Cities 123 (2022) 103565 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Cities journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cities Jane Jacobs reloaded: A contemporary operationalization of urban vitality in a district in Barcelona Irene Gómez-Varo a, *, Xavier Delclòs-Alió b, Carme Miralles-Guasch c a Grup d'Estudis en Mobilitat, Transport i Territori (GEMOTT), Departament de Geografia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona – Edifici B, Campus de Bellaterra, Cerdanyola del Vallès, 08193 Barcelona, Spain b Research Group on Territorial Analysis and Tourism Studies (GRATET), Department of Geography, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Vila-seca, Spain c Grup d'Estudis en Mobilitat, Transport i Territori (GEMOTT), Departament de Geografia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona – Edifici B, Campus de Bellaterra, Cerdanyola del Vallès, 08193 Barcelona, Spain A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T Keywords: The theories of Jane Jacobs have gained momentum as a framework to address the challenges faced by present- Urban vitality day cities. Of special relevance is the concept of urban vitality as an indicator of street vibrancy and quality of life Built environment among city residents. This study aims to revisit her principles from an applied perspective by developing an GIS updated index that measures the conditions for urban vitality as described in her most celebrated book, The Death Peripheral and Life of Great American Cities (1961), and by also incorporating contemporary contributions made by recent Low-income district Mediterranean city literature on the topic. We develop a composite measure of 22 variables of the built and social environment, and we test it in the urban context of a peripherical and low-income district in Barcelona (Spain). Results show that urban vitality can be found in a wide variety of urban spaces such as compact fabrics and even housing projects, only when population density is combined with physical features that promote intense and diverse human ac­ tivity. The methodological tool developed in this paper is intended to serve as a basis for future research as well as to guide public policies that aim to address some of the key challenges of contemporary urban agenda. 1. Introduction through different city walks inspired by Jane Jacobs (Jane's walk, 2020). Cities and other public institutions worldwide are also including her Cities can be regarded as successful when they are capable of hosting principles, either explicitly or implicitly, as part of their local planning vibrant street activity, whereby people with different characteristics can strategies (Klemek, 2007; Schubert, 2014). Recent initiatives such as the safely come together in the public space, at different times, and for “15-minute city” are a clear example of urban interventions that rely on different purposes. Vitality is, ultimately, an indicator of good urbanism the ideas about compact, diverse, and accessible cities (an ideology once (Lynch, 1984), as vital environments offer everything that citizens need, coined by Jane Jacobs), some of which are likely to prevail in the post- not only to transit public spaces, but to stay and use them. One of the first COVID-19 era (Moreno, Allam, Chabaud, Gall, & Pratlong, 2021). voices advocating such ideas of diversity, vitality, and street buoyancy Accordingly, her theories have also received increasing attention from was the American-Canadian theorist Jane Jacobs (1916–2006). By urban researchers around the world, who have used her principles as a opposing most of the principles and logics accepted as common-practice framework, and her general view on urban vitality as a lens through during her life, Jacobs provided a new approach to understanding how which we can reflect on how cities succeed or fail in guaranteeing cities work, which she accomplished by shifting the focus from what was quality of life for people (Lopes & Camanho, 2013). built (or to be built) to human beings (Sassen, 2016; White, 2014). More specifically, there is a growing line of research that aims to Her principles have been recurrently rediscovered and revisited to quantify the Jacobs postulates by using objective measures of the built respond to different needs and from different contexts, and are still and social environment (Braun & Malizia, 2015; De Nadai et al., 2016; relevant in the present day (Hirt & Zahm, 2012). Many citizen organi­ Delclòs-Alió & Miralles-Guasch, 2018; He et al., 2018; Jin et al., 2017; zations have incorporated her arguments to evaluate the neighborhood Lu, Huang, Shi, & Yang, 2019; Sung, Lee, & Cheon, 2015; Wu, Ta, Song, built environment using community-based approaches, for example, Lin, & Chai, 2018; Zeng, Song, He, & Shen, 2018). Most of these efforts * Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: irene.gomez@uab.cat (I. Gómez-Varo), xavier.delclos@urv.cat (X. Delclòs-Alió), carme.miralles@uab.cat (C. Miralles-Guasch). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2022.103565 Received 29 January 2021; Received in revised form 30 September 2021; Accepted 7 January 2022 Available online 15 January 2022 0264-2751/© 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). I. Gómez-Varo et al. Cities 123 (2022) 103565 rely on high-resolution techniques to apply the ideas that Jacobs Most studies applying the Jacobs framework to the study of cities developed in New York in the 1960s to present-day cities. However, to have used, to some extent, some measure of concentration. Following properly analyze the potential vitality of today's cities, the Jacobs the Jacobs rationale, concentration has been generally operationalized principles need to be updated by considering new insights and indicators as population density (De Nadai et al., 2016; Delclòs-Alió & Miralles- of what can constitute vibrant city life. Furthermore, most of these an­ Guasch, 2018; He et al., 2018; Sung & Lee, 2015), residential density alyses explore the ideas of Jacobs in large urban areas or in central and (Garcia, Vale, Garcia, & Vale, 2018; Yoon & Park, 2018) or housing well-off neighborhoods, while there is less evidence of how the condi­ density (Faria, Ogura, & Sachsida, 2013; Lu et al., 2019; Sung et al., tions of vitality play out in peripheral and more vulnerable areas. With 2015). However, there have been other interesting reinterpretations of this in mind, and based on related literature and previous work, the aim concentration. For instance, some studies have included other measures of this paper is to present a methodological tool that captures the po­ such as the density of “points of interest” (Lu et al., 2019; Yue et al., tential of urban spaces to be vital environments. We provide an updated 2017), public facilities (Long & Huang, 2019) and other studies have and extended version of the JANE Index of urban vitality (Delclòs-Alió & used stores, bars, or restaurants (March, Rijal, Wilkinson, & Firidin Miralles-Guasch, 2018), now composed of 22 variables of the built and Özgür, 2012; Wu, Ta, et al., 2018). The presence of such elements in the social environment, which we then use to characterize the potential of urban space has been related to the Jacobs “eyes on the street” concept, urban vitality of Nou Barris, a peripheral low-income district in Barce­ meaning that a maintained presence of people creates a sort of “natural lona (Spain). surveillance” system that also has been proved to increase safety (Anderson, Macdonald, Bluthenthal, & Ashwood, 2012; Faria et al., 2. Background 2013). When measuring the need for primary mixed uses, the most common 2.1. The conditions for urban vitality according to Jane Jacobs approach in applied studies has been to use land-use mix indices (De Nadai et al., 2016; He et al., 2018; March et al., 2012; Zeng et al., 2018), In her definitive statement on American cities, The Death and life of and also complementary indicators of the balance between residential Great American Cities (1961), Jacobs described four generators of urban and non-residential uses (Sung, Go, & Choi, 2013). Similarly, other vitality: the need for primary mixed uses, the need for small blocks, the studies have gone one step farther and applied this same logic to retail need for aged buildings and the need for concentration. First, Jacobs diversity in particular by incorporating mix and balance of business considered urban spaces that gathered multiple uses would be capable of types (Sung et al., 2015; Yoon & Park, 2018). hosting different activities throughout the day, which in turn would Regarding the need for old and new buildings, some studies have attract people with different needs and with different purposes. Second, incorporated this variable without change (Delclòs-Alió & Miralles- Jacobs considered that cities should be designed at the human scale in Guasch, 2018; Sung & Lee, 2015). However, in present-day cities it order to provide opportunities for human contact, and thus they would seems unlikely that the building construction year would be an accurate be more conducive for social interaction. Third, Jacobs suggested that indicator for housing affordability (King, 2013). In a context where diverse and vibrant neighborhoods would require a certain degree of access to affordable housing is becoming increasingly problematic, other social mixture. In order to welcome different types of population, she studies have suggested using more direct indicators of housing afford­ considered it essential for cities to preserve a certain balance between ability, such as average housing price (Long & Huang, 2019). new and old buildings, which from her perspective and in her time was Contact opportunity has been generally measured by means of spe­ an indicator of housing affordability. Fourth, Jacobs defended that cific street network characteristics. One of the most commonly used concentration (of activities and people) could be regarded as the key variables has been intersection density, considering that a higher num­ requirement for urban vitality. She specifically referred to density of ber of intersections translate to a larger number of possible itineraries buildings, residences and population. Throughout her book Jacobs also and opportunities to encounter others (Wu, Ta, et al., 2018). Addition­ mentioned two additional elements that are related to urban vitality ally, other studies have also incorporated other notions of what spaces (Sung et al., 2015): people's ability to move without depending on a car could be attractive for human interaction. In this sense, the presence of and the need to be wary of elements and spaces that could be harmful for street furniture, such as benches, has also been regarded to have an human activity, for which she coined the term ‘border vacuums’. impact on urban vitality (Sung et al., 2013; Xu et al., 2018). This may be particularly relevant for specific population groups such as older adults, 2.2. Revisiting urban vitality who require resting places along their walking itinerary (Borst, Mie­ dema, de Vries, Graham, & van Dongen, 2008). Similarly, other authors Some authors have been critical of the fact that the Jacobs hypoth­ have drilled deeper into the ideas of Jacobs and highlighted that the eses of urban design have been widely accepted as good principles, presence of small parks and squares may also be regarded as potential although they have not been scientifically tested (Marshall, 2012). forums of social interaction, compared to large public spaces (De Nadai Moreover, in the past decade (approximately) we find an increasing et al., 2016). Lastly, the present-day need for human interaction not only number of studies, from different disciplines, geographical contexts, and takes place in physical space, but also virtually, and therefore some also based on different methodologies, that use the principles of Jane studies have also considered public internet connectivity in the public Jacobs from an applied perspective to evaluate present-day cities. The space as, in turn, potentially conducive for human physical interaction, majority of studies to date have used the principles of Jacobs as a especially among young people (Kim, 2018). framework to describe the built environment in order to explore its as­ In terms of accessibility as one of the two complementary conditions sociation with a specific outcome (e.g., mobility levels, safety, health for urban vitality, studies have generally referred either to the supply of outcomes), while others have aimed at evaluating the adequacy of her public transportation, on the one hand, or to walkability conditions, on principles solely for characterizing present-day cities (Shi, Miao, & Si, the other. Related to the former, distance to rail and metro stations, bus 2019). Both types of studies have used a similar set of concepts in order stops, bicycle parking, and other transport facilities are often used as to describe the built environment under the Jane Jacobs framework, indicators of accessibility (Sung et al., 2015). In terms of walkability, it is either by directly transforming her ideas to specific variables or by common to find studies specifically using the existence of sidewalks and partially including new interpretations of what the conditions for vi­ their pavement conditions (Faria et al., 2013), the presence of traffic- tality may be in present-day cities. In the following paragraphs we calming schemes (Lunecke & Mora, 2018), slopes (Sung et al., 2013) provide some examples of how the Jacobs generators of vitality have or even street lighting (Jin et al., 2017; Zarin, Niroomand, & Heidari, either been operationalized, reinterpreted, or expanded in recent 2015). studies. Lastly, in terms of the so-called border vacuums, researchers 2 I. Gómez-Varo et al. Cities 123 (2022) 103565 generally refer to monofunctional urban spaces (i.e., large parks), nat­ In order to address these research gaps, this paper has two primary ural elements that could act as barriers (i.e., rivers), and ground-level aims: 1) present a synthetic index to measure the potential of urban heavy transportation infrastructures (i.e., railways, roads) (De Nadai vitality, updating the version of the JANE Index developed by (Delclòs- et al., 2016; Sung & Lee, 2015). Alió & Miralles-Guasch, 2018) and considering recent critical sugges­ In summary, research efforts applied to the study of urban vitality in tions in the literature; 2) assess the potential of this updated index in a today's cities has gained momentum by means of diverse conceptual and case study corresponding to a low-income peripheral district in a Med­ methodological approaches. However, we identified unexplored issues iterranean city, characterized by presenting diverse social and in the literature. First, we found that most contributions used the orig­ morphological characteristics. inal theoretical frame of Jane Jacobs for a wide variety of purposes, usually translating it directly to specific variables (such as density of 3. Methods population, land use, or transport accessibility). However, to our knowledge, usually there are fewer studies that actually reinterpreted 3.1. Study area her ideas or interpreted them with a present-day lens. Moreover, such contributions have only partially revisited the principles of Jacobs by This study focuses on the Nou Barris district in Barcelona (Spain) focusing on a particular research field where vitality is measured with (Fig. 1). Nou Barris (which presents an area of 804 ha) is located on the specific outcomes, rather than studying urban design from a global northern side of the city, bordering with the Collserola mountain range perspective. Hence, it is our opinion that there is still a need to bring the (i.e., with an elevation of 512 m at Tibidabo, Barcelona) and it is divided principles together in a harmonized manner. into 13 neighborhoods, with an overall population of 167.868 in­ Furthermore, we also identified a gap regarding the geographies, habitants (10.4% of the total City of Barcelona population) (Ajuntament primarily in Asian and North American countries, which previous de Barcelona, 2018). The mean of the population density is 20,900 studies have focused on. To date, little attention has been paid to the inhab./km2, which is higher than the City of Barcelona average (15,900 European context, and more specifically, to Mediterranean cities. In this hab./km2). The population in Nou Barris is not evenly distributed across line, there is also a matter of what type of urban contexts is analyzed. its neighborhoods, which can be explained by different historical According to some critical authors, idea of dense according to Jacobs (i. development patterns. e., lively and diverse neighborhoods) is privileging a “middle class way Until the end of the 19th century, Nou Barris was mostly a rural area of life” (Connolly, 2018; Kirby, 2018; Shake, 2015; Steil & Delgado, with a small town core, corresponding to the present-day neighborhood 2018), forgetting about more disadvantaged socioeconomic realities. In of Vilapiscina i la Torre Llobeta. With industrialization, the dominant addition, street vibrancy is often identified with compact urban forms rural landscape started to host small industries and large infrastructures corresponding to central cores, while there is less evidence from other that were relocated on the periphery of the city, where they still remain urban fabrics, specially focused on peripherical locations. In this sense, today. The progressive arrival of the working-class population at the there is a need to understand how urban vitality operates in enclaves start of the 20th century initially resulted in a scattered urbanization that present disadvantaged and socioeconomic contrasts, in terms of process that resulted in informal slums first, and in low-cost public income and vulnerability indicators, because to date no studies have housing promotions in low-rise dwellings later (popularly known as been developed in these contexts. “cheap houses”) (García Soler, 1998), located in Can Peguera. However, Fig. 1. Study area: Nou Barris district (Barcelona). Source: own elaboration. 3 I. Gómez-Varo et al. Cities 123 (2022) 103565 the largest transformations took place between the 1950s and 1970s. non-basic facilities. These variables were included as two separate Nou Barris grew significantly due to the accommodation of the post-war indices: Commercial and Facility Mix (CFMIX) and a Basic-Non-Basic Fa­ migration workforce coming from rural areas of Spain. Newcomers cility (BNB) balance indicator. The CFMIX index was calculated using the established in both self-constructed shanty settlements and, later, in following expression: public high-rise housing projects in Verdum, Roquetes, Ciutat Meridiana, ⎛∑ n ⎞ la Guineueta, Porta, Turó de la Peira, and Canyelles. These neighborhoods ⎜i=1 pi*ln(pi) ⎟ presented severe building inadequacies and almost no connection with CFMIX = − 1 ⎜ ⎝ ln(n) ⎟ ⎠ the rest of the city (Domingo i Clota & Bonet i Casas, 1998). Improve­ ments were accomplished in the 1980s and 1990s, mainly triggered by community-organized initiatives and demands that crystalized in urban where pi refers to the proportion of the activity type i in relation to all policies such as interventions on housing, public spaces, and the pro­ other possible categories, and n is the total number of categories. vision of infrastructures that aimed to dignify this traditionally The balance indicator between basic and non-basic facilities,1 was marginalized district (García Soler, 1998). The uneven development calculated using the following expression: patterns of the district resulted in six main types of urban form (Fig. 2): ⃒ ⃒ a) historical centers; b) orthogonal urban expansions, c) high-rise ⃒Basi − NoBasi ⃒ BNB = 1 − ⃒⃒ ⃒ housing projects, d) mid-rise developments, e) low-rise housing pro­ Basi + NoBasi ⃒ jects, and f) informal settlements of self-construction housing. For Contact Opportunity, the original index included the indicators of block size and street width. The updated index now considers five 3.2. Variables and data sources different indicators based on recent conceptualizations of what vibrant public spaces may require. First, we include the classical indicators of This study is based on the construction of an updated and extended the built environment such as i) intersection density (“INTERSEC”), and version of the JANE Index, described in a previous work (Delclòs-Alió & ii) distance to specific meeting points, squares, and pocket parks Miralles-Guasch, 2018). We build on the four basic generators of vitality (Peschardt, Stigsdotter, & Schipperijn, 2014) (“PPDIST”). We also according to Jacobs (concentration, functional diversity, contact op­ consider microelements of the built infrastructure that encourage portunity, and need for aged buildings) and two accessory principles human relationships, such as iii) the presence of street benches (accessibility and distance to border vacuums). In addition, we incor­ (“BENCHES”), especially among seniors (Cao, Heng, & Fung, 2019). In porate other variables based on the recent literature exploring vitality order to include new perspectives that have also evidenced vitality and its drivers under the framework of Jacobs. The result is an updated occurring in a virtual dimension (Kim, 2018), we include an indicator JANE Index consisting of 22 variables compiled from diverse data that measures iv) distance to public Wi-Fi hotspots (“WFDIST”). Finally, sources, as summarized in Table 1. we calculated v) an indicator of betweenness (“BTW”) using urban Concentration is measured as the combination of three primary ele­ network analysis tools (Sevtsuk & Mekonnen, 2012). The betweenness ments. Population density (pop./km2) (“DENS”) is the primary condition, indicator measures the potential number of people that can go past a as the presence of human life was considered by Jacobs as fundamental given building in a specific radius. In this case we used 600 m, which is for vitality. However, in this new edition of the JANE Index we also approximately equivalent to 10 min of travel time on foot (Wei, Xiao, include an indicator for commercial density (retail businesses/km2) Wen, & Wei, 2016), and was calculated with the following expression: (“COM_DENS”) and density of public facilities (public facilities/km2) ∑ njk [i] (“FACIL_DENS”) as both attract the presence of people because they are BTW r [i] = ⋅W[j] n considered to be points of interest (Wu, Ye, Ren, & Du, 2018; Yue et al., j,k∈− {i};d[j,k]≤r jk 2017). Second, Functional diversity is defined as the presence of i) multiple where betweenness of a building i is defined as the number of times that urban functions and ii) a balance between residential and non- the building i is situated along the shorter route between all pairs of residential uses. First, two main indices were calculated: Building-Use other buildings in a specific radius r. Specifically, njk refers to the Mix Indicator (BuMI) index and a Residential-NonResidential (RNR) bal­ number of short routes from a building j to a building k in a radius r, and ance index. BuMI is an adaptation of an entropy index calculated by the njk [i] is a sub-selection of these routes that pass close to i, and W(f) main six uses extracted from the municipal cadaster (residential, com­ refers to the weight of each building related to the population in the mercial, work-related, recreational, and others), which was calculated census. with the following expression: Fourth, Jacobs highlighted that cities need to ensure buildings with ⎛∑ ⎞ different characteristics are present in order to guarantee a certain de­ gree of socioeconomic diversity. With this intention, we first included n pi*ln(pi) BuMI = − 1 ⎜ ⎜i=1 ⎟ ⎟ the building mean year of construction (“YEARM”) and the standard devi­ ⎝ ln(n) ⎠ ation (“YEARSD”) to incorporate diversity of building construction years, which correspond to the original ideas of Jacobs. However, in cities such as Barcelona, housing affordability does not only depend on where p refers to the proportion of the use i in relation to the total building age or type, as there are phenomena such as tourism and possible uses n. gentrification affecting housing accessibility (Cocola-Gant & Lopez-Gay, The RNR index was created with the following expression: 2020; Gutiérrez & Domènech, 2020). For this reason, in this new index ⃒ ⃒ ⃒Resi − NonResi ⃒ we also consider the average rent in the neighborhood in Euros RNR = 1 − ⃒⃒ ⃒ Resi + NonResi ⃒ (“RENT”) as an updated indicator of housing affordability. where Resi refers to residential uses and NonResi to non-residential uses. Both indices take values from 0 to 1. 1 Facilities considered as basic: everyday life retail (e.g., grocery stores, su­ Complementarily, in this updated JANE Index, we also considered permarkets, bakeries, pharmacies), educational and health facilities.Considered the diversity of retail and other everyday facilities. Previous studies also as non-basic or secondary facilities: property business, automotive commerce, pointed out that diversity per se does not necessarily guarantee the personal equipment, cultural, leisure and recreational facilities, household presence of everyday retail and other facilities (Yoon & Park, 2018), and furnishing, reparation (household appliances and automobiles), bars and res­ therefore we also included an indicator of the balance between basic and taurants, others. 4 I. Gómez-Varo et al. Cities 123 (2022) 103565 Fig. 2. Urban morphology types in Nou Barris. Source: own elaboration. Accessibility is defined by six indicators. The first is measured as the summarized the 22 variables in a 50 × 50 m cell grid (Fig. 3). This weighted distance to public transport (“TPDIST”), applying a weight process was conducted to homogenize the spatial resolution of the system based on the transportation network hierarchy: interurban rail­ original data at a scale considered proper for an in-depth analysis of way transport (40%), metro and tramway (30%), local bus lines (20%), street-level activity (Arranz-López, Soria-Lara, López-Escolano, & Pueyo and bicycle stations (10%). As a novelty, we include a set of five in­ Campos, 2017). This is also a novelty related to the previous JANE Index dicators related to pedestrian accessibility (authors): street inclination (Delclòs-Alió & Miralles-Guasch, 2018), whose grid was 100 × 100 m, in or slope (“INCLIN”), presence of street lighting (“LIGHT”), distance to order to provide a higher resolution and come closer to what actually the nearest pedestrian crossing (“PVDIST”), the presence of sidewalks constitutes the street-level. Each cell is assigned a value for each of the (“SWALKS”), and finally, the presence of 30 km/h areas2 (“30A”), as 22 variables, following one of four calculation rules (Table 1): i) Mean traffic calming interventions are evidenced to promote pedestrian ac­ value in a 100 m radius from the centroid of the cell, ii) Presence within tivity (Barbosa & Baptista Neto, 2015). the cell (yes or no), iii) Count within the cell, and iv) Distance from the Lastly, Jacobs defined the existence of certain uses and elements in centroid of the cell to the nearest element. the city that she considered detrimental to urban vitality, as they could In order to have comparable indicators for each of the conditions, we act as “border vacuums” of human activity. In the present study, we use standardized the 22 original variables to their corresponding z-scores. distance from border vacuums (“BVDIST”), considering large single-use The sign of some variables was inverted since they were expected to buildings (5000 m2 and above), large parks (5000 m2 and above), have an inverse association with vitality. To calculate scores for each of large roads at the surface, and include dedicated parking areas and the six conditions, we created a weighted sum according to the expected empty lots, regarded as barrier indicators for walking activity (Knap­ relevance of each of the variables for each specific condition. skog, Hagen, Tennøy, & Rynning, 2019). In terms of concentration, starting with an ‘equal-weights’ logic, we granted a slightly larger weight to population density (4/10), as it is the 3.3. Data processing and calculations basic condition for vitality according to Jacobs, compared to commer­ cial and facility density (3/10 each), as described by the following Jane Jacobs suggested that the appropriate scale for the detection expression: and understanding of urban vitality was the street-level perspective. 4 3 3 Following this reasoning, after data collection and pre-processing, we Concentration (C) = zDENS + zCOM DENS + zFACIL DENS 10 10 10 For functional diversity the main weight is granted to the building-use 2 Areas with maximum circulation speed of 30 km/h. mix indicator (3/10) and to its complementary variable that captures 5 I. Gómez-Varo et al. Cities 123 (2022) 103565 Table 1 Conditions and indicators used in the analysis. Conditions Indicators Description Original resolution Calculation rule 2 a Concentration (C) DENS (1) Population density (hab./km ) Block Mean (100 m radius) 2 b COM_DENS (2) Commercial density (retail businesses/km ) Points Mean (100 m radius) FACIL_DENS (3) Public facilities density (public facilities/km2)b Points Mean (100 m radius) Functional diversity BuMI (4) Building-Use Mix Indicator (0–1)c Cadastral plot Mean (100 m (FD) radius) c RNR (5) Residential-NonResidential balance (0–1) Cadastral plot Mean (100 m radius) b CFMIX (6) Commercial and Facility Mix (0–1) Points Mean (100 m radius) BNB (7) Basic-NonBasic commercial and facility balance (0–1)b Points Mean (100 m radius) Contact Opportunity INTERSEC (8) Intersection densityd Points Count (CO) PPDIST (9) Distance to squares and pocket parks (m)e Polygons Distance WFDIST (10) Distance to public Wi-Fi hotspots (m)f Points Distance BENCHES (11) Benchesg Points Count BTW (12) Betweennessa Block Mean (100 m radius) Building diversity YEARM (13) Building average year of constructionc Cadastral plot Mean (100 m (BD) radius) c YEARSD (14) Diversity of building year of construction Cadastral plot Mean (100 m radius) h RENT (15) Average neighborhood rent (€) Neighborhood Mean (100 m radius) Accessibility (A) TPDIST (16) Weighted distance to public transport stations/stops (m)i Points (stops and bicycle Distance stations) (weighted) INCLIN (17) Street slope (◦ )j Street-level Mean (100 m radius) LIGHT (18) Street lightingg Points Count 30A (19) Presence of 30 km/h areask Polygons Presence PVDIST (20) Distance to pedestrian crossings (m)g Polygons Distance to nearest SWALKS (21) Presence of sidewalksg Lines Presence Border vacuums (BV) BVDIST (22) Distance to large single-use buildings, large parks, surface large roadways, Polygons Distance to parking areas, and empty lots (m)e nearest Data sources: a City blocks urban data 2016, Barcelona City Council. b Retail inventory of the City of Barcelona 2016, Barcelona City Council. c Municipal cadaster 2017, Ministry of Treasury. d Road Graph by street section 2019, Barcelona City Council. e Land use cartography 2016, Barcelona City Council. f Wi-Fi public spots 2019, Barcelona City Council. g Topographic municipal map at 1:1000 scale 2018, Barcelona City Council. h Rental Market in Barcelona neighborhoods 2018, Barcelona City Council. i Public transport stops and bike-sharing stations (Bicing) in Barcelona 2019, Barcelona City Council. j Terrain elevations model 15 × 15 m 2019, Cartographic and Geological Institute of Catalonia. k 30 areas in the City of Barcelona, Barcelona City Council. the balance between residential and non-residential uses (3/10), since especially attractive to specific population groups. The resulting these two indicators represent the backbone of what constitutes a expression is: balanced land-use mix in a certain urban area, and are the two most 3 2 common indicators used in similar studies (De Nadai et al., 2016; Sung Contact opportunity (CO) = zINTERSEC + ( − 1)zPPDIST 10 10 et al., 2015). On a second level, commercial and facility mix and the 0, 5 1, 5 3 indicator for balance between basic and non-basic retail and facilities + zWFDIST + zBENCHES + zBTW 10 10 10 are given a weight of 2/10. The expression is as follows: 3 3 2 2 For building diversity, the main weight (6/10) is given to the original Functional diversity (FD) = zBuMI 10 + zRNR + zCFMIX + zBNB 10 10 10 ideas of Jacobs, regarding both the age of buildings (3/10) and its di­ versity (standard deviation) (3/10). Secondly, in order to nuance the For contact opportunity, the largest weight is attributed to the struc­ effect of the previous two indicators, we included a rental price mean tural elements of built environment, that is, to the presence of in­ indicator with a weight of 4/10. It is described by the following tersections (3/10) and betweenness (3/10), followed by the presence of expression: pocket parks (2/10), and lastly micro elements of urban space, such as benches (1,5/10) and presence of Wi-Fi hotspot (0,5/10), since these are 6 I. Gómez-Varo et al. Cities 123 (2022) 103565 Fig. 3. Grid of 50 × 50 m cells used in the analysis. Source: own elaboration. 3 3 10), followed by the remaining street design elements such as street Building diversity (BD) = ( − 1)zYEARM + zYEARSD + ( 10 10 lighting (1/10), the presence of sidewalks (1/10), and pedestrian 4 crossings (1/10), and lastly to the presence of 30 km/h areas (1/10). The − 1)zRENT18 10 expression is as follows: For accessibility, the weighting scheme is based on spatial access 4 2 1 related to each transportation mode (i.e., transportation modes that Accessibility (A) = ( − 1)zTPDIST+ zINCLIN + zLIGHT 10 10 10 allow for greater spatial accessibility levels are granted larger weights), 1 1 1 + z30A + ( − 1)zPVDIST + zSWALKS organized as follows: train, subway, bus, and shared-bicycle system. For 10 10 10 the pedestrian accessibility, the largest weight is given to street slope (2/ Finally, for border vacuums the same weight was granted to all Fig. 4. Concentration values in Nou Barris. Source: own elaboration. 7 I. Gómez-Varo et al. Cities 123 (2022) 103565 Fig. 5. Functional diversity in Nou Barris. Source: own elaboration. elements that could be considered to discourage urban vitality (large especially in Torre Baró. However, we also observed low concentration single-use buildings of 5000 m2 and above, large parks of 5000 m2 and spots within the main urban footprint. These mainly correspond to large above, large roads at ground level, dedicated parking areas and empty parks and to Can Peguera, a very singular neighborhood consisting in a lots): low-rise housing project. Border vacuums (BV) = zBV 4.2. Functional diversity Lastly, we calculated an updated JANE Index by creating a weighted sum of the conditions, while making a distinction between the basic and The spatial distribution of functional diversity in Nou Barris is shown complementary conditions for vitality by assigning different weights in Fig. 5. In an approximate estimation, high values of functional di­ (Sung et al., 2015): versity were found throughout the district. Specific very high-value poles were mainly identified in neighborhoods forming a parallel line 1 1 1 1 1 1 JANE = C + FD + CO + BD + A + BV to the ring road (in Canyelles and Roquetes), in the north, around the 5 5 5 5 10 10 train station of Torre Baró, and in the south east, close to a shopping center (in Porta). High values were also found in the central neighbor­ 4. Results hoods, following the patterns formed by the main promenades of the district (Vía Júlia, Passeig de Fabra i Puig or Passeig de la Valldaura), which The results of measuring the conditions for urban vitality in the study gather around a variety of local shops, bars, civic facilities, and other area are shown in Figs. 4–8. We first present each of the conditions services. separately and then describe the final result synthesized by means of the Low values of functional diversity were primarily found in spaces updated JANE Index. characterized by single-use developments and mountainous areas. Regarding the former, it is specifically the case of an agricultural land 4.1. Concentration situated on the eastern side of Vallbona, close to the Besòs river, and an open-air parking area and energy infrastructure facilities in the north of High concentration values were found where high values of popu­ Trinitat Nova. Proximity to mountainous territories also discourages the lation, commercial and facility density overlap (Fig. 4). This is mainly locations of residences and therefore of mixed services, which occurs in the case for old historical cores (such as in Vilapiscina i la Torre Llobeta the northern neighborhood borders of Torre Baró, Roquetes, and neigborhood), areas of orthogonal expansion (i.e., La Prosperitat, or Canyelles. Verdum neighborhoods) and areas dominated by high-rise housing projects (i.e., Canyelles, Ciutat Meridiana, la Guineueta). Low concentra­ 4.3. Contact opportunity tion values were mainly identified in areas located along the moun­ tainous area in the north of the district. These correspond to The distributions of places that provide opportunities for contact in neighborhoods with a high presence of self-construction housing, Nou Barris are shown in Fig. 6. In general, we observed that areas with a 8 I. Gómez-Varo et al. Cities 123 (2022) 103565 Fig. 6. Contact opportunity in Nou Barris. Source: own elaboration. higher degree of compacity generally provide more contact opportu­ central area of the district presents higher accessibility values. These nities. This is mainly the case with historical cores (Vilapiscina i la Torre results were mainly driven by higher degrees of public transport access, Llobeta), the orthogonal street pattern areas (i.e., La Prosperitat and due to the closer distance to one of the main train stations in Barcelona, Verdum), and the singular case of Can Peguera, which is characterized by Sant Andreu Arenal. In addition, central neighborhoods are also char­ a high intersection density in combination with a significant presence of acterized by lower slopes, the presence of traffic-calming areas, and a meeting points such as squares or pocket parks. Conversely, the domi­ higher density of pedestrian crossings. The second pole of accessibility is nance of winding streets and the lack of walking infrastructure in large identified in the northern side of the district. Despite a challenging parts of the hilly neighborhoods of Torré Baró and Vallbona explain the terrain, with sinuous and sloping streets, there is a high degree of low contact opportunity values in these areas. accessibility explained mainly by the location of another major train station that connects the three northern neighborhoods (Vallbona, Torre 4.4. Building diversity Baró, and Ciutat Meridiana) with other parts of the city and also to other municipalities in the Barcelona Metropolitan Area. Regarding Building diversity (Fig. 7), most of Nou Barris generally In terms of border vacuums, we mostly found them in the peripheral showed medium values. However, we observed that the diversity of areas of the district. First, along the mountainous area of Collserola. edifications was higher in specific areas. This was the case of the central Second, along major roads such as the Ronda de Dalt, which crosses historical cores (Vilapiscina i La Torre Llobeta, el Turó de la Peira, and through the neighborhoods of Canyelles, Roquetes, and Trinitat Nova, and Porta neighborhoods), where many of the oldest buildings in the district also the Avinguda Meridiana, which borders the eastern side of the dis­ are present. We also found a singular spot in the north-west part of trict from North to South. We also found border vacuums within the Canyelles, where an ancient ensemble of old constructions is located urban fabric: a cemetery and a shopping centre in Porta, an empty lot which were originally part of a hospital and are currently preserved by a used for parking and energy and water supply infrastructures located in community-based project. The case of Can Peguera is remarkable too, as Trinitat Nova. Conversely, the spots farther away from border vacuums the neighborhood, originated by the construction of a public housing are mainly located in the old town cores (in Vilapiscina i Llobeta) or in­ project, still remains in a public tenancy regime, having the most side high-rise housing projects (in La Guineuta). affordable housing prices of the district. Lastly, it is also noteworthy that lower rent prices explain how, in general, northern neighborhoods such 4.6. The JANE Index in Nou Barris as Torre Baró, Trinitat Nova and Vallbona presented values above the average for this indicator. As the final step in the analysis, we synthesized the six conditions of urban vitality in an updated JANE Index. Higher values of the JANE 4.5. Accessibility and distance from border vacuums Index correspond to areas with a higher potential for urban vitality, while lower values indicate the lack of such conditions. The spatial The two accessory conditions to the Jacobs theory, accessibility and distribution of the index results in Nou Barris is presented in Fig. 9, first distance from border vacuums, are presented in Fig. 8. In broad terms, the showing the crude results (Fig. 9, top), and then the categorized version 9 I. Gómez-Varo et al. Cities 123 (2022) 103565 Fig. 7. Building diversity in Nou Barris. Source: own elaboration. of the index (Fig. 9, bottom), on which we will base our description. analyzed territory, and it was primarily found in two specific urban The potential of urban vitality in Nou Barris presents a polycentric contexts. On the one hand, in high-rise housing projects in La Guineueta, pattern, as we find high values of the JANE Index distributed in different Canyelles, and Trinitat Nova, whose areas between blocks are equipped sub-centers of potential vitality. In turn, different intensities of urban with pocket parks, benches, and green spaces, becoming conducive vitality potential are identified. scenarios of social interaction. We also found considerable values of Areas with a very high vitality level cover 13% of the study area and functional diversity explained mainly by the combination of residential, are surrounded by high vitality rings, with this second category corre­ retail, and recreational uses. On the other hand, we identified moder­ sponding to 22% of the analyzed territory. We find these spots in diverse ately vital spaces in hilly and sinuous streets, mainly in the Torre Baró urban environments, which share high scores of most of the vitality neighborhood. Despite the obstacles of the territory, the presence of dimensions. The largest being in the south of the district, around the urban elements such as public transport facilities and basic services (and historical fabric of Vilapiscina i la Torre LLobeta and following the main hence accessibility and functional diversity) makes them urban spaces with promenades of Passeig de Fabra i Puig and Passeig de la Peira. This area is an intermediate potential of urban vitality. characterized by the presence of older buildings and a mix of commer­ Lastly, low and null vitality environments represent 27% and 13% of cial and public facilities, resulting in high diversity and accessibility the studied area, respectively. Both categories are present mainly near values, which are further enhanced by larger distances to border vac­ administrative district limits, but also, and interestingly, embedded uums. In the center of the District we find a considerable extent of high within the urban fabric. The first situation corresponds to areas situated vitality values structured around the avenue of Via Júlia, a civic axe in the north, presenting very low values of accessibility, as they are close where the Verdum and La Prosperitat neighborhoods converge. This to the mountainous areas with pronounced slopes. Regarding the low sector scores high due to a high concentration and a higher relevance of and non-vital spots in central areas, they correspond mainly to mono­ pedestrian-oriented streets and meeting places, such as pocket parks and functional uses, tightly related to elements identified as border vacuums. squares, which manifest in higher levels of contact opportunity. Addi­ This is the case with the great parks of the district and heavy ground- tionally, in the unique urban context of the Can Peguera neighborhood, level infrastructures (such as the cemetery, sport facilities, and park­ an old and affordable public low-rise housing project laid out in compact ing plot). and orthogonal street distribution, we observed higher values of contact opportunity and building diversity. We also identified high-vitality spots in 5. Discussion peripheral and sloping areas of the district, such as in the center of Roquetes, where functional diversity stands out, as a wide diversity of This paper aimed to propose a recontextualization of the Jane Jacobs public facilities come together. Lastly, in the northern neighborhoods of principles of urban vitality by means of an applied study. As vitality is Torre Baró and Ciutat Meridiana, high vitality is also to be found around considered a key indicator of wellbeing and quality of life among urban the train station and the civic square, scoring highly mainly in terms of residents (Lopes & Camanho, 2013), this study contributes to the dis­ accessibility. cussion about the nature of the drivers of urban vitality and how they are The moderate vitality category takes up approximately 25% of the distributed in space. To do so, the study creates a synthetized index that 10 I. Gómez-Varo et al. Cities 123 (2022) 103565 Fig. 8. Accessibility (top) and distance to border vacuums (bottom) in Nou Barris. Source: own elaboration. 11 I. Gómez-Varo et al. Cities 123 (2022) 103565 Fig. 9. JANE Index: crude (top) and categorized results (bottom). Source: own elaboration. 12 I. Gómez-Varo et al. Cities 123 (2022) 103565 builds on what was developed previously (Delclòs-Alió & Miralles- isolation effect which many other projects suffered from in the 20th Guasch, 2018) and integrates theoretical and methodological sugges­ century (Baldwin, Tammaru, & van Ham, 2018). tions made by the recent literature on the topic. The new updated JANE The rationale of Jacobs enables us to acknowledge that certain urban Index, composed of 22 variables and operationalized using a GIS-based features may be regarded as promoters of vibrancy in neighborhoods process, is then applied to Nou Barris, a low-income peripheral district of that have been generally regarded as vulnerable (Cornado, Garcia- Barcelona (Spain) with diverse morphological characteristics. Almirall, Vima, Busqued, & Uzqueda, 2017). Specifically, following The results have evidenced that the conditions for urban vitality in a the inclusion of complementary indicators in the updated version of the present-day city are not necessarily related to centrality, specific urban JANE Index, such as the provision of facilities, basic services, housing fabrics, or certain level of income, but instead, they can be the result of affordability, and pedestrian accessibility, it is now possible to recognize different combinations of certain urban features. In this sense, this study nuances in relation to the potential of urban vitality. For example, this is challenges the widely-held assumption that the highest levels of street the case of high- and low-rise housing projects, which presented lower activity and vitality are mostly found in inner-city districts, which are scores of urban vitality potential if the abovementioned factors were not normally characterized by higher population densities and mixed uses considered. Although it is true that these urban areas deal with socio- (Garcia et al., 2018). Contrary to what occurs in other contexts where economic challenges (Antón-Alonso & Porcel, 2018), we may appre­ outer-city sectors are almost exclusively residential in terms of land use ciate some of the strengths the built environment offers when designing (De Nadai et al., 2016; Fuentes et al., 2020; Jin et al., 2017), the City of policies that aim to ameliorate life conditions of residents. As suggested Barcelona presents a homogenous high level of density of population by recent studies, these housing projects offer an urban form with open associated with a high provision of services and retail shops that are also spaces that could potentially meet present-day car-free urban in­ in peripheral and low-income neighborhoods. Hence, urban vitality here terventions reclaiming space for people and active sustainable lifestyles follows a polycentric pattern. The city's decentralized provision of (García-Pérez, Oliveira, Monclús, & Díez Medina, 2020). everyday facilities such as public markets, which in this district are In this sense, the ideas of Jacobs offer an interesting framework to evenly distributed across the outskirt neighborhoods and their coexis­ address some of the challenges faced by cities in the 21st century in tence with a dense network of local businesses (Fava, Guardia, & Oyón, terms of health, sustainability, and equity. Proximity and pedestrian- 2016), activate proximity and vital dynamics (Marquet & Miralles- oriented environments as found in Nou Barris may contribute to better Guasch, 2015). health and safety outcomes (Giles-Corti et al., 2016; Nieuwenhuijsen, Different intensities of vitality potential are distributed throughout 2018). Urban vitality through the lens of Jane Jacobs may also be the district, displaying a polycentric pattern and covering a range of relevant in order to re-think cities from a gender perspective, since the diverse urban fabrics. As expected, one of the main areas with high idea of “eyes on the street” (which mainly translates to higher levels of values of urban vitality potential corresponds to the historical core of safety resulting from the presence of people and strong social networks) Nou Barris, which fosters all the basic drivers for vitality. Neighbor­ (Humphrey, Shane, Small, & Thurston, 2017), combined with access to hoods with orthogonal street patterns also seem to foster the conditions care facilities encourage the use of public space by women (Khalili & for urban vitality. As is maintained by Jacobs (1961), high population Nayyeri Fallah, 2018; van den Berg, 2018). Finally, we may retake the densities combined with a mixture of land uses and meeting points concern of Jacobs on guaranteeing affordability in order to find different (pocket parks, squares) and intersections, result in such a compact and kind people living in neighborhoods. In this sense, a range of housing intricate morphology that provides citizens with a constant opportunity accessibility indicators should be considered when designing urban for contact, as well as a diverse provision of facilities and businesses policies that are able to guarantee diversity. In this study we included an (Banai, 1998; Long & Huang, 2019). indicator for the average price of rent, which is not sufficient to guar­ However, in the case of Nou Barris it is especially noteworthy to antee housing access. Nou Barris, despite being one of the most low- observe how both moderate and high values of potential vitality were priced districts of the City of Barcelona in terms of housing, does not also found in unexpected and remote urban sectors, such as housing ensure affordable housing, as it is also one the areas with major projects and areas within challenging slopes. This is the case of some of vulnerability related to housing exclusion (Toma, 2018), being affected the northern neighborhoods, which for many years remained isolated by evictions (Gutiérrez & Domènech, 2018) and a precarious physical due to their hilly nature and the barrier effect of heavy transport in­ state of the buildings (Cornado et al., 2017). frastructures. Strong neighborhood community mobilizations, together The findings of this study may have relevant implications for future with the application of urban local policies during the recovery of de­ practice, as they can be used to develop targeted interventions in mocracy after 36 years of dictatorship, 1939–1975, under the Franco different urban contexts. We identify two main directions in which regime (and especially during the 1980s in preparation for the 1992 urban policies should move towards. First, in areas that do not seem to Barcelona Olympics), were crucial to equip these original-thinking res­ gather the theoretical conditions for vitality, policies should focus on idential neighborhoods with basic urban facilities (e.g., markets, improving the conditions that may be missing. In the specific case of Nou schools, civic centers, public transportation), achieving considerable Barris, northern areas seem to require improvements in terms of levels of diversity and accessibility (Blanco, 2009; Domingo i Clota & pedestrian accessibility together with a considerable potential for Bonet i Casas, 1998). In addition, housing affordability still plays a increasing density. Second, in areas that already present a considerable special part in the interpretation of certain values of vitality in the dis­ potential for vitality, efforts should be aimed at preventing the un­ trict. Despite the rental price bubble that Barcelona is currently expe­ wanted collateral risks of vitality, and thus aim to avoid the deaths of riencing (Blanco-Romero, Blázquez-Salom, & Cànoves, 2018), certain these areas due to their own success (Romagnoli, 2020), that is, to neighborhoods in the area correspond to the most affordable rental guarantee that vital spaces are not triggering pernicious dynamics of prices of the City of Barcelona (Observatori Metropolità de l'Habitatge a social exclusion, as is already happening in certain parts of the City of Barcelona, 2019). Furthermore, high values of urban vitality were found Barcelona, outside of the district (Cocola-Gant & Lopez-Gay, 2020). In even in high-rise housing projects, one of the development models that Nou Barris, this is especially the case with southern neighborhoods. One Jacobs opposed the most in her time. In the case of such projects in Nou of the main vectors to correct or address such processes corresponds to Barris we found that high potential for vitality could be explained by the efforts aimed at guaranteeing housing affordability; for instance, by combination of the intrinsic high residential density of such projects, the deploying rent control or increasing the supply of public housing options particular provision of inner pocket parks, compact pedestrian-oriented (Observatori DESC, 2020). environments (intra-block spaces with a minimal presence of motorized This paper presents some limitations that could inform future transport, and a high potential for social interaction) and especially their studies. First, from a methodological perspective, our approach is combination with a significant level of accessibility that avoids the limited by the inherent constraints of synthetic indices of this nature. 13 I. Gómez-Varo et al. 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