Marine Geology 447 (2022) 106778 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Marine Geology journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/margo Research Article Refining Late-Holocene environmental changes of the Akko coastal plain and its impacts on the settlement and anchorage patterns of Tel Akko (Israel) Matthieu Giaime a, b, c, *, Michal Artzy b, c, Harry M. Jol d, Yossi Salmon b, Gloria I. López b, e, Amani Abu Hamid b, f a Institut de Ciència i Tecnologia Ambientals (ICTA-UAB), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Cerdanyola del Vallès, Barcelona, Spain b Hatter Laboratory, Recanati Institute for Maritime Studies, University of Haifa, Abba Khoushy Ave 199, Haifa 3498838, Israel c Department of Maritime Civilizations, University of Haifa, Abba Khoushy Ave 199, Haifa 3498838, Israel d Department of Geography & Anthropology, University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire, 105 Garfield Avenue, Eau Claire, WI 54701, USA e Colombian Geological Society, Bogotá, Colombia f Israel Antiquities Authority, Rockefeller Archaeological Museum, P.O.B 586, Jerusalem 9100402, Israel A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T Keywords: Akko/Acre, a UNESCO World Heritage site since 2001, is one of the oldest continuously inhabited sites in the Ancient anchorages/harbours eastern Mediterranean. Tel Akko was a major maritime centre of the southern Levant from the Middle Bronze to Tel Akko the Late Persian period. The city was then moved 1500 m to the west on the Akko promontory where the ‘Old GPR City’ of Saint-Jean d'Acre is located. The natural and anthropogenic evolution of Tel Akko area is reflected by Biostratigraphy persistent geographical and habitation pattern changes. We combine sedimentological and faunal analyses of Coastal changes Paleogeography radiocarbon dated cores as well as identification of ceramic sherds found in the cores with ground penetrating radar investigations to propose an up-to-date palaeogeographical reconstruction of landscape/environmental changes of the Akko coastal plain in order to understand the extent to which environmental pressures have played a role on the position of anchorage and habitation patterns. We highlight how the local population make use of the natural advantages of the area and adapted to environmental pressures. Following a constant sedi­ mentary input and simultaneous coastal progradation of the Akko coastal plain the main anchorage areas where forced to move. While the 2nd Millennium BCE anchorage was on the southern area of the tell, the late-1st Millennium BCE (Phoenician-Persian) anchorage was relocated on the western area. Vicissitudes in settlement pattern noted in archaeological excavations and surveys on Tel Akko have, most likely, been the consequence of the changes in the position of the coastline. 1. Introduction et al., 2011, 2017; Galili and Rosen, 2011; Galili et al., 2017). Humans living along the coasts tended to adapt to coastal changes by the relo­ Over the past decades, the question of human reaction, adaptation, cation of their communities further inland. In the eastern Mediterra­ and resilience to environmental changes has gained increased interest, nean, the oldest coastal defence against sea level rise was found in the particularly for those related to coastal societies. These locations are form of a seawall dated to ca. 7500–7000 BP discovered at the sub­ specifically considered as vulnerable to environmental changes (Wong merged Neolithic settlement of Tel Hreiz along the Carmel coast of Israel et al., 2014). During the Holocene, a transition from a nature-dominated (Galili et al., 2019). However, the seawall was only a temporary solution to a human-dominated environment is noted (Messerli et al., 2000). In and finally the village was abandoned and submerged. After the the Early-Holocene, coastal societies were strongly affected by the rise in diminished rate of sea level rise at ca. 7000/6000 years BP and its sta­ sea level that led to the submersion of prehistoric coastlines (Benjamin bilisation since ca. 4000 years, coastal communities became increasingly * Corresponding author at: Institut de Ciència i Tecnologia Ambientals (ICTA-UAB), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Cerdanyola del Vallès, Barcelona, Spain. E-mail addresses: matthieu.giaime@gmail.com (M. Giaime), michal.artzy@gmail.com (M. Artzy), jolhm@uwec.edu (H.M. Jol), yossi.salmon@gmail.com (Y. Salmon), lopezgi.phd@gmail.com (G.I. López), amani.ah.2008@gmail.com (A. Abu Hamid). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.margeo.2022.106778 Received 4 December 2021; Received in revised form 15 March 2022; Accepted 18 March 2022 Available online 23 March 2022 0025-3227/© 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). M. Giaime et al. Marine Geology 447 (2022) 106778 sedentary with the enhancement of maritime trade and the development (Blue, 1995; Marriner et al., 2014, 2017). Along the Levantine coast, the of anchorages and harbours (Artzy, 1997, 2006; Faust and Ashkenazy, first artificial harbours are dated to the Iron Age, the “Phoenician” 2009; Sherratt, 2016). In the Bronze Age, populations favoured natural period – the first part of the 1st Millennium BC – at Tabbat el-Hammam features as anchorage areas whereas most artificial harbour basins and (Braidwood, 1940; Frost, 1972) and Atlit (Haggi and Artzy, 2007; Haggi, related port facilities started to be built mainly during the Iron Age 2010). Fig. 1. A. Regional location of the Haifa/Akko bay in the Eastern Mediterranean (after Inman, 2003; image CNES). Wind and wave patterns at Alexandria are from Stanley and Bernhardt, 2010). B. Geomorphological reconstruction of Haifa/Akko bay 4000 years BP (after Elyashiv et al., 2016). 2 M. Giaime et al. Marine Geology 447 (2022) 106778 It is widely recognized that during the Late-Holocene, Mediterranean Zviely et al., 2006; Fig. 1.B). coastal/deltaic plains have been impacted by human related environ­ Locally, the Na’aman River's geomorphological evolution played an mental impacts – mainly linked to watershed deforestation that led to important role in the environmental changes at Tel Akko. The river soil erosion and an increase in fluvial sediment supply – that accentuated drains the western Lower Galilee Mountains and its watershed is formed the expansion of coastal plains (Stanley and Warne, 1997; Bellotti et al., by two subsidiary river-basins: (i) the Hilazon River basin drains 240 2004; Simeoni and Corbau, 2009; Maselli and Trincardi, 2013; Anthony km2, and (ii) the Na’aman River basin (drainage area of ca. 70 km2), and et al., 2014). This phenomenon was favoured in the context of the is mainly fed from the Apheq spring (Lichter et al., 2009). Due to glacio-eustatic stabilisation of sea level since ca. 7000/6000 years. The anthropogenic use of the water from the Apheq spring, the river development of the coastal plains happens particularly early in the discharge has undergone significant decrease (Lichter et al., 2009). The eastern Mediterranean. In ria type deltas, the limited accommodation Na’aman is presently artificially channelized 800 m to the south of the space for the deposition of fluvial sediment led to particularly important tell (Figs. 2 and 3), but in the Late-Holocene it flowed closer to the tell progradation of the coast (Anthony et al., 2014). In Cyprus, the infilling (Morhange et al., 2016; Giaime et al., 2018). In a map dating to the of the Gialias ria has been elucidated with the discovery of a succession beginning of the 20th century, a relic arm/meander of the Na’aman of coastal palaeoenvironments (alluvial plains, lagoons, coastal spits) flowed closer to Tel Akko can be observed (Fig. 2). Lichter et al. (2009), consistent with the eastward migration of the coastline during the past who studied historical maps and aerial photographs, have demonstrated 6000 years. This progradation of the waterfront forced the local that the Na’aman mouth migrated by 1.5 km (both north and south) inhabitant to keep pace with the shifting coastline by relocating their along the coast during the last 200 years. anchorages since the Bronze Age (Devillers, 2008). The progradation of coastal plains and the infilling of lagoons had important negative im­ 3. In search of Tel Akko's anchorage(s): (geo)archaeological pacts on the navigability of coastal water bodies. In Cyprus, infilling of context the Larnaca Salt Lake area – leading to the gradual isolation of the Salt Lake's lagoon from the surrounding marine environment through sedi­ The site of Tel Akko has a strategic geographical location, near the mentation – eventually lead to the abandonment of the settlement at coast and in close proximity to the Na’aman river mouth on the northern Dromolaxia-Vyzakia (Hala Sultan Tekke) in the early 12th century BCE edge of the Haifa/Akko Bay (Fig. 1). Besides its favourable position near (Devillers et al., 2015). Along the coast of northern Levant, the the coast, the panoramic view from Tel Akko includes the entire bay, the increasing rate of coastline progradation is illustrated by the formation north-south route, as well as routes leading from the coast to Syria via of the tombolos of Tyre and Ras Ibn Hani. After 3000 years BCE, a the fertile Jezreel valley and across to Transjordan (Artzy, 2018). The particularly rapid phase of sand bank accretion is observed and char­ first archaeological remains at Tel Akko are dated to the beginning of the acterised by a large increase in sedimentation rates (Marriner et al., Early Bronze Age, ca. 5000 years ago (Table 1). Monumental structures – 2007, 2012). Along the southern Levant, increasing rate in coastal plain a rampart and a gate – dating to the Middle Bronze Age IIa (MBA; progradation appears to be consistent with a pulse in sediment supply 2000–1750 BCE) were found on the northern, high section of the tell driven by Bronze and Iron Age soil erosion in local catchments indi­ (Dothan, 1976; Raban, 1983, 1991; Be'eri, 2008; Fig. 3; Area A and AB). cating more extensive farming to sustain a growing population (Palm­ Tel Akko acted as a major anchorage site from at least the MBA to the isano et al., 2019). These data suggest that at a regional scale, early Late Persian period. Written sources from 2nd Millennium BCE, found in human impacts were significant in modulating geomorphological the el-Amarna Letters dated to the 14th century BCE indicate that it was change in downdrift coastal areas of the Levant. an important harbour utilized by the Egyptians (Artzy, 2018). In the Using a multidisciplinary approach, the present study aims to Persian Period, it was a centre for the Persian army and its mercenaries reconstruct geomorphological evolution of the Akko coastal plain. We in the quest to conquer and control Egypt (Abu Hamid and Artzy, 2021; aims to understand: What was the natural environment at the founda­ Abu Hamid, 2021). tion of Tel Akko? How did the coastal landscape evolved and how fast? From a palaeo-environmental perspective, pioneer research has How did local inhabitants deal with coastal changes? Answering these suggested that fluvio-coastal dynamics linked to sea level changes and question will allow us to precisely reconstruct the impact of coastal high sedimentation rate played a major role in the evolution of the Akko changes on the evolution of the habitation and anchorage patterns from coastal plain (Inbar and Sivan, 1983). At the scale of the tell, past geo­ the Bronze Age onward. archaeological studies have shed light on the evolution of the ancient coastal interface (Morhange et al., 2016; Giaime et al., 2018). These 2. Regional setting results pointed toward an important coastal progradation on the southern area of the tell during the last two millennia BCE and induced a Tel Akko is located on the northern edge of the Haifa/Akko Bay, the shift in the location of the ancient coast through time. Recent work only bay along the coast of the southern Levant (Fig. 1). Zviely et al. confirmed the presence of the coastline, and reinforced the evidence of a (2006) and Elyashiv et al. (2016) have provided details of the Holocene possible anchorage or even a proto-harbour, in the southwestern area of geomorphological evolution of the bay in relation to sea level changes Tel Akko during the first part of the 1st Millennium BCE (Giaime et al., and sedimentary inputs. During the Early-Holocene rates of sea level rise 2021). were primarily linked to modifications in ice volumes and the Earth's Considering the dynamic coastal interface of the city (Morhange response to the changing ice-water load. This sea level rise was the main et al., 2016; Giaime et al., 2018), the different anchorages were not in a driver of coastal changes in this tectonically stable region (Sivan et al., fixed location over the centuries. The question of the Bronze Age 2001; Avnaim-Katav et al., 2012). During the last 6000 years, the ice- anchorage was first raised by Raban (1985, 1991). He proposed that like equivalent melt-water input is considered minimal leading to an many other Bronze Age Levantine coastal cities, Tel Akko's inhabitants important decrease in the rate of sea level rise (Sivan et al., 2001; took advantage of the Na’aman River mouth to install their anchorage in Lambeck et al., 2004, 2014; Vacchi et al., 2016, 2018). The associated a naturally protected environment (Raban, 1985). When viewed from large sedimentary inputs lead to the westward progradation of the above, the present shape of Tel Akko is reminiscent of a “moon crescent” coastline. The main source of sediments leading to the infilling of the (Artzy and Quartermaine, 2014; Artzy et al., 2021). Part of the inden­ bay was Nile-derived sand quartz. Zviely et al. (2007) have estimated tation in the crescent was assumed by Raban to have been an inner the quantity of Nile-derived quartz sands trapped in the bay over the last harbour. The assumption of a Bronze Age anchorage in the vicinity, if 8000 years to be 700 million m3. Marine sediment infill is supplemented not in the indentation, of Tel Akko was reinforced by the discovery of by fluvial sediment inputs from the Qishon and the Na’aman Rivers at numerous imported ceramics dated from the 2nd Millennium BCE in the southern and northern extremities of the bay (Vachtman et al., 2013; areas P and PH (Fig. 3; Raban, 1991). 3 M. Giaime et al. Marine Geology 447 (2022) 106778 Fig. 2. Map of the Akko coastal plain in 1925–1926 (Unpublished map of Joseph Treidel). The map shows that the Na’aman River was flowing closer to Tel Akko in the beginning of the 20th century. 4. Material and methods completed at the Radiochronology Laboratory of the Centre d'Études Nordiques (University of Laval, Canada). AMS measurements were To reconstruct Late-Holocene geomorphological changes in the area, performed at the Keck Carbon Cycle AMS Facility (University of we combined a sedimentological and faunal study of radiocarbon dated California-Irvine, USA; Table 2). Samples submitted were grape seeds, sedimentary cores with geophysical investigations of the sub-surface pieces of charcoal, and marine shells. Dates were calibrated using Calib sediments. 8.2 (Stuiver and Reimer, 1993; Stuiver et al., 2020) with IntCal20 (Reimer et al., 2020) and Marine20 (on shells) curves (Heaton et al., 2020). In addition, ceramic fragments collected during coring give a 4.1. Collection and bio-sedimentological study of the cores high-precision relative chronology for the stratigraphic units. The core liners were opened and stratigraphically described. Sam­ Five cores were collected in plastic liners from a Geoprobe DT22 pling was based on the stratigraphic breaks in the cores. The general percussion corer. The core locations (Easting and Northing) were ob­ sediment texture, including gravel (> 2 mm), sand (63 μm-2 mm) and tained using a GPS-RTK system providing a spatial accuracy of 0.02 m silty-clay fractions (<63 μm), was determined by the wet sieving of 50 g (Fig. 3). The elevation of each core was measured with a total-station of dry sediments. Ostracods were picked from the sand fraction >125 μm using a National Datum point MAPI 3835 as reference benchmark. and identified using atlases and specific literature (e.g. Athersuch et al., This datum point has a mean sea level elevation of 33.40 m. This 1989; Lachenal, 1989; Frenzel and Boomer, 2005; Avnaim-Katav et al., elevation was established by the Survey of Israel Center in 1999, based 2016) while molluscs were identified in the >2 mm fraction (D'Angelo on 18.6 years of continuous orthometric measurements of sea level of and Garguillo, 1978; Avnaim-Katav et al., 2016). Statistical analyses the Mediterranean Sea. were performed using the paleontological statistical software PAST The chronology of the cores is based on nine Accelerator Mass (Version 2.14, Hammer et al., 2001). The standardized dataset is based Spectrometry (AMS) radiocarbon dates. The preparation of the samples, on the relative abundance of each ecological group (freshwater, which includes chemical pre-treatment, fractionation of their carbon lagoonal, marine lagoonal and coastal/marine). Principal Component components followed by oxidation and reduction to graphite was 4 M. Giaime et al. Marine Geology 447 (2022) 106778 Fig. 3. Location map of the data used in this article collected in the Tel Akko coastal plain. Background image taken by drone (© P. Bauman, 2018). Analysis (PCA) was undertaken on the variance-covariance matrix to Table 1 test the ordination of samples by assessing major changes in palae­ Main archaeological periods of Tel Akko. oenvironmental proxies. We did not include macrofauna data in the PCA Period Years BCE because they were too scarce and not found in all the cores. Early Bronze 3500–2200 Middle Bronze 2200–1550 Late Bronze 1550–1200 4.2. Ground penetrating radar (GPR) Iron Age I 1200–1000 Iron Age II (Phoenician) 1000–586 Iron Age III 586–539 GPR has been widely used to investigate geoarchaeological as well as Persian 539–332 coastal geomorphic environments (Jol and Bristow, 2003; Conyers and Hellenistic 332–63 Goodman, 1997; Buynevich et al., 2009; Goodman et al., 2009). This non-invasive method is a near-surface geophysical surveying technique which utilizes pulses of electromagnetic waves to image the subsurface stratigraphy and associated human-made disturbances. The resulting 5 M. Giaime et al. Marine Geology 447 (2022) 106778 Table 2 AMS-14C data expressed in calibrated years BP and BC at the 95% interval confidence level (2σ) using Calib 8.2 (Stuiver and Reimer, 1993; Stuiver et al., 2020) and the IntCal20 (Reimer et al., 2020) and Marine20 curves (Heaton et al., 2020). Sample Lab Material Depth (cm below Depth (cm below Age 14C 2 sigma cal BP 2 sigma cal BC/AD Historical period number surface) mean sea level) min; max min; max AK16C6 ULA- Marine shell 675 356 4105 ± 3540; 4010 2060; 1600 BCE Middle Bronze 670–680 9186 (Cythara) 15 AK17C8 ULA- Grape seed 308 47 2425 ± 2350; 2670 720; 410 BCE Late Iron Age - 306–310 9132 15 Persian AK-XIX- ULA- Marine shell 627 410 4535 ± 4100; 4580 2630; 2150 BCE Early Bronze 13624–631 9185 (Conus) 15 AK-XIX-15300 ULA- Charcoal 300 137 1955 ± 1830; 1930 20; 120 CE Roman 9133 15 AK-XIX-15586 ULA- Grape seed 586 449 2975 ± 3070; 3210 1260; 1130 BCE Late Bronze - Early 9130 15 Iron Age AK-XIX-15638 ULA- Charcoal 638 475 2990 ± 3070; 3320 1370; 1120 BCE Late Bronze - Early 8699 20 Iron Age AK-XIX-16388 ULA- Charcoal 388 3 2220 ± 2150; 2320 370; 200 BCE Hellenistic 8696 15 AK-XIX- ULA- Olive pit 555 170 2250 ± 2160; 2340 390; 210 BCE Hellenistic 16550–560 9131 15 AK-XIX- ULA- Marine shell 745 360 5730 ± 5580; 5970 4020; 3630 BCE Chalcolithic 16740–750 9181 (Bittium) 15 profiles provide reflections of subsurface horizons and are dependent on years in the Mediterranean Sea, which hides important spatial dispar­ local sediment properties including dielectric permittivity, electrical ities between the different sub-basins (western and eastern) of the conductivity, and attenuation (Jol and Bristow, 2003). The use of GPR in Mediterranean. Nevertheless, temporal deviations in this reservoir age identifying and imaging archaeological sites is a growing field within have also been demonstrated in more recent studies, in particular in geoarchaeology (Conyers, 2014). lagoonal environments (Sabatier et al., 2010). Rather than using this On the southern area of Tel Akko, multiple transects and grid surveys mean value proposed in Siani et al. (2000), we used a local ΔR of 142 ± were collected using a Sensors & Software pulseEKKO (PRO) GPR sys­ 66, based on the average of 8 published dates of marine shells from tem with antennae frequencies ranging between 225 MHz and 500 MHz. around the site (http://calib.org/marine/). The highlighted profile was collected with an antennae frequency of In additions, the presence of ceramic sherds in the coastal/marine 225 MHz. The antennae were shielded and separated by 0.25 m. Traces units of the cores allow us to put in perspective the geomorphological were collected every 0.1 m along the transect and were vertically evolution of the area with changes in the anchorage and settlement stacked 8 times with a sampling rate of 800 ps. The digital profiles were pattern. The oldest sherds, dated to the 2nd Millennium BCE (Middle processed and plotted using pulseEKKO software. Basic processing and Late Bronze periods) were found on the south-eastern area of the included AGC, signal saturation correction, trace stacking (horizontal tell. More recent ceramics, dated to the mid-1st Millennium BCE (Late averaging) and point stacking (running average) as well as other rou­ Iron Age period), were identified in the cores collected on the south- tines when necessary. To measure depth, near surface velocity mea­ western side of the tell . surements were calculated based on hyperbolic measurements and resulted in a near surface velocity of 0.06 m/ns with depths corrobo­ 5.2. Numerical analyses on the ostracod dataset rated by local boreholes. The application of radar stratigraphic analysis (distinct signature patterns) on the collected data provides the frame­ PCA ordination was chosen because it is a non-parametric statistical work to investigate both lateral and vertical geometry and stratification method that extracts the most important information from complex of the interpreted coastal deposits. datasets. Previous analysis of an ostracod dataset has been shown to be useful in linking ecological changes in ostracod assemblages with 5. Results and interpretations environmental evolution (e.g. land locking of waterbodies) in coastal settings (e.g. Giaime et al., 2017). PCA undertaken on the standardized 5.1. Chronology of the cores ostracod dataset shows that the main variance is loaded by the PCA-Axis 1 (94% of the variance). PCA-Axes 2 and 3 respectively account for 4.3% Nine radiocarbon-dated samples were taken from various depths, and 0.6% of the total inertia. The PCA-Axis 1 has been plotted on a linear providing a chronological framework covering all periods of human depth-scale along each studied core (Figs. 4-8). PCA-Axis 1 has high occupation and anchorage development at Tel Akko. The most recent positive scores for samples dominated by lagoonal fauna with the sample is dated from the Early Roman period (ULA-9133 in core AK-XIX- presence of subsidiary freshwater species and negative ones for those 15) whereas the oldest sample is dated from the Chalcolithic period comprising coastal/marine and marine lagoonal species. This axis is (ULA-9181 in core AK-XIX-16). In core AK-XIX-16, the dating of samples interpreted as a gradient of waterbody confinement. Samples with a ULA-9131 (550–560 cm depth) and ULA-8696 (388 cm depth) to the positive score are identified as a restricted (confined) lagoonal envi­ Hellenistic period is problematic. If we consider both dates, the core ronment whereas samples with negative scores are typical of an open might have recorded an important sedimentation rate that can explain marine environment. the low density of ostracods in the samples. However, the uppermost sample ULA-8696 may also be problematic due to the possible old wood 5.3. Bio-stratigraphy of the cores effect of the charcoal compared to the dating of the short lived olive pit. Dating of marine shells reveal a discrepancy with the chronology • Core AK-XIX-16 is 900 cm long and was drilled close to the southern obtained from the reading of the pottery reflecting a possible deviation limit of Tel Akko (Figs. 2 and 3), 385 cm above msl (Fig. 4). regarding the age reservoir of the sea water. This is the case for the oldest samples in cores AK-XIX-13 and AK-XIX-16 (Table 2). Siani et al. Unit A, below 815 cm depth (-430 cm msl) is composed of dense (2000) have estimated the mean marine reservoir age to be 390 ± 80 brown silty-clay containing no fauna. 6 M. Giaime et al. Marine Geology 447 (2022) 106778 Fig. 4. Sediment texture and faunal analysis of core AK-XIX-16. Four different environmental units were identified. The succession of the units shows the progressive land locking of the area as demonstrated by the PCA scores. See Fig. 3 for location of the core. Fig. 5. Sediment texture and faunal analysis of core AK-XIX-13. Four different environmental units were identified. As with AK-XIX-16 (Fig. 4), the succession of the units shows the development of a lagoon – over a coastal environment – due to the progradation of the coast and the river-mouth. See Fig. 3 for location of the core. Unit B is found between 815 and 590 cm depth (-430/-205 cm msl). dominated by freshwater and brackish species. The ostracod assemblage This unit is mainly composed of coarse sands (48%) and gravels (41%). is dominated by lagoonal species (C. torosa represents 82% of the total) The gravel fraction is formed of small pebbles, shells, and fragments of with subsidiary freshwater and coastal-marine species. Cladocora caespitosa (marine cushion coral). Marine shells dominate the Unit D represents the upper unit of the core, and is formed by recent assemblage (e.g. Bittium reticulatum, Conus mediteranneus, Murex sp.), anthropogenic infill between 0 and 200 cm depth (+185/+385 cm msl). and specimens of freshwater and brackish molluscs were observed in the The unit is mainly composed of coarse sediment deposited on the south upper sections (e.g. Bithynia sp., Melanopsis buccinoidea, Theodoxus cf. of Tel Akko for land reclamation. karasuna). The ostracod assemblage is dominated by Cyprideis torosa (lagoonal) which represents 62% of the total assemblage (Fig. 4). The • Core AK-XIX-13 (+200 cm msl) is 800 cm long and was drilled 200 m recovered density is low with ca. 100 valves per 10 g of sediments. This south of AK-XIX-16 (Figs. 2, 3 and 5). low density may be explained by the impact of higher wave energy on the preservation of shells. Unit A is similar as AK-XIX-16's unit A, it is composed of dense brown Unit C, between 590 and 200 cm depth (-205/+185 cm msl) has a silty-clay with no fauna below 710 cm depth (-510 cm msl). silty-clay to silty sand texture. The gravel fraction is composed of shells, Unit B, between 710 and 510 cm depth (-510/-310 cm depth), is small pebbles, or ceramic fragments. The mollusc assemblage is composed of intercalated layers of yellowish and brownish sediments. In 7 M. Giaime et al. Marine Geology 447 (2022) 106778 Fig. 6. Sediment texture and faunal analysis of core AK17-C8. The different environmental units are characteristic of the progradation of the coast. The development of a coastal lagoon is dated from 720 to 410 cal years BCE. See Fig. 3 for location of the core. Fig. 7. Sediment texture and faunal analysis of core AK16-C6. The different environmental units are characteristic of the progradation of the coast. The marine transgression is dated before 2450–1980 cal year BCE at the base of unit B. See Fig. 3 for location of the core. the yellowish layers, gravels are composed of small pebbles, shells and a silty-clay to silty-sand texture with some layers of pure sand. The fragments of C. caespitosa (marine cushion coral) indicating a marine ecology of molluscs and ostracods demonstrate a twofold influence from origin. The mollusc assemblage is composed of marine and freshwater the sea and the river with the presence of freshwater, lagoonal, marine species. Coastal/marine species dominates the ostracod assemblage lagoonal and coastal-marine species. This is confirmed by the ostracod (61%). Freshwater (Ilyocypris gibba, Candona neglecta), lagoonal density which is higher than in unit B with maximum densities of ca. (C. torosa) and marine lagoonal (e.g. Xestoleberis) species represent 1%, 50,000 valves for 10 g of sediment. 32% and 6% respectively of the assemblage. The density varies between Unit D, between 150 and 0 cm depth (+50/+200 cm msl), represents 200 and 1000 valves per 10 g of sediments. the upper unit of the core, formed by a recent agricultural soil. Unit C, between 510 and 320 cm depth (-310/-120 cm msl), presents 8 M. Giaime et al. Marine Geology 447 (2022) 106778 Fig. 8. Sediment texture and ostracod analysis of core AK-XIX-15. Four different environmental units were identified and show the progressive isolation of the area from the sea and the progradation of the river-mouth from the Early Iron Age to the Roman period. See Fig. 3 for location of the core. • AK17-C8 (600 cm long) was drilled 355 cm above msl, 50–60 m composed of sands (56%). However, the proportion of silts and clay south of Tel Akko and 170 m west of AK-XIX-16 (Figs. 2, 3 and 6). increases to 28%. The gravel fraction (16% of the total texture) is composed of organic remains, shell fragments, and small pebbles. Mol­ Unit A is formed by the Kurkar sandstone substratum, below 600 cm luscs are absent from the unit. The ostracod assemblage is clearly depth (below -245 cm msl). dominated by the lagoonal species, C. torosa with few individuals living Unit B is situated between 600 and 310 cm depth (-245/+45 cm in fresh to brackish water environment (C. neglecta and I. gibba). msl). Very few fragments of marine shells are present. The ostracod assemblage is dominated by coastal and marine species (72%). Lagoonal • Southernmost core AK-XIX-15 (700 cm long) was drilled 165 cm species (C. torosa) and marine lagoonal species count for 24% and 4% of above msl (Fig. 8). It is located 300 m south of the limit of tell (Figs. 2 the assemblage respectively. In this unit, the density of ostracods is very and 3). low (<50 valves for 10 g of sediment) attesting to a high energy coastal environment. Unit A, between 700 and 500 cm depth (-535/-335 cm msl) is The transition to unit C is marked by the changes in sedimentary characterised by fine grey sands composed of quartz, and marine or­ texture. Between 310 and 250 cm depth (+45/+95 cm msl), the sedi­ ganisms (shells, foraminifera, ostracods; Fig. 8). This unit contains few ment texture is characterised by an increase in silts and clay to 24% of marine (eg. Cerithium vulgatum, Conus mediteraneus, Donax trunculus) the total. Sands still comprise more than the half of the sediments (62%), and brackish (e.g. Cerastoderma glaucum, Melanoides tuberculata, Mela­ gravels represent 14% of the sediments. In this unit, the lagoonal nopsis buccinoidea) shells. The ostracod assemblage is composed of ostracod C. torosa represents 97% of the total assemblage. Few fresh­ coastal-marine species (eg. Aurila convexa, Loxoconcha rhomboidea, water specimens of the ostracod I. gibba are present. I. gibba likes per­ Loxoconcha rubrincinata, Pontocythere elongata) representing 50–80% of manent water bodies with a clayed or sandy bottom (Athersuch et al., the species, lagoonal (C. torosa) species representing 7–16% of the 1989). This unit is typical of a coastal lagoon separated from the sea by a species, and marine lagoonal (Xestoleberis) representing 10–30% of the sand spit. total of the valves identified. The density varies from 10 to 6000 valves for 10 g of sediment. • Core AK16-C6 (1300 cm long) was drilled 320 cm above msl (Figs. 2, Unit B, between 500 and 400 cm depth (-335/-235 cm msl) is 3 and 7). dominated by fine sands. The ostracods assemblage is dominated by marine and coastal species counting for 54% of the species while marine Unit A is situated between 1300 and 710 cm depth (-780/-390 cm lagoonal and lagoonal species count for 33% and 13% of the assemblage msl). The bottom of the unit – unit A1 (1300–1210 cm depth) – is respectively. composed of Kurkar sandstone. This unit is overlain by unit A2, a 500 cm Unit C, between 400 and 250 cm depth (-235/-85 cm msl) is, as the thick (1210–710 cm depth) reddish silty to sandy unit (locally known as previous units, dominated by fine marine sands. The ostracod assem­ Hamra). Following, unit A3 is a thin layer (between 710 and 700 cm blage is still dominated by marine and coastal species (>50%) but the depth) of very compact dry brown clay (as in cores AK-XIX-13 and AK- proportion of lagoonal (C. torosa) and marine lagoonal (Xestoleberis) XIX-16). species increases. The ostracod density varies between 10 and 5000 Unit B, between 700 and 390 cm depth (-380/-70 cm msl) is valves for 10 g of sediments. composed mainly of sands (88%). Silts and clay represent 8% of the total Unit D, between 250 and 30 cm depth (-85/+135 cm msl), is and gravel 4%. At the bottom of the unit, the gravel fraction reaches 6% composed of fine beige quartz sands barren of fauna. between 670 and 700 cm depth; shell fragments and few fragments of Unit E, represents the upper unit of the core and is formed by recent C. caespitosa were found. anthropogenic infills between 30 cm depth and the top of the core Unit C, between 390 and 320 cm depth (-60/0 cm msl), is still mainly (+135/+165 cm msl). 9 M. Giaime et al. Marine Geology 447 (2022) 106778 5.4. Ground penetrating radar The brown silty-clay pre-transgressive soil is present in most of the bay. Zviely et al. (2006) have dated the top of this soil unit to 8300 ± 50 BP The representative profile shows subsurface reflections which are (9130–9450 cal. Years BP) at a depth of -500/-545 cm msl in the centre interpreted as stratigraphic horizons. The lower radar facies package of of the Haifa/Akko Bay. To the south, a radiocarbon date at the base of a continuous to semi-continuous horizontal to sub-horizontal reflections marine unit (at -1350 cm msl) covering the paleo-soil shows an age of from ~1.5 m to 80 cm is interpreted as Kurkar sandstone (Fig. 9). This 8240 ± 60 BP (8160–8640 cal. Years BP; Avnaim-Katav et al., 2012). At reflection package is truncated abruptly at 37 m along the transect Tel Akko, it has been identified in cores AK16-C6, AK-XIX-13 and AK- which we interpret as the location where the Kurkar sandstone plateau XIX-16 between -380 and -510 cm msl (Fig. 10). 8000 years ago, sea drops off (erosional truncation). The upper 80 cm are characterised by level was not higher than -13.5 to -16.5 m (Sivan et al., 2001) and thus semi-continuous to discontinuous sub-horizontal to slightly dipping re­ the coastline was located ca. 4.5 km west of its present position (Zviely flections. This upper radar facies is interpreted as fill that has accumu­ et al., 2006). The Early-Holocene soil identified in our cores may be lated upon the Kurkar sandstone (slope wash from the tell and attributed to fluvial sedimentary inputs by the Na’aman River in the archaeological materials). A coring program has corroborated the sig­ context of increasing precipitations between 9000 and 7500 years BP nificant change in Kurkar sandstone depth below the surface at this (Elyashiv et al., 2016). Different studies based on distinct proxies such location of the tel. has pollen data from Sapropel S1 (Rossignol-Strick, 1999) and δ18O from cave speleothem (Bar-Matthews et al., 2000; Cheng et al., 2015), 6. Discussion: Tel Akko in its regional context point toward warm-humid conditions during the Early Holocene in the southern Levant (Fig. 12). 6.1. Palaeoenvironmental phases recorded in the cores 6.1.2. Phase 2: marine transgression and development of a coastal The study of the sedimentary sequences of the Tel Akko coastal plain environment during the Chalcolithic/Bronze Age period have recorded the succession of four main environments in the Holocene The maximum sea incursion in Haifa/Akko Bay occurred before (Figs. 10 and 11). We put in perspective these changes in a broader 4000 years ago flooding the Zevelun plain under several meters of sea context of environmental changes and human habitation patterns water and leading to the displacement of the shore some 4 km landward (Fig. 12). (Zviely et al., 2006; Elyashiv et al., 2016). At that time, the sea level stabilised and the progradation of the coast started because of marine 6.1.1. Phase 1: continental pre-transgressive environment (Nile quartz sands transported by the longshore drift currents) fluvial Cores drilled close to the tell have reached the pre-transgressive (Qishon and the Na’aman Rivers) sediment inputs to the bay. In the continental substratum (Fig. 10). This succession of environments has Mediterranean, sea level variations over the last 4000 years are still been well recorded in core AK16-C6 (Fig. 8). We observe a succession of poorly understood (Dean et al., 2019), although they have had a Kurkar sandstone, reddish silty to sandy soil and coastal brown silty- fundamental role on sedimentary dynamics and coastal urbanisation clay. The Kurkar sandstone is commonly found along the coastal plain (Giaime et al., 2019). Based on the available data, sea level was above -1 of Israel. In some areas, as Tel Akko, it emerges from the plain to form m msl around 2000 years BC (Sivan et al., 2001; Porat et al., 2008; Dean small to medium elevated hills. The reddish palaeo-soil, locally named et al., 2019). A shallow marine environment dating back to the Chal­ Hamra, is widespread along the coast of Israel (see Porat et al. (2004) for colithic period onward, has been identified in all cores by the presence of a discussion about mode and timing of Kurkar and Hamra formation). marine organisms such as molluscs, ostracods and coral fragments found Fig. 9. A representative GPR transect collected from north to show on the southern portion of Tel Akko using a Sensors and Software pulseEKKO system with 225 MHz antennae. The horizontal line (red) represent the upper limit of the Kurkarsandstone layer. Above, the sedimentation corresponds to the deposition of sediments eroded from the tell and archaeological materials. The vertical line (blue) show the erosional truncation linked to the drop of the Kurkarsandstone plateau. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.) 10 M. Giaime et al. Marine Geology 447 (2022) 106778 Fig. 10. Correlation of sediment cores retrieved from the south of Tel Akko. Location of cores and transects are given in Figs. 3 and 11. These transects show the progradation of the coast and the land locking of the environment. They illustrate the southward and westward displacement of the coast from the Bronze Age to the Early Roman period. Costal zonation in the Mediterranean after Pérès and Picard (1964) and Pérès (1982). Supralittoral zone: not submerged but impacted by sea spray; Mid-littoral zone: area affected by waves (and tides); Infralittoral zone: coastal zone: totally immersed (its lower limit corresponds to the limit of light penetration). Core AK-XV-1 is from Giaime et al. (2018). Radiocarbon dates have been calibrated using the new calibration curve IntCal20 (Reimer et al., 2020). in marine sands (Figs. 10 and 11). The marine coral species C. caespitosa 6.1.3. Phase 3: infilling of the southern area of Tel Akko from the Bronze to typically develops on shallow (<10 m) or deeper (>30 m) rocky sub­ the Iron Age (2nd and 1st millennium BCE) strates and is able to thrive in turbid waters at relatively low irradiance At the scale of the Haifa/Akko Bay, available data (Zviely et al., (El Kateb et al., 2016). This is consistent with the nearby presence of the 2006, 2007; Porat et al., 2008) point toward a rapid progradation of the Na’aman River mouth that transports fine sediments (mainly silts and bay, from the Bronze Age onwards, up to an average of 40–50 cm/year clay) and freshwater fauna discovered in this unit (Avnaim-Katav et al., (Fig. 12). However, this assumption is based on a few sedimentological 2016). The Kurkar sandstone, which is not always covered by the clay and geochronological data points and not making it possible to highlight soil (AK17-C8) may have constituted a perfect substrate for the coral to spatial variability in the infilling of the bay. At a much higher resolution, fix and grow. PCA analysis of the data shows a gradient of confinement the apparent sedimentation rate appears reduced at Tel Akko, illus­ toward the south-eastern corner of the tell. AK-XIX-16 shows moderate trating that local spatio-temporal variabilities are evident. Comparison level of confinement (Fig. 5), which is associated with the preponder­ of cores AK16-C6 and AK17-C8 demonstrate that from 2450 to 1980 cal. ance of C. torosa in most of the samples. The absence of freshwater os­ Years BCE (Early to Middle Bronze) to 720–410 cal. Years BCE (Late Iron tracods and the few number of freshwater to brackish molluscs bring us Age), the area at the foot of the tell experienced a vertical aggradation to interpret this unit as a sheltered coastal environment with variable rate of 2.06 ± 0.27 cm/years due to the deposition of marine sands salinity due to the influence of freshwater inputs. AK-XIX-13 PCA's (Fig. 10). We assume that this low comparative sedimentation rate is due scores demonstrates a lower degree of confinement than in AK-XIX-16 to the retention of sediments by geomorphological features in the bay. (Fig. 4). The level of confinement further decreases toward the west as Close to the tell, the presence of a Kurkar sandstone outcrop (Figs. 3 and demonstrated by the PCA scores obtained in cores AK16-C6 and AK17- 11) must have acted as a natural coastal groyne or dyke preventing C8 (Figs. 6 and 7). In these cores, the coastal environment is shown by marine sediments, moved northward by the longshore drift, to reach Tel the presence of fine to medium quartz sands with the presence of coastal Akko (Giaime et al., 2021). When the area located down drift of the ostracod species. Kurkar sandstone outcrop was filled, large quantity of quartz sands was able to by-pass the outcrop and reach the foot of the tell as shown in the 11 M. Giaime et al. Marine Geology 447 (2022) 106778 Fig. 11. Palaeoenvironmental evolution of Tel Akko maritime interface from the Bronze Age to the Early Roman period. The different environments have been identified based on this study and from previous results published in Morhange et al. (2016); Giaime et al. (2018) and Giaime et al. (2021). Topography was adapted from the Treidel map shown in Fig. 2. collected cores. 6.2. How did Tel Akko's inhabitants deal with coastal changes? The land locking of the area, with the evolution to a coastal lagoon is dated to the middle-1st millennium BC, namely the Phoenician-Persian 6.2.1. A perfect coastal setting at the beginning of the Bronze Age settlement period (Figs. 10 and 11). In its early stage of confinement, our data show Like many other Levantine Bronze Age maritime sites, Tel Akko's that the lagoon seems to have received moderate fluvial influence with inhabitants have exploited the unique coastal setting provided by the the exception of core AK-XIX-16 which is dominated by freshwater and Kurkar/sand hills along the shore. Thus, over the centuries, Tel Akko's lagoonal ostracods and molluscs and silty-clay sediments (Unit C). In settlement pattern has been strongly linked to the coastal geo­ contrast, unit C of core AK-XIX-13 shows that the marine influence, in morphology of the area. In the Middle Bronze Age, the habitations were the form of coastal-marine fauna was more important further south situated on top of the hill and linked to the anchorage area with a gate, (Fig. 11.B). It is only during the Late-Persian period that the area close to located in area P on the southern side of the tell, where numerous im­ the tell lost its coastal setting and was occupied by a fluvial-dominated ported ceramics have been found in Raban's excavations (Fig. 2). It is lagoon as demonstrated by unit C in cores AK16-C6 and AK17-C8 also assumed to have been the location where a main entrance to the tell (Figs. 10 and 11.B). This freshwater influence was probably linked was situated in the Bronze Age periods (Raban, 1991; Artzy, 2018). with a meandering arm of the Na’aman River. The coastal lagoon, Considering a sea-level elevation of -1 m msl at that time, the water separated from the open sea by the sand barrier spit was progressively depth was >2 m at the immediate proximity of the tell, allowing boats to infilled by fluvial sediments (Fig. 11.B). approach (Fig. 11). This environment was perfect for the anchoring and unloading of boats at the immediate proximity of the habitation centre. 6.1.4. Phase 4: complete land locking of Tel Akko in the Hellenistic period Moreover, the southern limit of the tell was naturally protected from The area 300 m south of Tel Akko, is characterised by a permanence possible external invasions which explains the absence of fortification in of the marine environment as demonstrated by core AK-XIX-15. The contrast to the northern side (Raban, 1991). At that time, in the absence marine dominated infralittoral environment identified during the Early of proper harbours along the coast, beaching of seafaring ships has been Iron Age (late 2nd Millennium BCE) progressively shows signs of proposed as an important practice (Votruba, 2017 and references confinement as demonstrated by the evolution of the PCA scores for core therein). Votruba (2017) proposed that the beaching practice was AK-XIX-15 (Fig. 8). Nevertheless, the scores remain negative for all the commonly used for small size ships while larger ones would have been samples which demonstrate that the land locking of the area was in an anchored along the shore. This practice is presented in lithographs, such early stage during the Early Roman period (Fig. 11.C). At the same as Robert's from the 19th century CE (Roberts, 1843). Lighters may have period (1965 ± 35 BP; 40 cal. Years BCE – 200 cal. Years CE), Morhange been used to unload larger merchantmen anchored in naturally pro­ et al. (2016) identified a marshy environment close to the tell, ca. 200 m tected area but this would necessitate organized anchorages, as Akko's north of core AK-XIX-15. This marshy environment is followed by the might have well been in the 2nd and 1st Millennia BCE. We can imagine development of a freshwater influenced lagoon during the 1st millen­ the development of proto-harbours, characterised by the installation of nium CE and shows the complete land locking of the area at that time. light structures such as quays or moles. The high Kurkar sandstone ridge This is confirmed by the development of a supralittoral environment in on the southern side of the tell could have also been used to facilitate our cores (Fig. 12). unloading of goods. However, such structures have left few, if any, 12 M. Giaime et al. Marine Geology 447 (2022) 106778 (caption on next page) 13 M. Giaime et al. Marine Geology 447 (2022) 106778 Fig. 12. Summary diagram of Tel Akko's environmental changes associated with regional climatic data. The base of the diagram shows geomorphological changes at regional and local scale. The upper part present climatic changes. Sea level trend is from Lambeck and Purcell (2005). Geomorphological evolution of the Haifa/Akko Bay has been reconstructed using Zviely et al. (2006), Porat et al. (2008) and Elyashiv et al. (2016). Tell Akko ecosystem dynamics and regional precipitation and temperature reconstructions from Kaniewski et al. (2013). Delta O18 data from Jeita Cave obtained from Cheng et al. (2015). Reconstructed sea surface temperature from Castañeda et al. (2010). Archaeological periods: PPN (Pre-Pottery Neolithic); PN (Pottery Neolithic); Ch (Chalcolithic); EB (Early Bronze Age); MB (Middle Bronze Age); LB (Late Bronze Age); IA (Iron Age); P (Persian); H (Hellenistic); R (Roman); B (Byzantine); I (Islamic); C (Crusaders); M (Mamluk); O (Ottoman). traces in the archaeological and sedimentary record. centred on the south-western side of the tell (Fig. 11.B; Bergevin et al., Raban (1991) proposed that the Bronze Age harbour was located on 2020; Giaime et al., 2021). When Tel Akko lost its access to the sea by the lower area of the tell, in the inner part of the “moon crescent” and the Hellenistic period, it was abandoned in favour of the settlement on directly associated with the Na’aman River mouth and the sea (Fig. 3). the Akko promontory (Old City) where a harbour was constructed However, his assumption that the inner part of the tell was used as an (Artzy, 2012; Sharvit et al., 2021). “inner harbour” is problematic. The GPR profile and coring negates Raban's ‘inner harbour’ theory. We found that the Kurkar sandstone is 7. Conclusion too high and hence the water column too shallow for any boat, even a barge, to enter the area. Fig. 10 shows that the water column was never With the advent of urbanisation in the early 2nd Millennium BCE, >50 cm. A rapid drop in the Kurkar sandstone is noted in the GPR numerous maritime cities flourished along the Levantine coast. Tel Akko transect and in the cores precisely in the waterfront area where boats inhabitants exploited the unique coastal setting provided by the Kurkar/ could have sailed from the coast toward Tel Akko, but not in the sand hills along the shore. The nearby presence of freshwater springs depression itself (Fig. 11.A). and of the Na’aman river allowed the development of agriculture At the scale of the bay, a number of tells are dated from the Bronze leading to the decrease of the pristine forested ecosystem at local scale. Age period (Fig. 1). However, they likely did not benefit from a direct From a palaeoenvironmental perspective, Tel Akko is one of the most and permanent access to the sea as Tel Akko (Fig. 1B; Zviely et al., 2006). investigated sites of the Mediterranean coast of Israel. High-resolution Tel Abu Hawam was the second main coastal/anchorage site of the bay, studies of new sedimentary cores, radiocarbon dating along with located in its southern margin, in the Qishon river mouth (Fig. 1B). Both dating obtained from ceramic sherds, and GPR data enabled us to Tel Akko and Tel Abu Hawam (TAH), were advantaged by the rivers for elucidate the geomorphological setting of the Akko coastal plain, south the terrestrial routes to the economic hinterlands and associated suc­ of Tel Akko and its evolution during the Late-Holocene (last 5000 years). cessful commercial activities (Hamilton, 1934; Balensi, 1985; Artzy, Our research demonstrate that the Tel Akko history, as a major urban 1997, 2018). TAH, however never reached the same expansion as Tel and maritime centre, is deeply influenced by its access to the sea. Vi­ Akko, probably because of a much more dynamic environment. Located cissitudes in habitation patterns within Tel Akko and its environs dating directly in the mouth of a river, the tell was indeed directly impacted by back to the Early Bronze and Middle Bronze periods, were noted during important sedimentary inputs from the sea and the river. Tel Akko was the archaeological excavations and can be explained in terms of the part of the regional maritime network in the Middle Bronze IIA period changes that have taken place in the coastal plain. Our results demon­ (Stager, 2001), TAH's important role as a maritime interface only started strate that the area shows a classic geomorphological evolution defined in the Late Bronze IIB period. TAH's environmental limitations may be by a maximum marine transgression before 4000 BP, rapidly followed seen by its non-continuous occupation (TAH was settled only in limited by coastal progradation due to the accumulation of marine sands. periods, mainly in the Late Bronze II, the Iron Age and the Persian/ During the Middle Bronze Age an impressive defensive rampart was Hellenistic periods) and the changes in settlement patterns identified constructed especially on the northern side of the tell. An entrance was during excavations. left in the defences on the south, bordered by the sea which protected Tel The favourable environment found by the earliest inhabitant of Tel Akko from invasions. An anchorage was likely in function along the tell's Akko allowed the creation of an important urban maritime centre. This coastline. This area was progressively infilled because of marine sedi­ urban development has important consequences on the landscape, with mentary deposition by longshore drift currents as well as the sedimen­ a gradual disappearance of the forest cover toward a much more tary infilling by the river. In the middle of the 1st Millennium BCE urbanised landscape (Kaniewski et al., 2013. Fig. 12.4). This appears in a (Phoenician and Persian periods), Tel Akko's direct access to the sea was context of reduced climate variability and dried climate compared to the reduced and the maritime activities were relocated to its western side Early Holocene period (Fig. 12.5–7). Along the Israel coastal plain, an where public administrative buildings have been found along a higher increasing urbanisation phase is attested in the Middle Bonze Age (Faust energy coastline. In the last part of the 1st Millennium BCE, the and Ashkenazy, 2009). increasing sedimentary inputs lead to further progradation of the coastline to the west and the demise of anchorage possibilities close to 6.2.2. Impact of coastline progradation and associated changes in the tell. anchorage and habitation patterns While the 2nd and most of the 1st Millennia BCE anchorages were in Hyper sedimentation has always been a major threat for maritime close proximity to the tell, the decision of the local inhabitants and cities located in deltaic contexts leading to the displacement of the an­ authorities to build an artificial harbour in the bay, where the Old City of chorages or harbour basins through time (Goiran et al., 2015; Morhange Akko is presently located, in the Hellenistic period (2nd century BCE) et al., 2015; Giaime et al., 2019). At Tel Akko, the migration of the seems to have been mainly driven by environmental pressures. This, anchorage areas is clearly illustrated by the ceramics found in the cores. newly occupied, sector of the bay was far from any fluvial influence and For instance, the cores collected in the south-eastern part of the tell, the marine sedimentary inputs were greatly reduced. The relocation of show coastal/marine sediments at the foot of the tell that contain ce­ the harbour activities led to the progressive end of the city of Tel Akko ramics dated to the 2nd Millennium BC (namely MB and LB periods). and its eventual abandonment in the 2nd or the early 1st century BCE. Cores collected on the south-western part of Tel Akko, contain a large The finds demonstrate that Tel Akko's ancient anchorages – and as a number of mid-1st Millennium (Late Iron Age) ceramics along with few consequence habitation patterns – moved toward the west (the sea) is examples of earlier Iron Age ones again, from coastal/marine units. driven by coastal changes over the millennia and is an archetypal of the Thus, the Bronze Age maritime activities associated with the tell are race to the sea of maritime cities located in a deltaic context. located mainly below its central southern foothill. Iron Age – Phoenician-Persian – maritime interface of Tel Akko was, however, 14 M. Giaime et al. Marine Geology 447 (2022) 106778 Data availability statement Effects on Anchorages / Harbors and Habitation patterns: Akko (Israel) as an example. In: Demesticha, S., Blue, L. (Eds.), Under the Mediterranean I: Studies in Maritime Archaeology. Sidestone Press, Leiden, pp. 267–278. 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Morpho-sedimentary characteristics and Holocene evolution of the emergent This research has been carried out thanks to the support of the part of the Ombrone River delta (southern Tuscany). Geomorphology 61, 71–90. Binational Science Foundation (BSF) to the project “A Palaeo- https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2003.11.007. Hydrological Approach to Understanding the Complex Coastal Evolu­ Benjamin, J., Bekic, L., Komso, D., Uhac, I.K., Bonsall, C., 2011. Investigating the submerged prehistory of the Eastern Adriatic: Progress and prospects. In: tion of an Ancient Maritime Trade City: The Tel Akko Multi-Disciplinary Benjamin, J., Bonsall, C., Pickard, C., Fisher, A. (Eds.), Submerged Prehistory. Case Study, Israel” to MA and HJ (Grant No. 2016080). MG postdoctoral Oxbow, Oxford, UK, pp. 193–206. fellowship was funded by the Authority for Advanced Studies, the Leon Benjamin, J., Rovere, A., Fontana, A., Furlani, S., Vacchi, M., Inglis, R.H., Galili, E., Antonioli, F., Sivan, D., Miko, S., Mourtzas, N., 2017. Late Quaternary Sea-level H. Charney School of Marine Sciences at the University of Haifa and the changes and early human societies in the central and eastern Mediterranean Basin: BSF. an interdisciplinary review. Quat. Int. 449, 29–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. quaint.2017.06.025. Bergevin, L., Jol, H., Sailer-Haugland, E., Artzy, M., Salmon, Y., Giaime, M., López, G.I., Declaration of Competing Interest Abu-Hamid, A., 2020. Locating an ancient anchorage at Tel Akko (Israel) using subsurface imaging: 2019 results. In: 18th International Conference on Ground The authors declare that they have no known competing financial Penetrating Radar. 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Castañeda, I.S., Schefuß, E., Pätzold, J., Sinninghe Damsté, J.S., Weldeab, S., thanks the Student Blugold Commitment Differential Tuition funds Schouten, S., 2010. Millennial-scale Sea surface temperature changes in the eastern through the University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire Student/Faculty Mediterranean (Nile River Delta region) over the last 27,000 years. Research Collaboration and Diversity Mentoring program for support of Paleoceanography 25 (1). https://doi.org/10.1029/2009PA001740. Cheng, H., Sinha, A., Verheyden, S., Nader, F.H., Li, X.L., Zhang, P.Z., Yin, J.J., Yi, L., Logan Bergevin and Ethan Sailer-Haugland. MA is thankful to the Hatter Peng, Y.B., Rao, Z.G., Ning, Y.F., Edwards, R.L., 2015. The climate variability in Foundation and an anonymous donor. We thank two anonymous re­ northern Levant over the past 20,000 years. Geophys. Res. Lett. 42 (20), 8641–8650. viewers for their careful reading of our manuscript and their insightful Conyers, L.B., 2014. 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