standard is associated with perfectionism, which has been Edited by: Jesus de la Fuente, shown to prompt both adaptive and maladaptive motivational dynamics and outcomes University of Navarra, Spain among music students. The question about how perfectionism interplays with Reviewed by: motivational dynamics in music students is still unanswered and research within Donald Sharpe, this line is scarce, especially in Latin America. In the light of Self-Determination University of Regina, Canada Jian Li, Theory (SDT), this cross-sectional study investigated the relationship between the Beijing Normal University, China perceptions of motivational context (teachers’ motivating styles: autonomy supportive *Correspondence: or controlling), basic psychological needs (satisfaction/frustration), perfectionism Dora Herrera diherrer@pucp.pe (adaptive/maladaptive), and flourishing in University music students from Lima, Peru (N = 149; mean age = 20.68, SD = 3.03; 71% men). We performed a path analysis Specialty section: testing a model in which motivational teaching styles predicted both, perfectionism and This article was submitted to Educational Psychology, flourishing via need satisfaction and frustration. The model’s fit indices were ideal [χ2 a section of the journal (7, N = 143) = 7.48, p = 0.300, CFI = 0.998, TLI = 0.992, RMSEA = 0.021, SRMR Frontiers in Psychology =0.040]. In this model, perceived autonomy supportive style predicted need satisfaction Received: 29 October 2020 positively and need frustration negatively; perceived controlling teaching style did not Accepted: 01 February 2021 Published: 02 March 2021 predict need satisfaction nor frustration. In turn, need satisfaction positively predicted Citation: adaptive perfectionism (i.e., high standards) and flourishing; whereas, need frustration Herrera D, Matos L, Gargurevich R, predicted maladaptive perfectionism (i.e., discrepancy). These results shed light on the Lira B and Valenzuela R (2021) Context Matters: Teaching Styles and relevance of perfectionism in the psychology of higher music education students. Lastly, Basic Psychological Needs Predicting we highlight the importance of autonomy support in fostering adaptive high standards Flourishing and Perfectionism in and flourishing in music learning. University Music Students. Front. Psychol. 12:623312. Keywords: perceived autonomy support teaching style, perceived controlling teaching style, basic psychological doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.623312 need satisfaction, basic psychological need frustration, perfectionism, flourishing Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 1 March 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 623312 Herrera et al. Context, Motivational-Dynamics, Perfectionism, Music Students INTRODUCTION Considering the role that context can have in need satisfaction, research developed based on the SDT framework signals Life without music would be unimaginable. No culture has that teaching styles are crucial for students’ motivation and existed without it (Brown et al., 2000). Musicality has been an wellbeing (Ryan and Deci, 2017). Thus, an autonomy-supportive integral part of human activity far earlier than first thought context positively predicts basic psychological need satisfaction, (Miller, 2009), and music-making is at least as old as humanity (Weinstein and Ryan, 2010; Ryan and Deci, 2017); whereas the itself. Music is highly relevant, even for non-musicians, and it has experience of need frustration occurs when basic psychological evolved with the advent of language, figurative art, and human needs are thwarted by a controlling teaching style (Vansteenkiste civilization (Higham et al., 2013). and Ryan, 2013). Mastering musical skills requires experience and technical Autonomy supportive teachers play a relevant role in know-how that is usually acquired through formal instruction developing students’ motivational resources. Such professors enabling high levels of performance (Bennett and Stanberg, 2008; generally listen to pupils’ perceived problems, respond to Gaunt, 2011; Evans and Bonneville-Roussy, 2016). Consistent questions, offer alternatives to choose from, minimize external with these high expectations, evidence shows that perfectionism control, recognize and respect students’ feelings and, lastly, also is regularly present among students of higher music education. facilitate the use of specific learning strategies (Ulstad et al., Partly, because—as professionals—they will be held to a 2016, 2018). Conversely, controlling teachers use the opposite proficient performance standard (Grey, 2017). style during instruction (Deci and Ryan, 1985; Ryan and Deci, Perfectionistic tendencies start manifesting early in students’ 2017). They pressure students to think, feel, or behave in specific lives, with prevalence increasing between the ages of 10 and 17, ways (Reeve et al., 2004; Assor et al., 2005; Reeve, 2009). Music especially among girls (Patston and Osborne, 2016). Previous students at the University level are generally faced with low levels research has also stated that music learners’ experiences may be of context-derived autonomy support, given that their professors influenced by different social contexts, like the family, from an tend to be prescriptive and this leaves little margin for students’ early age (9–11 years old), given that the development of musical input regarding practice activities, which in turn has effects on attitudes, intentions, and abilities can be explained by family their experiences and motivation (Evans, 2015). background (Valenzuela and Codina, 2014). Need satisfaction matters in specific ways in arts and music Contextual influences are part of higher music education (i.e., education. High schoolers with higher levels of need satisfaction University level). Students as pupils have to navigate the process ascribed a higher value to instrumental practice, which in turn of learning to perform their musical instruments at a proficient predicts their intentions of choosing elective music classes (Freer level through one-on-one tuition. At the same time, they deal and Evans, 2017). There are also findings, in the field of arts, with competitive social environments and face high levels of showing that basic psychological need satisfaction supports career uncertainty to be a successful musician. It is evident creativity, while basic psychological need thwarting is related that music students have to deal with many pressures, and it to perfectionism in young ballet students (Nordin-Bates and is unavoidable that higher music education students will have Kuylser, 2020). to cope with these high-performance standards and challenges On the other hand, basic psychological need thwarting is (Bennett and Stanberg, 2008; Gaunt, 2011; Evans and Bonneville- associated with maladaptive perfectionism as well (Costa et al., Roussy, 2016). 2015). It should be noted that, besides the importance of context It is also important to consider the influences of context on for basic psychological need satisfaction, the satisfaction of motivational dynamics in higher music education. A theoretical these needs has been shown to predict flourishing; especially, perspective that pays attention to contextual influences is Self- relatedness need satisfaction has shown predominance in the Determination Theory (SDT). The theory underscores that prediction of flourishing among University students (Mesurado some contexts may support the satisfaction of the three et al., 2016). And also participants of different generations and a basic psychological needs, which are considered universal wide range of ages have reported enjoyment for being involved in psychological nutrients to grow and develop (Ryan and Deci, music learning programs in Australia (Ellis, 2018). 2000, 2017). These needs are (i) autonomy, (ii) competence, and In the same vein, but from a person-context interaction (iii) relatedness (or non-isolation) (Deci and Ryan, 1985; Ryan perspective, individuals’ immediate environments, including and Deci, 2000, 2017). parental practices, family environment, and school type, may Autonomy refers to the volition and experience of freedom shape the development of perfectionism at a personal level when carrying out an activity; competence includes the feeling (Flett et al., 2002; Hibbard and Davies, 2011; Hewitt et al., of effectiveness and confidence in pursuing a desired outcome; 2017; Curran and Hill, 2019). In the musical field, pupils and relatedness implicates the feeling of being accepted by others with higher levels of perfectionism are prone to performance and connected to others in a secure environment (Ryan, 1995; anxiety and to being concerned about making mistakes when Ulstad et al., 2016; Ryan and Deci, 2017). These needs are performing. Interestingly, higher levels of perfectionism have preconditions for human growth and development (Ryan and been found among musicians with more years of experience, and Deci, 2017). In this regard, in music educational settings, an the relationship between perfectionism and music performance autonomy-supportive teaching motivational style can support anxiety increases during early adolescence until the end students’ basic psychological need satisfaction (Freer and Evans, of schooling (Patston and Osborne, 2016). This particular 2019). association is very common among music students, as it has been Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 2 March 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 623312 Herrera et al. Context, Motivational-Dynamics, Perfectionism, Music Students reported in different ages and levels of ability and experience satisfaction of which will ultimately predict students’ wellbeing of music learners, including those enrolled in higher education (i.e., flourishing) and adaptive perfectionism. This is particularly (Patston, 2014). important for music students who are immersed in a competitive Despite these negative associations, perfectionism also has context and individual teaching. a favorable dimension, associated with favorable outcomes Using SDT as a framework, this cross-sectional study at a psychological level. In this sense, Slaney et al. (2001) aims to investigate the relationship between the perception distinguished two different dimensions of perfectionism. The of motivational context (teaching motivating style: autonomy first denotes a high standard or striving-for-perfection, which has support and control), basic psychological needs (satisfaction mainly adaptive aspects (Rice et al., 2014); and the other refers and frustration), perfectionism (standards and discrepancy), to self-discrepancy, which involves the difference between the and flourishing in University music students. The hypothetical person’s real performance and their stated standard (Slaney et al., model postulates that a perceived autonomy-supportive teaching 2001) which is primarily maladaptive (e.g., Stoeber and Otto, motivational style positively predicts adaptive perfectionism 2006). These two dimensions of perfectionism are conceptually (standards) and flourishing, mediated by basic psychological distinct and statistically independent and, thus, incompatible need satisfaction; and that a perceived controlling teaching with a single bipolar dimension (Rice et al., 2014). motivational style positively predicts maladaptive perfectionism Research findings show that people who hold high personal (discrepancy) and negatively flourishing, mediated by basic standards but are not characterized by negative self-evaluation psychological need frustration (see Figure 1). This goes in line have been classified as normal, healthy, or adaptive perfectionists with the bright and dark side of motivation respectively (Haerens (Rice and Mirzadeh, 2000; McArdle and Duda, 2004). It has et al., 2015) been also pointed out that a high standard of perfectionism is associated with positive results such as higher performance, METHODS academic achievement, self-confidence, and lower anxiety (Stoeber and Otto, 2006; Kira et al., 2018). In contrast, Participants and Procedure people who report high personal standards and strong negative Participants were 149 undergraduate University music students self-evaluation tendencies, have been considered neurotic, from Lima, Peru. They were mostly men (71%, n = 106) and dysfunctional, or maladaptive perfectionists (McArdle and Duda, their ages ranged from 17 to 33 (M = 20.68, SD = 3.03) years 2004). When individuals perceive self-discrepancy between their old. The sample included students from first year (28.2%), second high standards and their behavior, they tend to feel persistent year (20.1%), third year (21.5%), or higher years (29.5%) in self-blame, to self-evaluate in an overly critical manner, and a 5-year program. Most of their parents had post-secondary to become concerned about others’ criticism (Dunkley et al., education (97%). 2003; Litz et al., 2009; Kira et al., 2018). In the same line, The Ethics Committee of our University approved the other findings have shown that higher discrepancy scores are research project. Participants signed informed consent and assent significantly and negatively related to academic achievement. forms, which described the purpose of the study, and that their This self-discrepancy is maladaptive, as it led to difficulties participation was voluntary and anonymous. in managing painful feelings and to a tendency to suppress Assessments were conducted during regular class hours. After them. And most worryingly, students who were characterized as contacting University authorities, they provided classrooms and maladaptive perfectionists reported higher levels of depression scheduled time for the students to fill-out the questionnaires, (Rice et al., 2014). which took 20 min. As previously mentioned, perfectionism is relevant among music students, and, thus, it comes to no surprise that contextual Measures influences, such as controlling teaching style have been All items were answered using a seven-point Likert-type scale shown to lead to maladaptive perfectionism, low self-esteem, ranging from 1 (totally disagree) to 7 (totally agree). All obsessiveness, anxiety, negative affect, and exhaustion (Haraldsen questionnaires, originally developed in English, were translated et al., 2020). This signals that maladaptive perfectionism may into Spanish in previous studies and were adapted for Peruvian be a by-product of contextual influences, such as controlling University students of music for this study. teaching. Previous studies have also reported that University music students, when their basic psychological needs were Teaching Motivational Styles satisfied by their learning contexts, preferred more challenging Perceived autonomy support from the teacher was measured tasks, greater frequency of practice, and invested themselves in using the six-items from the short version of the Learning better quality practice as well (Evans and Bonneville-Roussy, Climate Questionnaire (LCQ—Williams and Deci, 1996) adapted 2016). for Peru (Matos et al., 2018). Perceived teacher control was The relevance of understanding perfectionism and flourishing measured using the four-item Controlling Teacher Scale (CTS— in students of higher music education is evidenced by the Jang et al., 2009) adapted for Peru (Matos et al., 2016). The important downstream effects these two phenomena have on autonomy support and controlling teaching styles perceived by musicians’ careers. However, these variables need to be analyzed the students were assessed considering the music (instrument) alongside basic psychological need satisfaction/frustration, and performance teaching professor. All the students who answered considering context that supports or thwarts these needs, the the questionnaire were referring to professors of these courses. Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 3 March 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 623312 Herrera et al. Context, Motivational-Dynamics, Perfectionism, Music Students FIGURE 1 | Hypothetical model. Some of the items are Header: In class, when the professor teaches to measure discrepancy (maladaptive perfectionism), and four me how to play an instrument. . . “I feel that my professor gives items to measure standards (adaptive perfectionism). Examples me options and possibilities to choose different ways” (autonomy of items for each dimension are “My highest accomplishment is support) and “My teacher puts a lot of pressure on me” (control). never good enough to me.” “I have high standards in relation to In this study, both questionnaires were analyzed together in a my musical performance in class.” This questionnaire has been single CFA considering Autonomy Support and Control as latent adapted and translated in prior research in Peru (Herrera et al., variables as has been previously done (Matos et al., 2018). CFA 2011). In this sample, the two-factor model fit was appropriate obtained satisfactory fit indices (χ2 = 78.79, df = 34, p < 0.001, (χ2 = 41.56, df = 19, p = 0.002, CFI = 0.98, TLI = 0.97, RMSEA CFI = 0.97, TLI = 0.96, RMSEA = 0.095, SRMR = 0.077). = 0.090, SRMR = 0.079). The factor loadings ranged from 0.69 Perceived autonomy support had factor loadings ranging from to 0.75 for standards and 0.68 to 0.78 for discrepancy. Reliability 0.54 to 0.84, and Cronbach’s alpha internal consistency coefficient was adequate for both subscales: standards (Cronbach’s alpha = was 0.82. Perceived teacher control had factor loadings ranging 0.74) and discrepancy (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.79). from 0.48 to 0.65 and a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.58. Although 0.58 is a low coefficient, low alpha levels (0.50 or higher) have been Flourishing justified for research purposes (Nunnally, 1967, 1978 cited in Flourishing was measured using Diener et al. (2010) eight- Lance et al., 2006), as interpreting alpha requires taking into item Flourishing Scale, which has been translated and adapted consideration the number of items that comprise the scale (Taber, to the Spanish speaking context of Peru (Cassaretto and 2018). Martinez, 2017). Two items were not considered because of discriminant validity concerns with basic need satisfaction: Basic Psychological Needs these two items overlapped with relatedness satisfaction and To evaluate need satisfaction and frustration we used the 24 competence satisfaction (item 2 “My social relationships are item Basic Psychological Need Satisfaction and Frustration Scale supportive and rewarding” and item 5 “I am competent and (BPNSFS —Chen et al., 2015). This scale was developed in capable in the activities that are important to me”). This six-item four countries simultaneously (Belgium, USA, China, Peru) version obtained adequate psychometric properties (χ2 = 17.84, showing good psychometric properties in a multigroup analysis df = 9, p < 0.001, CFI = 0.99, TLI = 0.99, RMSEA = 0.082, and in each country individually. In this sample, the scale SRMR = 0.030. Cronbach’s alpha = 0.89. Range of factor loadings obtained adequate fit in a confirmatory factor analysis with need = 0.66–0.83). satisfaction and frustration as the two latent variables (χ2 = 597.18, df = 251, p < 0.001, CFI = 0.97, TLI = 0.97, RMSEA = Design and Data Analytic Strategy 0.097, SRMR = 0.084). The need satisfaction scale had adequate This is a cross sectional study. In all analyses, R Statistics reliability (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.90) and high factor loadings Software Lavaan package was employed (Rosseel, 2012). We (ranging from 0.57 to 0.88). The need frustration also obtained used confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to generate factor scores adequate reliability (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.87) and somewhat which were then used as input for the path models looking at lower, yet acceptable factor loadings (ranging from 0.30 to 0.81). the relationship between variables. This approach has been used Examples of items for each scale are Header: When I am in this before in SDT research, as it preserves factor loading information music class. . . . “I feel I have been doing what really interests me,” in the scores, making them a more valid estimation of the latent “Most of the things I do, feel like ‘I have to”’. variable than mean scores (DiStefano et al., 2009; Albuquerque et al., 2017). Perfectionism We used maximum likelihood estimation with robust Perfectionism was measured using the short form of the Revised standard errors as well as a Satorra-Bentler scaled test Almost Perfect Scale (Rice et al., 2014), which uses four items statistic (i.e., MLM) which is robust to ordinal data and Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 4 March 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 623312 Herrera et al. Context, Motivational-Dynamics, Perfectionism, Music Students non-normal distributions (Brown, 2015). We built a path Path Analysis model according to the bright and a dark side of motivation We tested the hypothesized model (Figure 1). To control for the (Haerens et al., 2015) where autonomy support predicts potential effects of sex, models included sex as a predictor of need flourishing and adaptive perfectionism (standards), mediated by satisfaction, need frustration and flourishing, since there were need satisfaction; while controlling style predicts maladaptive significant point biserial correlations between sex in these three perfectionism (discrepancy), mediated by need frustration. variables (see Table 1). However, no significant effects were found We computed indirect, direct, and total effects to assess the for these variables, so they are not presented. mediational role of need satisfaction and frustration between The model obtained optimal fit, which is expected under a context variables and outcomes. We allowed our outcomes to be model that is almost fully saturated [χ2 (7, N = 143) = 7.48, correlated, because prior research has established that adaptive p = 0.300, CFI = 0.998, TLI = 0.992, RMSEA = 0.021, SRMR perfectionism is related to well-being (e.g., Rice and Mirzadeh, = 0.040]. 2000; McArdle and Duda, 2004). Figure 2 shows standardized path coefficients, as well as the The fit of path models was evaluated using multiple fit indices: direct and indirect effects. The perception of teacher autonomy RMSEA, SRMR, CFI, and TLI. According to Hu and Bentler support, positively predicted need satisfaction and negatively (1999) we aimed for values of CFI higher than 0.95, RSMEA lower predicted need frustration. In turn, need satisfaction predicted than 0.07 and SRMR lower than 0.09. positive outcomes (flourishing and adaptive or high standard perfectionism) while need frustration, positively predicted maladaptive perfectionism (discrepancy). RESULTS The model accounted for 48% of the variance in flourishing, 32% of the variance in maladaptive perfectionism (discrepancy) Descriptive and Correlation Analyses and 17% of the variance of adaptive perfectionism (standards). Means, standard deviations and correlations among the studied The mediators, need satisfaction and frustration, have more variables can be seen in Table 1, and several significant modest proportions of variance explained (21 and 10%, correlations were found among the studied variables. From respectively). Need satisfaction was a significant mediator the demographic variables, only sex obtained significant point- between autonomy support and flourishing (standardized biserial correlations with the studied variables. Sex correlated indirect effect = 0.27, p = 0.003) and standards (standardized positively with need satisfaction and flourishing while negatively indirect effect = 0.15, p = 0.002). with need frustration. Following Kenny (2018), we only report proportion of As expected, autonomy support was negatively related to mediation for variables where the absolute standardized total control, positively related to need satisfaction, negatively related effect is greater than.20. In our sample this is only the case for to need frustration, and positively related to standards and the mediation between autonomy support, need satisfaction and to flourishing. Control in turn, was positively related to need standards, where 60.10% of the relationship between autonomy frustration and negatively to need satisfaction. Need satisfaction support and standards is mediated by need satisfaction. and frustration were negatively related to each other, and showed significant relations to flourishing, standards and discrepancy, with need satisfaction being related to positive outcomes (and DISCUSSION negatively related to negative outcomes). Finally, flourishing was positively correlated to standards, and negatively related The aim of the present cross-sectional study was to investigate the to discrepancy. role of perceived motivational context, specifically, of perceived TABLE 1 | Means, standard deviations and correlations between the studied variables. Variable 1a 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1. Sexa 2. Autonomy support 0.14 3. Control −0.06 −0.63*** 4. Need satisfaction 0.20* 0.46*** −0.29*** 5. Need frustration −0.19* −0.33*** 0.24** −0.65*** 6. Standard 0.13 0.27*** −0.10 0.44*** −0.28*** 7. Discrepancy −0.14 −0.15 0.02 −0.37*** 0.55*** 0.00 8. Flourishing 0.18* 0.25** −0.11 0.69*** −0.47*** 0.45*** −0.36*** Mean – 5.37 2.93 5.63 2.88 5.73 4.13 5.77 Standard deviation – 1.05 1.08 0.87 1.02 0.84 1.30 0.93 Note. N = 149; a = point biserial correlations. Correlations are based on factor scores. *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001. Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 5 March 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 623312 Herrera et al. Context, Motivational-Dynamics, Perfectionism, Music Students FIGURE 2 | Path model. autonomy supportive or controlling teaching motivating predict need frustration. Instead, a path that had not been styles, in predicting adaptive or maladaptive perfectionism expected appeared in the model, namely, autonomy support and flourishing via basic psychological need satisfaction or negatively predicted need frustration. However, these unexpected frustration in University music students. We expected that findings are consistent with the theoretical framework of SDT. perceived autonomy supportive teaching style would positively To put the findings into perspective, it is important to note predict flourishing and adaptive perfectionism (i.e., high that our research is aligned with SDT’s notions of bright and standards) via basic psychological need satisfaction; and, in dark sides of motivational dynamics. According to relevant turn, perceived controlling teaching style would positively research within SDT (Haerens et al., 2015), the first route, predict maladaptive perfectionism (i.e., discrepancy) via basic or “bright” side, implies that perceived autonomy supportive psychological need frustration. teaching style (context) is expected to predict autonomous The results of the present study suggest that adaptive and motivation positively via basic psychological need satisfaction, maladaptive forms of perfectionism are related to contextual ultimately, leading to well-being (Vansteenkiste and Ryan, 2013); influences. This is consistent with views in which a person- and that, a “dark” side would go from perceived controlling context interaction shapes perfectionism (Flett et al., 2002; teaching style toward controlled motivation, amotivation, and Hibbard and Davies, 2011; Hewitt et al., 2017; Curran and Hill, oppositional defiance, via basic psychological need frustration 2019). Since the model fit was optimal, these findings suggest (Haerens et al., 2015). Considering these two paths, different that motivational contexts in which expectations or criticism studies examined what has been named as the bright and dark from others might be relevant for students’ experiences (McArdle sides of motivation (Rodrigues et al., 2020). and Duda, 2004; Cupido, 2018) may set crucial conditions for As described above, these notions have been partially need satisfaction and frustration, in turn, prompting adaptive supported by our results, insofar as the found effects were and maladaptive perfectionism, and flourishing. as expected on the bright side, but not totally on the dark Focusing particularly on a highly demanding environment side. In this sense, our findings suggest that indeed context such as University music education programs, it is possible matters, given that—at least on the bright side—the motivating to argue that this type of context can play a role in style of the teacher predicted the outcomes of well-being students’ motivational dynamics and its outcomes. In this such as adaptive perfectionism and flourishing, via the respect, our findings show, firstly, that a perceived autonomy positive effects that they can have on basic psychological supportive teaching motivational style is a positive predictor need satisfaction. Notwithstanding—on the dark side—our of basic psychological need satisfaction, adaptive perfectionism findings did not fully support the postulated motivational (standard), and flourishing, in line with theoretical postulates dynamics: basic psychological need frustration positively (Ryan and Deci, 2017; Nordin-Bates and Kuylser, 2020). predicted maladaptive perfectionism (discrepancy) but, in On the other hand, as expected, need frustration did indeed contrast with our expectations, controlling teaching style did not predict maladaptive perfectionism (discrepancy) positively; but predict need frustration positively, and in turn need frustration breaking away from theoretical expectations, our results did was predicted negatively by autonomy supportive teaching not support that controlling teaching motivational style would motivating style, in this way accounting for the occurrence of Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 6 March 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 623312 Herrera et al. Context, Motivational-Dynamics, Perfectionism, Music Students a crossed path not considered in the hypothetical model of Considering that the main aim of research within human independent bright and dark sides of motivation. However, sciences is to uncover the psychological processes leading perceived autonomy supportive motivating style negatively to improving human condition (Ryan and Deci, 2000), it predicted the frustration of basic psychological needs. This path is indispensable to acknowledge that, as humans, we have signals that, in this sample of music students, psychological both the potential for growth, integration, and well-being; but need frustration may not necessarily be predicted by higher also, the vulnerability to defensiveness, aggression, and ill- perceived controlling motivating style, but instead by different being (Vansteenkiste and Ryan, 2013). Accordingly, the present levels of autonomy supportive style. Further studies in samples of contribution opens new ways of analyzing what is psychologically music students will be required to assess if this relation between happening in a music class. Universities could profit from these autonomy support and need frustration finds replication, and initial findings in the field of Peruvian higher music education also to consider if -in such a case- this association would be to be able to contribute to the description, explanation, and specific to University music students’ motivational dynamics. prediction of human behavior, as well as to apply these to Another reason why the theoretically expected relationship the promotion of positive human experience in higher music between controlling teaching style and need frustration was not education (Herrera et al., 2018). observed, could be measurement error; as controlling teaching It is possible to conclude that motivational dynamics in style was measured using a four-item scale which obtained a low University music students are articulated as two competing reliability coefficient. As such, it is possible that measurement influences: one, in which contextual basic psychological need error might have suppressed the relationship between control support leads to need satisfaction, well-being and adaptive teaching style and need frustration which exists according perfectionism; and another, in which basic psychological to theory. need thwarting leads to need frustration and maladaptive The present findings allow us to articulate both the perfectionism. This way of enhancing motivation and its positive adaptive (standard) and maladaptive (discrepancy) dimensions outcomes through contextual support provides clear arguments of perfectionism with, respectively, the bright and dark sides of for researchers and policy makers in the field of higher music motivational dynamics postulated by SDT (e.g., Haerens et al., education, to continue deepening the knowledge about how 2015). In this respect, the standard perfectionism dimension to design and implement pedagogical processes leading to the appears to be located within a network of bright side variables development of inner motivational resources. Teachers can aligned with well-being (e.g., need satisfaction and flourishing); be trained to provide autonomy support to benefit students’ whereas, the discrepancy dimension of perfectionism would have motivational processes (Cheon et al., 2020). Nonetheless, on the to be considered as a part of a dark side variable network, dark side of motivation, specifically in University music students, including need frustration and potentially other ill-being further research will be necessary to more precisely describe the variables, such as maladaptive perfectionism or discrepancy. relationships between contextual and personal variables. We suggest that future studies could also ponder the role of adaptive or standard perfectionism for well-being, including the analyses of its potential interactions with performance in DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT the occurrence of flourishing, or its potential mediating effects between contextual aspects (e.g., teaching motivational styles) The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will and well-being. be shared with interested scholars who request them from the Lastly, this study sheds light on motivational processes leading corresponding author. to well-being through the facilitation of the conditions that enable people’s growth and flourishing. The present findings are especially relevant for understanding the experiences of ETHICS STATEMENT University music students who must cope with contextual The study, involving human participants, was reviewed and pressure to perform at a very high level, which, as mentioned approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the Pontifical above, could lead to either adaptive or maladaptive outcomes. Catholic University of Peru. Participants were required to Future studies could employ longitudinal designs to analyze the provide informed consent/assent in written form. stability and change of perfectionism in music students. It would be especially interesting to analyze if changes in perceived teacher motivating style longitudinally predict change in perfectionism. AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS It is important to mention at this point that there are some limitations to this research. Firstly, a higher number of DH principal investigator and in charge of preparing, participants would have been desirable, in order to gain a coordinating, and discussing the results and final version greater power to test the relationships derived from the model. of the manuscript. LM main colaborator in the theoretical and However, the population of interest in Peru is both small and empirical section of the article. RG collaborator in theoretical difficult to access. Secondly, given the cross-sectional design and methodological aspects. BL main colaborator in statistical of the present study, relationships among variables could be analysis and results reporting. RV main colaborator in the described at one specific moment only, rendering impossible theoretical discussion of the manuscript framework, data the prediction of long term contextual effects on adaptive and collection, and practical implications. All authors contributed to maladaptive perfectionism. the article and approved the submitted version. Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 7 March 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 623312 Herrera et al. Context, Motivational-Dynamics, Perfectionism, Music Students FUNDING ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors thank the Vice-Rectory of Research of the Pontifical We thank Ps.Yasmin Cerna from the Pontifical Catholic Catholic University of Peru for their financial aid in publishing University of Peru. She provided us assistance during the whole the present contribution. process of preparing the manuscript. REFERENCES Research, and Treatment, eds G. L. Flett and P. L. Hewitt (Washington, DC: American Psychological Association), 89–132. doi: 10.1037/10458-004 Albuquerque, M. R., Lopes, M. C., de Paula, J. J., Faria, L. O., Pereira, E. T., and da Freer, E., and Evans, P. (2017). Psychological needs satisfaction and value in Costa, V. T. (2017). 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