Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 41 (2022) 103125 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jasrep Carrying rocks: Hoarding behaviour in the Gravettian occupation of Cova Gran de Santa Linya (SE Pyrenees) Javier Sánchez-Martínez 1, *, Rafael Mora Torcal 2, Jorge Martínez-Moreno 3, Xavier Roda Gilabert 4, Miquel Roy-Sunyer 5 Centre d’Estudis del Patrimoni Arqueòlogic, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T Keywords: Lithic resources can be accumulated to form caches or hoards as an effective subsistence strategy in response to Southwestern Europe times of stress. Hoarding behaviour is the manifestation of foresighted mechanisms, and is one of the common Gravettian and also little known strategies among forager groups. In this paper, we present the evidence of such behaviour: a Hoarding behaviour deposit of raw material recovered from level 497C of the Cova Gran de Santa Linya (SE Pyrenees). Cache Small scale storage The lithic hoard is made up of 27 chalcedony nodules that have been tested at the site and exhibit great Cova Gran de Santa Linya variability in terms of size and shape. The geostatistical analysis applied to the accumulations of raw materials identified has allowed us to determine spatial relationships between different categories in the archaeological record, such as nodules and cores, and has yielded insight into the use of chalcedony in specific areas of the occupation. The archaeological data suggest that this stockpile of raw material functioned as small-scale storage, consti­ tuting one of the few references about hoarding behaviour during the Palaeolithic, and the first time it has been exhaustively described in the Gravettian on the Iberian Peninsula. The lithic hoard from the Cova Gran allows us to investigate the role played by raw material hoards in the planning of subsistence activities and the organi­ sation of human occupations. 1. Caching behaviour and hoarding behaviour as an example of (accumulation of snow or ice) which may prevent temporarily the small-scale storage resource procurement. However, stone tools are non-perishable mate­ rials, which are less affected by seasonality when they are available in Mobility plays an important role in all forager adaptations, resource the landscape (Kelly, 1983, but see Moreau et al., 2021). This strategic procurement and in the hunter-gatherer lifestyle (Eder, 1984; Shott, attribute implies that they can be acquired along recurring routes or at 1986; Kuhn, 1989; Brantingham, 2006; Kuhn et al., 2016). The pro­ provisioning points within regional mobility circuits (Geneste, 1991, curement of natural resources, and their availability in the environment, sensu Kuhn, 1992), as their collection does not imply their immediate are key considerations in the analysis of the occupational and organ­ use, as is the case with other organic resources (Beyries and Cattin, isational dynamics of a site (Binford, 1980; Binford 1982; Münzel, 2002; 2015; Jacquier and Naudinot, 2015; Dibble et al., 2016). Likewise, the Calvo and Arrizabalaga, 2020; Kuhn, 2020). Animal and plant resources provisioning of lithic resources may be the primary purpose of a are essential to reach daily energetic requirements and are subject to movement out of the site, or it may be an indirect objective as part of marked seasonality (Speth, 1990; Foley, 1997; Aranguren et al. 2015; broad-spectrum movements for the purpose of specific activities (Kelly, Aubry et al., 2015; Hamilton et al., 2016; Rufí et al., 2019). Lithic raw 1983). These dynamics give rise to processes of resource procurement, materials may also be affected by environmental constrains transport and accumulation motivated by the social or techno-economic * Corresponding author. E-mail address: Javier.sanchez.martinez@uab.cat (J. Sánchez-Martínez). 1 0000-0001-8819-4177. 2 0000-0001-7824-6818. 3 0000-0002-6326-7058. 4 0000-0003-0660-9557. 5 0000-0002-0017-1833. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2021.103125 Received 3 March 2021; Received in revised form 24 June 2021; Accepted 11 July 2021 Available online 1 December 2021 2352-409X/© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). J. Sánchez-Martínez et al. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 41 (2022) 103125 decisions involved in resource management (Barton and Riel-Salvatore, due to their strategic or logistical locations in the vicinity of areas of 2014). human occupation. Examples of storage vary in nature and composition, When raw materials are collected but are not part of immediate and it is difficult to characterise which extrasomatic elements (Haidle production goals, it implies that these resources have been transported and Schlaudt, 2020; O’Brien and Bentley, 2020) give rise to the and intended for storage for deferred consumption (Hurst, 2006; Franco technical-organisational and techno-economic responses entrenched in et al., 2018). This series of decisions has been encompassed with the caching or hoarding behaviour. concepts of the cache or hoard, which have been characterised This paper presents the results of the techno-morphological and depending on the type of storage and the attributes of the artefacts geospatial analysis of the set of chalcedony nodules recovered from the stored (Astruc et al., 2003). This curational or foraging behaviour (sensu gravettian occupations of the Cova Gran de Santa Linya (South Eastern Binford, 1979; Nelson, 1991) intrinsically involves a series of technical, Pyrenees) (Fig. 1) and the implications of those results for the signifi­ organisational, economic and social decisions, which can lead to the cance of such raw material accumulations within the sphere of hoarding emergence of hoarding behaviour. It demonstrates the ability to antic­ behaviour. Furthermore, this assemblage has allowed us to introduce ipate, plan and organise subsistence strategies and human dynamics new assessments of the provisioning strategies and techno-economic through raw material reserves. decisions involved in mobility related to the management of lithic re­ The practice of storage constitutes an insurance strategy to reduce sources by forager groups in the northern Iberian Peninsula. risk and to establish resource control over time (Rowley-Cowny et al., 2004). Storing tends to be a subsistence and organizational behaviour 2. Archaeological setting with low archaeological visibility at Palaeolithic sites, and can be associated with long- or short-term strategies (Hurst, 2006; Cunning­ The Cova Gran de Santa Linya is a rock shelter with a surface area of ham, 2011). Long-term large-scale storage has been perceived as more approximately 2000 m2 located in an enclosed valley in the SE Pyrenees, significant than short-term small-scale storage in the development of close to the Noguera-Pallaresa river basin. Fieldwork in Cova Gran since social complexity, because it allows a better comprehension of long-term 2002 has revealed an archaeo-stratigraphic sequence spanning from the planning strategies. This idea has led to an underrepresentation of the Middle Palaeolithic to Late Prehistory (Mora et al., 2011; Mora et al., role that small-scale storage may have in the subsistence of hunter- 2014a; Mora et al., 2014b). gatherer societies (Cunningham, 2011). Level 497C is part of the archaeo-stratigraphic sequence belonging to Storing strategies denote the anticipation and foresight of future the early Upper Palaeolithic and is separated at the base and at the top needs (Bamforth, 1986) and the development of mechanisms to ensure by sterile strata. The analysis of the archaeological fabrics has shown the success in the event of unforeseen situations. This behaviour provides integrity of the archaeological assemblage with little post-depositional information about economic, social and cultural aspects at an intergroup alteration (Benito-Calvo et al., 2009). This level, dated by 14C AMS scale, and has been included within the concept of caching behaviour radiocarbon at 26220 ± 220 BP (31260–30580 cal. BP) and by ther­ (Street et al., 1999; Gurioli et al., 2005; Hurst, 2018). moluminescence at 22,922 ± 777 BP, has been taxonomically ascribed Caching behaviour refers to caches or accumulations of artefacts to the Gravettian technocomplex (Roy-Sunyer et al., 2013; Sánchez- with a high technical or cultural value (large blades, flakes, retouched Martínez et al., 2020) (Fig. 2). tools, preformed cores). Cached artefacts are prepared for immediate The level covers a surface area of 45 m2 in which the coordinates use and are particularly useful in situations of stress. The importance of have been recorded for 2784 remains, including 2369 lithic remains. these materials lies in their temporality, as they can be used in the short, The faunal remains (2 8 2) have been identified as an assemblage made medium or long term, can be modified or recycled, and serve for a wide up of rabbits (Oryctolagus cunniculus), deer (Cervus elaphus), large bovids range of activities (Barkai et al., 2015; Jacquier and Naudinot, 2015; (Bos/Bison spp.) and goats (Capra pyrenaica) (Samper Carro, 2014). In Romagnoli, 2015; Clark et al., 2017). Consequently, cached artefacts addition, 24 marine gastropods have been recovered, attributed to the play an important role in subsistence strategies and in the temporal species Columbella rustica, Trivia spp. and Nassarius pygmaea, and control of resources, mobility and landscape use by constituting manu­ possibly used as ornaments. factured tool deposits (Kornfeld et al., 1990, Peresani, 2009). The tool assemblage has been analysed in detail in previous studies On the other hand, hoarding behaviour encompasses the storage of (Sánchez-Martínez et al., 2020). The lithic technology exhibited here is pieces with a high potential for transformation (tested cores, nodules) characterised by core reduction strategies directed at the production of (Bertola et al., 1997, Carter, 2007) which provide flexibility in tool elongated pieces from prismatic cores. The cores are morpho-technically manufacturing. The concept of hoard has sometimes been used as a homogeneous, and evidence attention paid to the lateral and distal synonym for cache (Bamforth et al., 2004) although unlike cached ar­ convexities of their surfaces. The primary knapping objective are blades tefacts, these have not been preformed or modified to fulfil a specific in a wide variety of sizes and degrees of standardisation. Cortical flakes function. are related to core trimming and preparation stages to yield shapes Such artefacts make it possible to carry out reduction sequences to suitable for subsequent knapping. Some macro-flakes and curated tools obtain whatever end product is sought, and can also be modified for use comprise an assemblage of imported items that may have functioned as a as tools (Almeida et al., 2009; Wojtczak, 2015; Mathias and Bourgui­ type of toolkit. The retouched tools point to a common background, with gnon, 2020). These artefacts would have acted as a type of insurance gear notable burins and pieces with abrupt retouch, indicating the low (Binford, 1979), allowing the groups that accumulated them to take on presence of armatures. situations of risk or stress and to effectively meet a wide range of needs (Ballenger, 1996). Whereas, caches are related to personal gear, in that 3. Methods they comprise concrete types of items for predictable or specific pur­ poses (Bamforth and Woodman, 2004). The recovery techniques used during fieldwork aimed to maximise Caching and hoarding behaviours share common patterns in terms of the contextual resolution of the archaeological record. The archaeo­ meaning, but they differ in the materials stored, and thus have relevance logical levels were excavated following archaeostratigraphic criteria in curational behaviour, mobility and social/spatial organisation (Shott, and slopes. All remains were recovered using the methodological 1996). Both are aimed at building a stockpile for medium or long-term framework for Palaeolithic sites (Mora et al., 2010; Martínez-Moreno consumption and could be linked to logistical supply points (Conneller et al., 2011; Mora et al., 2014a; Mora et al., 2014b; Roda Gilabert et al., and Schadla-Hall, 2003). 2014). Hoards, caches or small-scale storages are inconspicuous in the The assemblage was analysed using a combination of morpho- archaeological record because they can be consumed or left unrecovered technical criteria, the raw material unit (RMU) classification system 2 J. Sánchez-Martínez et al. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 41 (2022) 103125 Fig. 1. Top: Plan view of an accumulation of tested nodules during the excavation of the lithic hoard. Bottom: View of four nodules contained in the lithic hoard. (1) RMU-G nodule. (2) RMU-M nodule (3–4) RMU-A nodules (Authorship: J. Sánchez-Martínez). and statistical and geospatial analyses. The lithic materials were ana­ complexity (Potts, 1991; de la Torre and Mora, 2005; Benito-Calvo and lysed based on a techno-typological approach (Tixier et al., 1980; Tixier, de la Torre, 2011). 1984; Pelegrin, 1986; Inizan et al., 1995; Andrefsky, 2008). As a starting We applied statistic tests to evaluate the configuration of the point, materials attributed to tested nodules were identified and sepa­ assemblage data set. The Mann-Whitney U test allows to detect signifi­ rated from the cores. The cores were then analysed by means of a cant differences between independent variables in the core and nodule reduction sequence analysis (Pelegrin, 1985; Karlin, 1991; Martínez- assemblages. The Mann-Whitney is a non-parametric test of the null Moreno et al., 2019; Sánchez-Martínez et al., 2020). The nodules were hypotheses that assesses the probability that two variables are equal categorised and contextualised from studies on lithic operative chains (Fay and Proschan, 2010). Principal component analysis (PCA) was (Pelegrin et al., 1988; Geneste, 1991; Karlin and Bodu, 1991; Soressi performed using length, width, thickness and weight as variables to et al., 2011). Nodules were differentiated from the cores in accordance represent the typometric differences between the cores and nodules. with the current technological attributes proposed by Peresani (2006), Typometric and statistical analyses were performed using XLSTAT sta­ including the analysis of tested surfaces, knapping platforms and tistical software. selected supports. We have avoided the concept manuport (Leakey, In parallel to the techno-typological study, the materials were clas­ 1966), currently used and debated in African Plio-Pleistocene Archae­ sified in accordance with the reconstruction of RMU. From the original ology, when referring to nodules as we consider the Cova Gran lithic conceptualization of this units (Roebroeks, 1988) we have isolated raw hoard have broader implications in terms of foresight, planning and material groups in order to reach the maximum analytical resolution. 3 J. Sánchez-Martínez et al. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 41 (2022) 103125 Fig. 2. (A) Geographic location of Cova Gran de Santa Linya. (B) Archaeostratigraphic sequence of Ramp sector, including datings and geological information. (C) Front view of Cova Gran (modified from Mora et al., 2011). Thus, RMU consist of groupings of materials that share the same 4. Characterising a raw material hoard macroscopic petrographic features (Roy-Sunyer, 2016). The lithic artefacts from level 497C were projected on a plane and 4.1. Raw material units (RMU) cross-sectional views (NS and EW) were obtained with the ArcGIS10 geographic information system (ESRI, 2017) to assess the horizontal Garumnian chalcedony is the most widely used raw material in the continuity and vertical dispersion of this level. The spatial distribution lithic assemblage (98%) from the level 497C, and at Cova Gran de Santa of the RMUs identified by means of XY projections was then determined, Linya site, as well as at other archaeological sites of the south-eastern and hotspot analysis was used for geostatistical processing (Getis and Pre-Pyrenees (Roy-Sunyer et al., 2013). Garumnian chalcedony is Ord, 1992). This method detects clusters based on a quantitative vari­ characterised by its heterogeneous colouring and textures, both inter- able and the spatial relationship, in terms of continuity and disconti­ and intra-nodule, resulting in a large number of lithologies. This di­ nuity, between objects, yielding a statistical significance (90–99%) for versity makes its geostatistical analysis difficult, as it presents several each group detected. It allows us to distinguish intentional concentra­ varieties or subgroups of raw materials with few implements. To solve tions from those of natural or random origin as well as to identify dif­ this problem, the recovered artefacts were grouped by raw material ferences in raw material use at the spatial level within the occupation units (RMUs) based on petrographic criteria, resulting in five main (Mora et al., 2020). groups (RMU-A, RMU-AA, RMU-J, RMU-G and RMU-M) whose 4 J. Sánchez-Martínez et al. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 41 (2022) 103125 macroscopic characterisation had been previously established according group RMU G, with five (20%), and group RMU M, with four (16%), was to attributes such as colour, texture or impurities (Mora et al., 2020). lower (SI Table 1). No nodules were recovered from RMU-AA. Given the This method of analysis was also applied to the nodules tested to abundance of chalcedony outcrops in the vicinity of the site, we assume determine the varieties brought into to the deposit, their spatial distri­ that most of these nodules came from the local environment (<5 km) bution, and any possible differences in their use. Among the nodules, the (Roy-Sunyer, 2016), which allows us to better understand the tech­ predominant RMUs were RMU A with nine implements (36%) and RMU noeconomic and transport decisions involved in the formation of the J with seven implements (28%), while the prevalence of implements in hoard. Fig. 3. Small nodules recovered from the lithic hoard. (1–4) Sub-rounded nodules. (5) Sub-angular nodule (Authorship: J. Sánchez-Martínez). 5 J. Sánchez-Martínez et al. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 41 (2022) 103125 4.2. Technological and morphometrical assessments The nodules recovered vary in size and weight. Smaller individual pieces are generally sub-rounded nodules (10), while larger nodules have angular and fragmented morphologies (17) (Figs. 3–5). The nod­ ules have cortical surfaces, isolated removals and broad surfaces that have not been systematically knapped. All the nodules have test re­ movals on some of their surfaces, which have been knapped from a natural surface (22) or from a previous removal (5) as striking platform. These actions point to testing activities for the purpose of assessing the quality and mechanical properties of the raw material and its suitability for knapping (Brantingham et al., 2000; Braun et al., 2009; Romagnoli et al., 2016). Testing activities are usually carried out at the provisioning site to avoid carrying low quality raw materials to the site (Peresani, 2006). To verify this, systematic refittings were performed in the hoarded lithic assemblage (Fig. 6), and showed that some of the the nodules were tested at the site after transport. This indicates that there were no se­ lection criteria for what was brought to the site, thus the decision made Fig. 5. Tested nodules from the lithic hoard. All artefacts contain a single test removal (Authorship: J. Sánchez-Martínez). as to which pieces would be knapped is took on this place. In parallel, inspection of the surfaces of the nodules has not yielded any evidence of thrusting/resting percussion macro-traces that would link them to pro­ duction activities (Caricola et al., 2018). From a technological perspective, the cores and nodules differ both in the organisation of the removals and in their morpho-technical characteristics (Table 1). The nodules exhibit extensive cortical sur­ faces or neocortex remains. The removals derived from the testing ac­ tions appear isolated and non-hierarchical, which indicates that they were not intentionally shaped. These indicators show that the purpose of testing activities is not to obtain specific knapping products, but rather to check the flake suitability and quality of the nodules. Thus, the fact that the items were not knapped may refer to a broad range of technical and organizational decisions. The cores were preformed following standardised prismatic mor­ phologies that favour blade knapping. The core surfaces are hierarchi­ cal, showing medium and advanced degrees of exploitation. They are formed with one or two knapping platforms created from a plane or Fig. 4. Tested nodules from the lithic hoard. (1–2) Nodules showing a single removal, generating an acute angle between the knapping platform and test removal. (3–4) Nodules showing more than two test removals (Authorship: the knapping surface. The lateral convexity of the knapping surface is J. Sánchez-Martínez). 6 J. Sánchez-Martínez et al. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 41 (2022) 103125 1 5c m 2 3 5c m 5c m Fig. 6. Refitted tested nodules from the lithic hoard. (1 and 3) Nodule refitting with cortical flake (2) non-cortical flake refitted (Authorship: J. Sánchez-Martínez). maintained following a semi-tournant method, making it easier to obtain statistical differences in the core and nodule assemblages (SI). The a series of blades. These criteria have made it possible to identify 27 Mann-Whitney U test revealed significant differences between the tested nodules and 13 cores. weight of cores and nodules (p = 0.028), while the length (p = 0.11), Mann-Whitney U test combined with PCA was used to determine width (p = 0.106) and thickness (p = 0.209) variables were non- 7 J. Sánchez-Martínez et al. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 41 (2022) 103125 Table 1 are generally elongated and narrow with a blade-like tendency, while Technological criteria discriminating between cores and nodules and products those derived from nodule testing actions are wider and correspond derived from volumetric reduction. mostly to cortical flakes. Category Technological criteria Blanks ∑ These results underscore the involvement of reduction strategies in Tested Artefacts with isolated removals in Cortical flakes 27 obtaining desired products and speak of two distinct technical behav­ nodules their surfaces and not formatted iours involved in the formation of the archaeological record. On the one Cores Hierarchical and formatted artefacts Elongated blanks 13 hand, the cores point to the decision-making involved in the organisa­ with one single platform or two. (blades and tion of blade knapping characterised in level 497C; on the other hand, Clear relation between the striking bladelets). the nodules indicate the creation of a flexible stockpile of raw material platform and the knapping surface, which show at least three core Ocassionaly flakes with a view to deferred consumption. removals. w/o cortex Characterized by ‘sémi-tournant’ laminar systems and an angular 4.3. Spatial analysis relation between the striking platform and the knapping surface of 60–70◦ ( The spatial distribution of the lithic material has been analysed by Sánchez-Martínez et al., 2020) means of horizontal (XY) and vertical (XZ and YZ) plots to evaluate the homogeneity of archaeological level 497C (Simonetti 2013; Mora et al., significant (SI Table 5). The principal component analysis (PCA) per­ 2020). This analysis has resulted in the identification of two higher formed on the variables length, width, thickness and weight recorded a density areas located to the south (SA) and north (NA) of the excavated confidence of 90.91% between PC1 (81.59%) and PC2 (9.32%) (SI area. The vertical plots reflect a homogeneous vertical dispersion of the Table 2 and Fig. 1). The contributions of the cosines were revised by assemblage, all located in the same stratigraphic position (Fig. 9). eliminating the implements not represented in the PC1 and PC2 factors The RMUs (RMU-A, RMU-AA, RMU-G, RMU-J and RMU-M) were (SI Table 4). A close correlation was found in the conjunction of the projected in plan view jointly and individually, which allowed us to length and weight variables, while the squared ratio of width and analyse whether the spatial patterns of these groups are similar or thickness to weight suggests that they are relatively independent vari­ different to the general trend. At the geostatistical level (hotspot anal­ ables (SI Table 3 and Fig. 2). The PCA identified two clusters located ysis), the projections of all of the RMUs yielded significant values for the above and below the mean value of the variables analysed, and both two clusters located in the north and south of the occupation, coinciding clusters are made up of nodules and cores, so it is not possible to separate with the two areas previously identified (Fig. 10). the two populations (Fig. 7). This indicates that cores and nodules vary Using the individualised geostatistical analyses of the RMUs, we in a similar way, constituting relatively homogeneous groups at the were able to analyse the contribution of each raw material group to the morphometric level. overall distribution. The results show that RMU-A and RMU-J form two Cores and nodules behave similarly morphometrically, but there are or more clusters of materials that are continuously distributed differences in how their surfaces were handled. The values of the lengths throughout the excavated area, in both cases with a higher significance and widths of the removals from the cores and tested nodules were taken in the northern area (NA). This distribution differs from RMU-G, RMU- in order to determine whether there are any morphometric differences AA and RMU-M, whose significance is situated in the southern zone. in the supports obtained (Fig. 8). In the cores, a total of 54 removals That is, the spaces occupied by the types of chalcedony are statistically were documented (avg 4.15 removals per core), while in the nodules we different at 95% confidence, suggesting that the use of chalcedony in the counted 48 removals (avg 1.7 removals per nodule). The core removals space is the result of intentional actions and not attributable to possible alterations caused by natural processes (Benito-Calvo et al., 2009) Fig. 7. PCA of nodules that comprise the hoard (black dots) and cores (white dots) from archaeological level 497C (Authorship: R. Mora). 8 J. Sánchez-Martínez et al. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 41 (2022) 103125 Fig. 8. Scatter plot representing length (X) and width (Y) measurements from core removals (blue) and tested nodule removals (red). 95% confidence intervals have been included in both data sets (Authorship: J. Sánchez-Martínez). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.) This analysis applied to specific technological groups enabled us to through the study of short-term occupations and high-resolution con­ determine whether their spatial distribution follows a pattern or if, in texts in archaeology (Pettitt, 1997; Porraz, 2009; Malinsky-Buller et al., contrast, their horizontal dispersion is random. In the case of the nod­ 2011; Reynolds et al., 2019), which have contributed to assessments of ules, 19 of the 27 identified are located in the northern zone of the the role of time in the interpretation of human occupations (Bright et al., occupation and are clustered in a space measuring 4 m2. In the southern 2002; Bailey, 2007a; Bailey, 2007b; Holdaway et al., 2008; Roda Gila­ zone, six of the eight nodules identified are located in an area measuring bert et al., 2016; Perreault, 2018; Romagnoli et al., 2018a; Romagnoli 1 m2 (Fig. 11). Most of the cores were recovered from the southern zone et al., 2018b). (8), while fewer were found in the northern zone (5). The large amount The time perspective applied to the archaeological record has been of debris found in the southern zone could be related to a knapping area, used to detect synchronic and diachronic events in short- and long-term which is consistent with the spatial position of the cores. occupations (Cascalheira and Picin, 2020). Using technological, geo­ The spatial distribution analysis of these categories reflects the same statistical and spatial data, we were able to formulate different possible areas of density of materials observed geostatistically to the north and scenarios for the temporal development of the events that can be south of the excavated surface in the RMU study. Most of the nodules, as distinguished in level 497C. Level 497C illustrates how artefacts well as the materials from RMU-A and RMU-J, are clustered in the concentrated in specific areas could point to different occupation northern zone. Meanwhile, most of the cores associated with knapping models, depending on the time-perspective and the contextual resolu­ activities and the presence of the RMU-AA, RMU-G and RMU-M are tion given to the archaeological surface. We combined RMU analysis located in the southern zone. This differentiated use of space indicates with technological data to characterise the temporal events that occur in that a distinction of a technical-organisational nature was made in the this unit. Spatial analysis has highlighted the specific location of certain spatial organisation of level 497C. RMUs and geostatistical data reaffirmed the significance of the artefact dispersion. This very specific distribution may offer a guideline for 5. Discussion distinguishing between events within human occupations (Malinsky- Buller et al., 2011; Mora et al., 2020). 5.1. Spatial assessments and formation process of level 497C Thus, we suggest different plausible scenarios to explain the archaeological formation process of this level. If level 497C constitutes a Spatial analyses have been pivotal in reconstructing the hunter- single occupation, then the artefact density plots observed in the north gatherer lifestyle at Palaeolithic sites. They have been able to establish and south part of the occupation are synchronic (see Figs. 9 and 10). An close intra-site connections between activities and have reinforced the analysis of the distribution of nodules and cores suggests that the two integrity of the archaeological record (Almeida et al., 2009; Chacón areas may be complementary to one another. So, knapping and tool- et al., 2012; de las Heras et al., 2012; Nigst and Antl-Weiser, 2012; manufacturing activities were clustered in the southern area, which is Martínez-Moreno et al., 2016). This has been thoroughly discussed associated with most of the recovered cores and RMU-G, RMU-M and 9 J. Sánchez-Martínez et al. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 41 (2022) 103125 Fig. 9. A) General plan of 497C archaeological unit. Yellow frames: 20 cm. Yellow frame values represent Z values in relation to the baseline of the archaeological sequence. B) North-south 20-cm-thick vertical plot and C) East-west 20-cm-thick vertical plot following the maximum slope of level 497C (red dots). Dots represent coordinated artefacts (including lithics, bones and charcoals) recovered from different Upper Palaeolithic (497A, 497C and 497D) and Middle Palaeolithic levels (S1B, S1B1, S1C, S1D and S1E) (modified from Mora et al., 2018). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.) RMU-AA, which are characterised by their quality and flake suitability. could explain why some RMUs are more present in nodules (e.g. RMU-J) In the northern area we find the hoard of chalcedony nodules, one of the or in cores (e.g. RMU-G), as the raw material varieties most suitable for most representative geostatistical attributes in this level, as well as knapping would be selected first (Table 2). specialised artefacts such as a group of macro-flakes (see Sánchez- However, the possibility that level 497C is a palimpsest resulting Martínez, 2020). This hypothesis may be reinforced by the spatial dis­ from an undetermined number of occupations cannot be ruled out. Such tribution of refitted materials, which indicates two main clusters of causal relationships may be involved in the formation of the archaeo­ pieces with a low dispersion rate (See SI Fig. 3). logical level (Bailey, 2007a; Bailey, 2007b; Malinsky-Buller et al., 2011). The location of the nodules in a different place than the cores could One possible indicator used in the differentiation of temporal events are indicate different intra-site activities. Nodules act as raw material stock, combustion structures (Henry, 2012), even in situations in which the while cores are linked to knapping activities. We propose that the horizontal resolution of the archaeological level does not clearly show hoarded nodules are linked to the cores, as both categories play com­ anteriority-posteriority relationships between structures (Nakazawa, plementary functional and spatial roles. Consequently, the northern and 2007; Martínez-Moreno et al., 2016). southern zones would have originated from a single event. This scenario The spatial distribution study of the raw materials described in this 10 J. Sánchez-Martínez et al. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 41 (2022) 103125 11 (caption on next page) J. Sánchez-Martínez et al. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 41 (2022) 103125 Fig. 10. Spatial hotspot clustering of the 5 RMU. (a) The entire surface, (b) RMU-A, (c) RMU-G, (d) RMU-M, (e) RMU-AA, (f) RMU-J. Statistically significant hotspot using Getis-Ord Gi* statistics, confidence areas of 95% (orange squares) and 99% (red squares). Archaeological coordinates are positioned (grey dots) (Authorship: R. Mora). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.) Fig. 11. Spatial distribution of nodules (orange) and cores (blue) from level 497C. Notice how most of the cores are clustered in the southern sector and most of the nodules in the northern sector of the excavated surface (Authorship: J. Sánchez-Martínez). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.) Table 2 List of sites exhibiting storage behaviour in Europe during the Upper Palaeolithic and Early Mesolithic. A = Armatures, B = Blade, C = Core, F = Flake, MF = Macro- flake, N = Nodule, P = Preform, RT = Retouched tool, SF = Shapeless fragment, TN = Tested nodule, O = Other, / = w/o precise information, * = doubtful context. Site Location Period Level Date (uncal.) Method Adscription Composition Reference Aitzbitarte Iberia AU/ MP Vb base 28010 ± 600 BP AMS / SP (29) N (48)* Altuna et al., 2012 Cova Gran Iberia GR 497C 26220 ± 220 BP AMS Hoard TN (27) Roy et al., 2013 Grotte du Pape France GR Couche 19700 ± 160 BP AMS Dêpot A (102) and O (93)* Goutas, 2009 2D Lapa Do Anecrial Iberia GR Layer 2 23400 ± 170 BP AMS Lithic Kit N(14) C (/) Almeida et al., 2004; Almeida et al., 2009 Volgu France SO / / / Cache LP (14) Aubri et al., 2009 Montgaudier France MG Couche 2 / / Cache P (5) Bouvier, 1968 La Goulaine France MG / / / Cache B (c.a 200) O (c.a 200)* Angevin and Langlais, 2009 Sesselfelsgrotte Germany MG / / / Cache P (/) Naber, 1981 Niederbieber Germany MG / c.a 12.900 BP Tephra Cache MF (2) tested Baales, 2006 Labastide France MG ** / / Cache B (5) Angevin and Langlais, 2009 Enlène France MG ** / / Cache B (3) Angevin and Langlais, 2009 Peña de Iberia MG Unidad III 12360 ± 50 BP Hoard TN (/) C (/) F (4) Cacho et al., 2011 Estebanvela Abrigo de Vergara Iberia MG d 14000 ± 100 BP AMS / N (28)* Utrilla et al., 2006 Tuc d’Audoubert France MG ** / / Cache B (1) Angevin and Langlais, 2009 Mas d’Azil France AZ ** / / Cache B (4) Angevin and Langlais, 2009 Swidry Wielke I, Poland EP / / / Cache N (/) P (/) MF (/) Krukowski, 1939, 1976 Grzybowa Gora Poland EP sl / / Cache N (/) B () C (/) Krukowski, 1939, 1976 Swidry Mate Poland EP / / / Cache N (/) P (/) C (/) Krukowski, 1939, 1976 Val Lastari Italy EPG / 11.390 ± 110 AMS Hoard TN (39) N (18) C (1) F (2) Peresani, 2006, 2009 BP Palughetto Italy EPG T6 9495 ± 150 BP AMS Cache TN (6) Peresani, 2006, 2009 Vale of Pickering UK LUP/ sl / / Cache TN (6) N (12) Conneller and Schadla-Hall, 2003 ME Ruffey-sur-Seille France ME sl / / Cache N (22) Séara et al., 2002 Nizhneye Veretye I Russia ME / / / Cache C (29) Séara et al., 2002 12 J. Sánchez-Martínez et al. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 41 (2022) 103125 article constitutes a strong argument for analysing different scenarios paper, as the objective of this stockpile was to cover a wide range of related to time-events. The geostatistical analysis of the RMUs shows the situations in the short, medium or long term. However, if Clark and location of raw materials in specific areas (see Fig. 10), indicating that Barton’s predictions are applied to the Cova Gran lithic hoard, contra­ there was not an active flow of materials during human activities that dictions begin to emerge. For example, the absence of retouched mate­ would have taken place in a single event. However, if we assume that rials in the hoard, and its large volume, would indicate that the level had contemporaneous activities give rise to heterogeneity in the spatial a decidedly residential character, which other proxies have not found to distribution of the raw materials (Bargalló et al., 2016), then we would be the most plausible model for level 497C. have to understand the formation of level 497C as something occurring The proximity of procurement points to the site is an important as the result of more than one event. One might speculate that RMU-J factor in terms of transport decisions and raw material management and RMU-A, which are spatially distributed over the entire surface of (Close, 1996; Morin and Ready, 2013; Valde-Nowak and Cieśla, 2020). It the archaeological level, were deposited by a first short occupational has been noted that the closer the procurement area to the site, the easier event. Subsequently, a second occupation was established in the it is to store nodules in the habitat (Kuhn, 1994; Porraz, 2005). This southern zone, and contributed RMU-G, RMU-M and RMU-AA. observation fits with the landscape of Cova Gran, where local raw ma­ Finally, the heterogeneous RMU composition of the hoard could terials are abundant, and could explain why material was accumulated suggest several raw material transport events. In this scenario, the for knapping that was ultimately not undertaken. nodules belonging to the southern zone could have been contributed to However, this argument can be reanalysed from another perspective the deposit at a different time than those present in the northern zone. by proposing the following alternative scenario. The availability of local This would suggest that the hoard formed from non-simultaneous events raw materials makes them simple to provision, reducing the number of and that its use may have been delayed in time (Bailey, 2007a; Bailey, movements and the energy cost required (Roy-Sunyer, 2016). Therefore, 2007b). However, based on the information currently available, we stockpiling resources would not be necessary because lithic production believe that the formation and management of the hoard is linked to a needs could be covered relatively quickly. In other words, provisioning single event. In any case, these models allow us to open up discussions would be carried out through short and direct displacements based on about the temporality of this accumulation and bring us back to the the group’s requirements. classic problem of the palimpsest in archaeology. These types of dynamics, predicated on immediate need, can lead to expedient behaviours (Railey, 2010; Vaquero et al., 2018) that cause 5.2. The role of mobility and raw material procurement in the hoarding interruptions or ramifications in the operative chain, resulting in the behaviour transport of some of the material out of the site during these displace­ ments (Romagnoli et al., 2018a; Romagnoli et al., 2018b). Carrying flint nodules to the site implies a planning behaviour in Part of these discussions have been outlining decisions that are terms of raw material management and risk control. The assemblage of inherent to small-scale storage and foraging behaviours (Foley, 1987; chalcedony nodules from level 497C were collected, transported and Kelly, 1995; Cunningham, 2011; Dusseldorp, 2012). We consider these clustered in specific spaces within the occupation area in view of types of small-scale storage strategies to be implicit in the residential anticipate future needs and unforeseen situations. mobility characteristic of the forager lifestyle. However, other factors These artefacts were subjected to testing activities, and behave as a such as territory size, group size, tool duration, and time spent pro­ morphometrically homogeneous group based on their shared set of at­ ducing and repairing tools are also relevant in the emergence of tributes. The combination of technological, geostatistical and spatial hoarding behaviour (Peresani, 2009). data has allowed us to characterise this assemblage as a raw material In addition, evidence of hoarding behaviour means that the stored reserve or hoard, which permits to analyse the notion of small-scale nodules were not consumed or that the nodules were only partially storage. exploited/used, and what has been recovered is only the portion of the Stone tool assemblages are affected by technical-organisational fac­ hoard that has not been exhausted. This may have happened in a single tors, site functionality and mobility (Binford, 1979; Binford, 1980; event or may be the result of several time-events. Moreover, the fact that Barton and Riel-Salvatore, 2014), which also includes raw material a hoard has been preserved opens the door to observations about the procurement. Generally, raw material acquisition has been discussed in selection of blanks and valuable goods (Lintz and Dockall, 2002), terms of cost-benefit and landscape use models (Barton, 2014; Barton knapping objectives, and the management of non-perishable resources. and Riel-Salvatore, 2014; Hamilton et al., 2016; Clark et al., 2017) In relation to this, in the lithic hoard of the Cova Gran, we found that which have attempted to systematise the range of foraging behaviour in nodules with different characteristics were selected and tested in situ to the composition of lithic assemblages and site formation processes. check their knapping properties. It seems that there were no fixed These models have postulated important implications in local source criteria in the selection of the nodules and that the morphometric dif­ procurement depending on a wide range of variables, such as the dis­ ferences respond to the heterogeneity of the supports found between tance and accessibility of the outcrop, the weight of transported mate­ outcrops. rials, the carrying capacity, and the route to be followed. The management and organisation of these factors are implicit in the notion 5.3. Hoarding behaviour and its European context of foresight (Monahan, 1998; Morin and Ready, 2013; Clark et al., 2017). Moreover, transport decisions imply planning because of the Lithic storage predating MIS 3 has rarely been identified in Europe. technological dimension involved in the management of raw materials In this time period, the two cobble accumulations uncovered in Soucy 1 (Brooks et al., 2018). Thus, depending on how these factors are and Grotte Vaufrey (Geneste, 1985; Rigaud et al., 1988; Lhomme et al., expressed in the archaeological record, activities would refer to more 2000) provided the first references to lithic raw material accumulations. curated or expedient contexts (Binford, 1979; Lintz and Dockall, 2002). Caching behaviour has been more often identified in sites dating from Following this, Clark and Barton (2017) established the degree of the beginning of the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), leading to a diver­ mobility of groups using the incidence of retouching on the pieces and sification of artefacts that make up small- and large-scale storages (see their volume. The smaller the volume a piece has and the more intensely Table 3 and SI Table 6). These storages temporally correspond to the first retouched it is, the closer it is to the concept of curated technology, and deposits of specialised tools requiring a high level of technical skill for the more mobile this group would have been. Alternatively, the larger their manufacture, as seen in the Solutrean cache of 14 laurel-leaf points the size of the pieces, the more suitable they are for modification in in Volgu (Aubry et al., 2009). Other examples of caching behaviour are terms of tool-manufacturing flexibility (Morrow, 1996). the tested macro-flakes identified at Niederbierer (Baales, 2006), and This idea underpins the accumulation of nodules analysed in this the stockpiles of large blades from the Magdalenian sites of Labastide, 13 J. Sánchez-Martínez et al. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 41 (2022) 103125 Table 3 Gravettian sites with documented nodules in the lithic assemblage. TN = tested nodule, N = Nodule, CB = Cobble. One dating has been selected for each level of La Viña. Site Level Date Calibrated (2 Ω) Method Definition Composition Σ Reference Cova Gran 497C 26220 ± 220 29196–28401 AMS Hoard TN 28 Roy-Sunyer et al., 2013 Mirón 128 27.580 ± 210 29924–29211 AMS / N 6 González-Morales et al., 2002 La Viña IX 28360 ± 290 31442–29743 AMS / TN 7 Martínez and De la Rasilla, 2002 La Viña X 28560 ± 300 31764–29925 AMS / TN 83 Marín-Arollo et al., 2018 Coímbre Co.B.6 24410 ± 120 28760–28120 AMS / N and CB 27 Álvarez-Alonso et al., 2017 Ametzagaina Conjunto W / / / / N 22 Calvo et al., 2012 Lapa Do Anecrial Layer 2 23,400 BP 26380–24900 AMS Lithic Kit N 14 Almeida et al., 2004; Almeida et al., 2009 Foz de Medal 1098 / 19 200 ± 4630 OSL / TN 180 Gaspar et al., 2016 Enlène and Trois-Frères (Simonnet, 1982; Angevin and Langlais, 2009). nodules are not statistically significant because both categories contain These elements were also recovered from the La Goulaine cache, inter­ large, medium and small sizes, which makes it difficult to establish the preted as a “provisional stock” and for which precise contextual infor­ degree of volumetric reduction produced during knapping. mation is lacking (Breuil, 1908). Evidence of hoarding behaviour including preforms, nodules and test-cores have been identified in different sites in Europe. At Lapa Do 5.4. Hoarding behaviour on the Iberian Peninsula: Is it really there? Anecrial, nodules and some cores interpreted as a lithic toolkit were documented in a Late Gravettian level. At Sesselfelsgrotte, Montgaudier Hoarding behaviour has been identified at several sites in Western and Tuc d’Audoubert, a series of preforms were found which constitute Europe dating to the Magdalenian and Late Upper Palaeolithic. Small- raw material reserves (Bouvier and Duport, 1968; Naber, 1981). At the scale stores have been recovered from chronologically diverse sites, Polish sites of Swidry Wielke I, Grzybowa Gora and Swidry Mate and suggesting that the emergence of this type of behaviour primarily Vale of Pickering, tested preforms and nodules, interpreted as insurance responded to techno-economic issues related to the logistical organisa­ gear, were documented together with formatted flakes and cores, which tion of the human occupations. However, there is no consistent evidence points to the dual functionality of these reserves (Krukowski, 1939; of lithic storage before the LGM. For that reason, Cova Gran de Santa Krukowski, 1976). Furthermore, at Vale of Pickering, lithic stockpiles Linya provides key information with which to evaluate the range of are distributed throughout the valley as logistical supply points for raw hoarding behaviour in south-western Europe during the Early Upper materials (Conneller and Schadla-Hall, 2003). Tested nodules have been Palaeolithic. documented on the Iberian Peninsula in unit III of Estebanvela, referring Following the example of level 497C, we have compiled archaeo­ to a raw material hoard (Cacho et al., 2010) and in the alpine sites of Val logical data from Gravettian sites on the Iberian Peninsula seeking re­ Lastari and Palughetto. In those sites, the nodules, which were deposited currences or common patterns in the archaeological record related to in specific areas, tended to exhibit differential reduction stages (Bertola hoarding behaviour. The references that have been found mainly come et al., 1997). Likewise, some of the nodules were fractured in the process from sites in the Cantabrian and Atlantic areas (Table 4). In the Canta­ of testing for flake suitability, as is the case at Val Lastari (Peresani 2006; brian area, the presence of unknapped flint nodules was documented at Peresani, 2009). Aitzbitarte III (Altuna et al., 2012). In Cueva Morín and in the open-air Late Upper Palaeolithic and Mesolithic caches may be useful refer­ site of Ametzagaina, raw flint nodules were mentioned as forming part ences for the conceptualisation of hoarding behaviour as a manner of of the lithic assemblages studied (Calvo et al., 2012; Calvo et al., 2016). controlling temporal resources on a time–space scale. Evidence of small- In the Atlantic area, unknapped nodules appear in Gravettian assem­ scale storage is more common during the Holocene, which has allowed blages from Lapa Do Anecrial, Lagar Velho and the open-air site of Foz us to better define selection criteria and transformation decisions for the do Medal (Almeida et al., 2004; Almeida et al., 2009; Gaspar et al., stored artefacts (Cunningham, 2011). The above-described examples 2016). constitute the few references to stored lithic artefacts in Palaeolithic and At other sites, artefacts have been documented that need to be better Early Masolithic societies, and have served as a comparative framework defined in order to obtain more precise data on their role within the for contextualising and characterising the artefacts presented here. occupations. For example, at El Mirón six ‘cortical blocks’ and 32 ‘non- However some of these sites report unprecise and fragmented contextual cortical blocks’ were differentiated from the cores of the assemblage data that hinder the evaluation of the techno-economic responses (González Morales and Straus, 2012). At Agirremendi, some cobbles and involved in the formation of this deposits. fragments were recorded (Rios-Garaizar et al., 2014), but their raw The lithic hoard at Cova Gran is made up of a single constituent, as in material or whether they could represent a stockpile was not mentioned, some of the examples cited above (see Table 3). The chalcedony nodules while at Coímbre, unmodified quartzite and flint blocks have been are located within the habitat, which points to their primary role in daily documented (Álvarez-Alonso et al., 2017). activities, as is the case at Estebanvela. Generally, these artefacts are The artefacts mentioned above may indicate that the notion of small- located in the immediate vicinity of the habitat or at logistical points outside the site environment. For example, at Val Lastari, the hoard was Table 4 found about 10 m from the lithic workshops described on the site, while Comparative relationship between the primary and secondary elements of the the Vale of Pickering, Grzybowa Gora and Ruffey-sur-Seille, the hoard northern and southern zones of level 497C. The spatial location of RMUs, cores sites were located at strategic points in the territory. Likewise, the and nodules and the possible role played by the two zones have been considered. components of the Cova Gran hoard are not as tightly clustered as at Area South Area North Area Estebanvela, Val Lastari or Vale of Pickering, where the density of ar­ Significant Cores Nodules tefacts is higher. The Val Lastari and Palughetto hoards have allowed us elements to relate techno-economic and technological data with the nodules Secondary Debris, Knapping activities Macroflakes, Hearths elements recovered from Cova Gran. In Palughetto, the dimensions of the cores RMU RMU-AA, G y M RMU-J y A are smaller than those of the nodules, which has allowed us to estimate Rol Main rol/Knapping area/ Marginal rol/Hoard, raw the volumetric reduction of the supports during the production of Concentration daily activities material stock/Specialized blades. At Cova Gran, the morphometric differences between cores and activities 14 J. Sánchez-Martínez et al. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 41 (2022) 103125 scale storage may be a relevant component within the Gravettian tech­ interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence nocomplex. However, more precise contextual information is needed in the work reported in this paper. order to know whether these materials were deliberately accumulated, what the transported material weighted, if they form homogeneous or Acknowledgements heterogeneous assemblages, if they underwent any kind of intentional modification or were tested, and in order to evaluate whether they may Cova Gran de Santa Linya is part of the project Human settlement have played a specific role within these occupations. during the Upper Pleistocene and Holocene in the Southeastern Pyr­ enees (PID 2019-104843GB-I00) and the 2017SGR-1357 research 6. Conclusions group. This research has been also supported by MINECO-FPU schol­ arships. Fieldwork was funded by Servei d’Arquelogia I Paleontologia The Cova Gran de Santa Linya hoard comprises 27 chalcedony from the Generalitat de Catalunya (CLT009/18/00012). We thank the nodules and constitutes the largest assemblage of stored artefacts support given by the Institute for Field Research, all volunteers that documented in the Early Upper Palaeolithic and one of the few examples participate in the fieldwork, and the kind permission of the Societat de of hoarding behaviour in southwestern Europe. Munts de Santa Linya to authorize the excavation in Cova Gran. The technological analysis highlights the relevance of this nodule assemblage, as they represent the initial stage to which organize Appendix A. Supplementary data reduction sequences, and the cores, which are the result of such activity. The derived products from both categories have been obtained as a Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi. result of different actions (testing and knapping) and inform about the org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2021.103125. management and use of raw materials within the knapping strategies. 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