Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 43 (2022) 103457 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jasrep Pottery forming of the Cardial and Epicardial Neolithic wares: Analysis and systematisation of technological traces from the ceramic productions of Cova del Frare (NE Iberian Peninsula, 5200-4800 BCE) Javier Cámara Manzaneda a, *, Xavier Clop García b, Jaume García Rosselló c, Araceli Martín Cólliga d a ARCHAEOM, Dept. Prehistòria, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Edificio B, Facultad de Filosofia y Letras, 08193 Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain b ARCHAEOM, Dept. Prehistòria, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Edificio B, Facultad de Filosofia y Letras, 08193 Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain c ArqueoUIB, Dept. Ciències Històriques i Teoría de les Arts, Universitat de les Illes Balears, 07122 Palma de Mallorca (Illes Balears), Spain d Servei d’Arqueologia i Paleontologia, Departament de Cultura, Generalitat de Catalunya, Spain A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T Keywords: The onset and development of the Neolithisation process in the northeast of the Iberian Peninsula have been Forming techniques determined by the division between the Cardial and Epicardial chrono-cultural horizons based on the charac­ Ceramic technology teristic traits of the ceramic productions. The investigations about these productions have been fundamentally Manufacturing traces focused on their formal and decorative features, while other research dealing with their production and use have Technical know-how Cardial just recently emerged in the last years. Epicardial This paper focuses on the reconstruction of the forming technologies that were used for manufacturing the Early Neolithic Early Neolithic vessels from Cova del Frare (Barcelona, NE Iberian Peninsula) assigned to the Cardial and NE Iberian Peninsula Epicardial styles. The analysis and systematisation of manufacturing traces reveal that both ceramic wares were produced with the same forming practices, regardless of their decorative techniques: the use of circular juxta­ posed patches and the assembly of coils. The evidence of these pot-forming processes, which prevailed during the Early Neolithic occupations of this cave (5217–4796 cal. BCE), provides the first empirical data of the forming practices that were used by the first communities of farmers in NE Iberia. Furthermore, these results enable us to include this area in the discussions on the distribution of these technical traditions and practices during the Early Neolithic in the Western Mediterranean. 1. Introduction manufacturing phases of the first pottery productions in the Western Mediterranean (e.g., Bernabeu et al., 2017a; b; Capelli et al., 2017; Clop, The Neolithisation process has been one of the largest investigated 2011; Gabriele et al., 2019; Manen and Convertini, 2012, Pardo-Gordó themes of the recent Prehistory to explain the spread and consolidation et al., 2019). In this framework, one of the latest innovative studies of farming, especially to the West of the Mediterranean. Studies focused being included in the discussions of the Neolithisation process is the on the Early Neolithic in this Mediterranean area has been boosted recognition of the forming processes used in the context of the first during the last years with the emergence of new research lines that are ceramic productions (Gomart et al., 2017). allowing us to broaden and deepen the discussions of this historical Pottery forming practices can be used as a proxy to characterise process. Among them, the ancient DNA analysis (e.g., Gamba et al., specific ways of doing and the transmission of know-how linked, in this 2012; Olalde et al., 2019; Szécsényi-Nagy et al., 2017), investigations on case, to the first communities of farmers. The investigations conducted the early husbandry practices (e.g., Debono Spiteri et al., 2016; Drieu in different European regions have shown that several technical tradi­ et al., 2021; Navarrete et al., 2017), the analysis of the harvesting tions coexisted since the beginning of the Early Neolithic and followed technologies (Mazzucco et al., 2020) or studies related to the different different trajectories linked with the paths and expansion of the * Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: javier.camara@uab.cat (J. Cámara Manzaneda), xavier.clop@uab.cat (X. Clop García), jaume.garcia@uib.es (J. García Rosselló), amcolliga@ yahoo.es (A. Martín Cólliga). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2022.103457 Received 20 December 2021; Received in revised form 23 March 2022; Accepted 21 April 2022 Available online 5 May 2022 2352-409X/© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). J. Cámara Manzaneda et al. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 43 (2022) 103457 Neolithisation process (Gomart et al., 2017; 2020). With the introduc­ forming processes has been developed so far. tion of farming towards Central and North-western Europe, the ceramic This paper is focused on the identification of forming processes of the productions were clearly linked with the prevalence of the coiling Cardial and Epicardial wares documented at Cova del Frare (Barcelona, techniques (Bosquet et al., 2005; Gomart, 2014; Neumannová et al., NE Iberian Peninsula) (Fig. 1). This cave has provided one of the most 2017), although they were also diffused with other forming processes complete stratigraphic sequences of the recent Prehistory for the NE such as the slab building or the beating technique (Gomart et al., 2020; Iberian Peninsula (Martín, 1980; 2000; Martín et al., 1981; 1985). Thér et al., 2019). In the Central and Western Mediterranean, the situ­ Within this stratigraphic sequence, layers C6-C5c, and C5b are associ­ ation seems much more complex since two completely different tech­ ated with the Early Neolithic and where significant Cardial and nical traditions coexisted within the earliest Impressa ceramic Epicardial ceramic assemblages have been documented. First, the productions (5900–5600 cal. BCE): the coiling techniques and the spi­ analysis of technological traces enabled us to reconstruct the forming ralled patchwork technology (Gomart et al., 2017). However, these first processes of vessels and systematise the evidence related to each form­ pot-forming processes are still largely and deeply unknown in other ing technique. Second, given the representativeness of the Cardial and regions of the Western Mediterranean, such as the northeast of the Epicardial wares from this site, the technological data was compared in Iberian Peninsula. Accordingly, the relationship of the pot-forming order to assess whether or not the forming processes varied according to processes used by the first communities of farmers in the north- the decorative techniques. Finally, the results enabled us to obtain the eastern Iberian Peninsula with other Mediterranean areas remains first data on the forming practices that were used by the first commu­ unexplored. nities of farmers in the NE Iberian Peninsula and to introduce this area The introduction of farming and the first ceramic productions in the into the discussions on the distribution of the first forming processes in NE Iberian Peninsula is generally associated with the Cardial and the Western Mediterranean. Epicardial ceramic styles, which marked the chrono-cultural horizons in this area (Gibaja and Clop, 2012; Martín, 1990; Oms, 2014; 2017). 2. Site: Cova del Frare Nonetheless, and compared to southern France (Binder and Sénépart, 2010; Manen, 2007; Manen et al., 2019a) and the Alicante area to the Cova del Frare (Matadepera, Barcelona) is located in the Sant Llorenç east of the Iberian Peninsula (Bernabeu et al., 2017a; 2018), there is no del Munt Mountain, a karstic massif formed by conglomerate and marl strong evidence to confirm an earliest Neolithic occupation phase strata, at 960 m asl. The cavity, developed from an N-S diaclase, has associated with the Impressa horizon (Oms et al., 2020)1. three entrances (sectors A, B, and C) that open to the southwest, with no The largest Early Neolithic occupations and the first evidence of the more than 40 walkable meters and very irregular heights (Fig. 1). The ceramic Cardial decorations in the northeast of the Iberian Peninsula cavity was first reported in 1878, whilst in 1970 a stratigraphic survey appeared between c. 5550–4850 cal. BCE (Oms, 2014; 2017). The Car­ was conducted and between 1977 and 1984, systematic fieldworks dial vessels characterised by seashell impressions comprise a range of directed by one of the authors (AMC) were carried out. shapes represented by bowls, cylindrical jars, tulip-shaped bowls, The archaeological fieldworks indicate that the cavity was used globular bottles with necks, among others. Surfaces are well- during different periods of the recent Prehistory, with a sequence that smoothened or polished and can be decorated with several impression includes: Early Neolithic occupations (Cardial and Epicardial chrono- types with serrated shells (Cerastoderma edule, Cerastoderma glaucum) cultural horizons) (layers C6-C5c and C5b), Middle Neolithic occupa­ and other multi-tipped tools (combs), with decorated or plain cords. tions, with Montboló and Molinot regional pottery styles (layer C5a); a Ceramic productions associated with the Epicardial style are gener­ funerary use during the Early Late Neolithic (layer C4); presence of ally dated in the north-eastern Iberian Peninsula between c. 5100–4500 regional bell-beaker during the Chalcolithic (layer C3); and Early Bronze cal. BCE (Oms et al., 2016). The Epicardial vessels have very similar Age occupations (layer C2) (Martín, 1980; 2000; Martín et al., 1981; shapes to the Cardial ware, although their proportions can be larger, 1985). At the entrance there were areas with intrusions from the Iberian, increasing the number of ovoid shapes with elongated necks. Surfaces Roman and Medieval periods (Martín and Biosca, 1994), as well as some are generally smoothened and present decorations with pointed tools, hollows and removals that were performed when the cavity was such as combs and punches, organised in bands and forming composi­ discovered. tions of impressions, incisions, and grooves. The Cardial evidence was distributed mainly in the coastal and pre- 2.1. The Early Neolithic occupations littoral areas with the implementation of the Neolithisation process since 5550 cal. BCE. Instead, the Epicardial evidence was initially The Early Neolithic occupations correspond to the layers C5b and located from 5350 cal. BCE in the inlands of NE Iberia (the Segre basin C5c-C6, which form a dark grey sedimentary package of about 20 cm of and Pyrenees) (Oms, 2017), but after 5150–5100 cal. BCE appeared in silts and clays. These layers were documented in the front part of the the coastal areas and replaced progressively the Cardial style (Martín cavity up to the beginning of the corridor and lay on a thick stalagmitic et al., 2010; Oms et al., 2016). slab. Below layer C5b is either C5c or C6 layers, which were distin­ These Early Neolithic ceramic productions have been investigated in guished depending to the presence or absence of stalagmitic slabs. The NE Iberia with focus on several phases of their manufacturing process, earliest Neolithic occupations of the cave (layers C6-C5c) associated such as the decorative techniques (e.g., Manen, 2002; Oms, 2014; 2017; with the Cardial evidence (Martín, 2000; Martín et al., 1985) are dated Laborda et al., 2021), raw materials acquisition, addition or not of between 5208 and 5030 cal. BCE 1σ and 5217–4960 cal. BCE 2σ temper (Clop, 2005; 2011) and pottery use based on organic residue (Table 1). The subsequent layer of the cave (layer C5b), where the analysis (Breu, 2019; Breu et al., 2021; Debono Spiteri et al., 2016; potsherds decorated with the impressed, incised and grooved decora­ Tarifa, 2019). However, no study focused on the identification of tions predominated (Epicardial style) (Martín et al., 1985; 2010), is dated between 5031 and 4846 cal. BCE 1σ and 5201–4796 cal. BCE 2σ. Cova del Frare site was possibly a place of seasonal occupations 1 (storage vessels, manufacturing processes of tools, abundant faunal The possibility of an earliest Neolithic occupation phase in the NE Iberian domestic remains) by groups of herders who cohabited part of the year Peninsula has been raised based on certain ceramic findings, such as Phase A of Guixeres de Vilobí (Barcelona) and the Structure 2014 of El Cavet (Tarragona) with domestic animals, even during the cold seasons (Albert et al., 1996; dated with short-lived samples (Oms et al., 2014; 2021; Martins et al., 2015). Estévez and Martín, 1982; Martín and Estévez, 1992). Animal husbandry However, the scarcity of archaeological remains and the results of the radio­ is well-documented by the presence of ovine and caprine remains with a carbon dates do not allow at this time to verify the possible existence of a pre- high number of foetal and neonatal individuals (Estévez and Martín, cardial horizon in this area (Oms et al., 2020). 1982; Navarrete, 2017), which suggested the hypothesis that the cave 2 J. Cámara Manzaneda et al. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 43 (2022) 103457 Fig. 1. Location of the Early Neolithic sites mentioned in the text: 1. Cova del Frare (NE Iberian Peninsula), 2. Peiro Signado, 3. Pont de Roque-Haute, 4. ZAC la Farigoule 2 (Languedoc, S France) (Manen et al., 2019b, Manen and Guilaine 2020), 5. Abri Pendimoun, 6. Arene Candide (Ligurian-Provencal Arc) (Gomart et al., 2017), 7. Colle Santo Stefano, 8. Ripa Tetta (SE Italian Peninsula) (Angeli and Fabbri, 2017; Colombo, 2017; Gomart et al., 2017), 9. Cueva de El Toro (S Iberian Peninsula) (Cámara et al., 2021), 10. Los Cascajos (N Iberian Peninsula) (Caro et al., 2020). Table 1 Calibration of radiocarbon dates from Cova del Frare (NE Iberian Peninsula) with OxCal v.4.4.4 software (Bronk Ramsey 2021) and using IntCal20 atmospheric curve (Reimer et al. 2020). Selection of radiocarbon dates of Cova del Frare without large standard deviations. Site Layer Lab-code Material BP date 1σ cal BCE (68.3%) 2σ cal BCE (95.4%) Reference Cova del C6/ Beta- Ovis aeries 6170 ± 5208–5201 (3.3%) 5185–5141 (22.4%) 5217–4997 (95.4%) Oms et al., 2016 Martins Frare C5c 325690 40 5136–5054 (42.6%) et al., 2015 Cova del C6 Beta- Animal 6150 ± 5208–5157 (24.6%) 5126–5030 5215–4989 (95.2%) 4963–4960 (0.2%) Navarrete et al., 2017 Frare 436332 bone 40 (43.6%) Cova del C5b Beta- Ovis aeries 6070 ± 5031–4937 (68.3%) 5201–5186 (2.6%) 5053–4896 (88.8%) Oms et al., 2016 Martins Frare 325688 30 4869–4849 (4.1%) et al., 2015 Cova del C5b Beta- Ovis aeries 6020 ± 4981–4976 (2.4%) 4952–4846 (65.9%) 5010–4796 (95.4%) Oms et al., 2016 Frare 325687 40 was possibly used as an enclosure of herds (Antolín et al., 2018; Martins only recognised in 7 spherical and sub-spherical individuals, 2 hemi­ et al., 2015). The cavity was therefore probably inhabited during sea­ spherical vessels, and 3 vessels with necks (Fig. 2a). Non-cardium im­ sonal occupations, but was also abandoned for certain periods, which pressions were documented in 7 spherical, sub-spherical, and would have allowed the formation of tunnels and burrows of wild ani­ hemispherical vessels. The lips are generally rounded, T-shaped, and flat mals, the formation of stalagmitic slabs, etc. with a rim profile inward, outward, or straight (Martín et al., 2010). The activities carried out by the inhabitants of the cave left a wide Decorative techniques usually correspond to impressions, with the range of artefactual remains. In addition to pottery (see below), the predominance of cardium with a shell in an oblique position dominating archaeological assemblage is composed of lithic industry, with by- over those made with the shell in a vertical position (Fig. 3a). In addi­ products associated with all stages of their production process, tion, there are impressions made with a comb, smooth shell, or other showing that the manufacture was carried out at the place. Most of the undefined tools. The cardium decoration is exclusive to 14 vessels, lithic remains correspond to a laminar industry of different flint quali­ although it is also combined, for instance, with cords, incisions, or even ties, jasper and quartz, overall including scrapers, retouched blades and impressions made with other tools. The many combinations of matrixes some burins, etc. Stone tools also comprise some polished and bevelled and the richness of the combined themes and motifs allowed to propose artefacts on hornfel, in addition to crushers but with no evidence of the classification of this ceramic assemblage within the Late Cardial grinding tools. Bone industry consists of several punches made from horizon (Oms, 2014; 2017). ovicaprine diaphysis as well as an assegai made from a long bovine bone. The Epicardial ware comprises a minimum of 370 decorated sherds Personal ornamentation is reduced to discoidal beads on shell and from layer C5b, although 23% of the total number of the Epicardial perforated Columbella rustica, as well as some deer’s teeth with recesses. sherds were also recognised in the lower layers, dispersed on the corridor (sector D) or in the upper layers, out of context. The shapes correspond to sub-spherical, hemispherical, ellipsoidal, and cylindrical 2.2. The Cardial and Epicardial ceramic productions vessels with a few exceptional cases with necks (Fig. 2b). Inward rims predominate over the straight and less-frequent outward rims (Manen, The Cardial ware comprises some 90 fragmented and very small 2002). Cova del Frare presents the largest catalogue of Epicardial dec­ potsherds recovered from layers C6-C5c, in addition to a few other orations of Catalonia. The use of grooves predominates within the sherds located out of context. The raw materials generally consist of fine ceramic assemblage, followed by the incisions and the impressed-incised ware, with a predominance of medium-sized vessels and occasionally decorations (Fig. 3b). A very reduced number of plastic cords can also be larger vessels decorated with cords. Shapes decorated with cardium are 3 J. Cámara Manzaneda et al. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 43 (2022) 103457 Fig. 2. Examples of pottery shapes and decorations from Cova del Frare. A. Cardial ware, B. Epicardial ware. Source: drawings provided by J. Ariza and A. Martín and photography provided by J. Cámara. 4 J. Cámara Manzaneda et al. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 43 (2022) 103457 Fig. 3. Examples of the decorative techniques of the Cardial (A) and Epicardial (B) wares of Cova del Frare. documented (Manen, 2002; Martín et al., 2010). 3. Materials and method Several Cardial and Epicardial vessels from Cova del Frare were also sampled to analyse the provenance and management of raw materials, 3.1. Pottery sample analysed indicating that the acquisition of raw materials was local or proximate to the location of the site. In addition, no temper was added to the pastes, A total of 86 vessels have been documented in Cova del Frare which, except for some samples where the addition of crushed calcite was due to their spatial location or their decorative characteristics, are identified (Binder et al., 2010). included in the Cardial or Epicardial styles (Table 2). Cardial vessels are mainly documented in layers C6-C5c, while the Epicardial ware was mainly found in layer C5b. The ceramic assemblages were documented in the front part of the cavity and other few potsherds were found very dispersed in the upper layers, probably displaced by taphonomic 5 J. Cámara Manzaneda et al. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 43 (2022) 103457 Table 2 Total number of vessels analysed and sample of vessels with diagnostic traces. Cardial ware Epicardial ware Undecorated vessels TOTAL N . Vessels ◦ % N . Vessels ◦ % N . Vessels ◦ % N◦ . Vessels % Total 40 100 46 100 – – 90 100 Analysed 29 72.5 46 100 4 100 79 87.78 With diagnostic macro-traces 16 40 36 78.26 4 100 56 62.22 processes. transformed into a volume (Roux, 2019). These actions lead to a direct From a number of 86 vessels, 40 (89 potsherds) present impressed and indirect formation of a series of technological features on the ves­ decorations made with cardium, combs, smooth shells or other multi- sels: irregularities and textural variations on the surfaces, formal vari­ tipped instruments, which allow them to be classified within the Car­ ations on the wall thickness, several fracturing patterns of vessels when dial ware. In this study, a maximum number of 29 vessels (76 potsherds) broken and diverse modalities of the spatial organisation of pores and distinguished by their decorative techniques and compositions were mineral inclusions in the internal structure of vessels. The systematic analysed2 (Table 2). The Cardial vessels are characterised by a high examination and comparison of traces provide an indicative and degree of fragmentation, barely with no any complete profile. Several reproducible framework to reconstruct the technologies that were used vessels are determined by a single decorated potsherd (Oms, 2014, pp. in ceramic manufacture (Thér, 2020; García Rosselló and Calvo Trias, 154-161). 16 of the 29 vessels analysed preserve macro-traces, which 2013). represent 40% of the total of the Cardial vessels (70.79% of potsherds). The ceramic assemblages of Cova del Frare have been examined by The Epicardial ware is characterised by 46 vessels (363 potsherds) combining direct observations with angular lighting and a stereomi­ with incised, incised-impressed or grooved decorations, spatula or croscope of low magnifications (5x to 8x). The descriptive parameters of punch impressions and cords. Each ceramic individual is composed of two methodologies were used to systematically record technological several potsherds and they usually preserve part of their profile, traces and the orientation of pores and particles in the tangential and generally from the rim to the body and, in a single case, from the rim to radial planes (Cámara, 2019; García Rosselló and Calvo Trias, 2013; the base. All the Epicardial vessels have been analysed, of which 36 (348 Livingstone Smith, 2007). In parallel, macro-traces have been photo­ potsherds) present diagnostic macro-traces (Table 2). This number of graphically recorded using a digital camera and alternating two lenses: vessels represents 78.26% of the total of vessels belonging to this style an intermediate lens 18–55 mm and a macro lens 90 mm. The photog­ (95.87% of potsherds). raphy was conducted by using a static support and auxiliary LED lights, In addition, the analysis of 4 undecorated vessels, comprised of 8 controlling the entry of natural light into the room. The scale of the potsherds, were also included. These vessels, which display diagnostic photographs corresponds to the original scale of the traces. macro-traces, were located in layers C5c (1 potsherd) and C5b (7 The interpretation of forming processes is based on the correlation of potsherds). manufacturing traces documented on each ceramic vessel and their In order to expand the sample, 282 undecorated potsherds from comparison with referential series of traces, both experimental and layers C6-C5c and 667 from layer C5b were analysed. Diagnostic macro- ethnoarchaeological (García Rosselló and Calvo Trias, 2013; 2019; traces were recognised in 54 potsherds from layers C6-C5c (19.15%) and Gelbert, 2003; Lara, 2017; Lepère, 2014; Martineau, 2000; Roux, 2019; in a number of 89 potsherds from layer C5b (13.34%). Rye, 1981). Macroscopic analysis enabled us to detect a series of traces Accordingly, from 79 vessels included in this study, technological for which no current ethnographic or experimental references have been traces have been identified in a number of 56 vessels, in addition to 143 reported. These traces were systematically recorded following several non-decorated potsherds. parameters (Fig. 4). Their technological origin was inferred by corre­ lating all manufacturing traces and conducting comparisons with similar traces identified in other Early Neolithic contexts (Gomart et al., 2017, 3.2. Technological analysis and examination of manufacturing traces Manen et al., 2019b). The technological analysis has focused on determining the pottery 4. Results forming techniques and methods. Forming techniques encompass those processes by which the volume of vessels is obtained (forming, auxiliary Analysis of traces preserved in the ceramic vessels revealed the use of techniques, drying phases, and reinforcements) and those techniques by two forming techniques linked with two forming sequences (Table 3). which the surfaces are modified and the vessels shaped (García Rosselló Forming techniques were also recognised in a series of potsherds asso­ and Calvo Trias, 2013). The ordered sequence of techniques and ciated with the Cardial and Epicardial assemblages from Cova del Frare. elementary gestures along the different parts of the vessels (base, belly, This study also allowed us to recognise the insertion systems of handles collar and rim) allows us to reconstruct the forming sequences or and secondary elements on the walls of the vessels. forming methods (Roux, 2010; 2019), integrated within the ceramic manufacturing processes. 4.1. Identification of forming techniques Ceramic macroscopic analysis relies on the recognition of a series of traces produced as a consequence of the forming processes of vessels. 4.1.1. Forming process with circular juxtaposed elements The technological origin of traces is related to the type of forces applied The ceramic vessels that preserve part of the belly present a series of on the raw materials and the modalities with which the paste is macro-traces that suggest the use of circular elements during the form­ ing processes (Table 4). Moreover, a similar morphology of traces was 2 recognised in 54 potsherds from layers C6-C5c and in 89 potsherds from This study includes 5 ceramic vessels, 4 Cardial and 1 Epicardial (41 pot­ layer C5b. sherds), which are currently on display at the Castell Cartoixa de Vallparadís (Museu de Terrassa). The other Cardial potsherds, among which 3 potsherds The ceramic productions develop a series of circular and arciform- belonging to a vessel, are on display at the Museu d’Història de Catalunya shaped fractures on the belly, visible both from the inside and outside (Barcelona) and were not considered for this study. Given the fragmentation of in a frontal view (Fig. 5, Fig. 6, Fig. 7). This modality of sub-circular the Cardial ceramic assemblage, we cannot rule out that some of the individ­ fractures can be arranged together, forming several series of fractures ualised potsherds also belonged to the same vessel. with an arciform V-shape (Fig. 7b1-b2). The inner and outer surfaces of 6 J. Cámara Manzaneda et al. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 43 (2022) 103457 Fig. 4. Description and systematisation of macro-traces: location, direction and planes of observation. Descriptive parameters proposed by Livingstone Smith, 2007; García Rosselló and Calvo Trias, 2013. the vessels and potsherds preserve several macroscopic features that can tomography on a set of samples from the Impressa layers of Abri Pen­ be grouped into the following traces: sub-circular depressions (Fig. 5c), dimoun have shown that these series of traces corresponded to circular which in occasional cases correspond to V-shaped wavy variations juxtaposed and fused elements, each formed by a spiral coil, terming this (Fig. 8b2), arciform burrs on the inside (Fig. 8b2), convexities (Fig. 6a3) forming process as a spiralled patchwork technology (Gomart et al., and an uneven topography with flat areas on the outer surfaces 2017). (Fig. 8a2). When these series of traces are merged, it is possible to In the case of Cova del Frare, the correlation of traces and their reconstruct circular elements (Fig. 5, Fig. 6), generally broken with sub- comparison with these archaeological cases indicate that the belly of the circular shapes (Fig. 7b4, Fig. 8b2). vessels was also formed by means of circular juxtaposed elements (series In the radial plane, potsherds show a heterogeneous but not regular of arciform traces). Moreover, based on the available data from the sites internal structure with long oblique configurations that can be associ­ of Abri Pendimoun, Arene Candide and ZAC la Farigoule (Gomart et al., ated with circular configurations (Fig. 5b). In some vessels that present a 2017; Manen et al., 2019b), each circular element was also possibly modification of the surfaces (Fig. 7a2-b2) or preserve laminar fractures formed by a spiral coil (circular organisation of pores and particles in the with part of a detached sherd (Fig. 6a3), the distribution of pores and tangential plane). In several cases where circular elements can be particles in the tangential plane can also be observed. In these cases, the completely delimited, they present a regular contour with an average organisation of pores and aplastic particles is circular to sub-circular, diameter of 50 ± 6.4 mm. This forming process has been documented on following the contour of the arciform fractures (Fig. 7b3). the belly of vessels, although in several cases the use of circular elements At present, there are neither experimental nor ethnoarchaeological reached the upper parts and the rim was also formed using this tech­ collections that present series of arciform traces related to the use of nology (Fig. 6a2). In particular, the arrangement of traces in the inner circular elements in the ceramic manufacturing processes. However, a surface of one of the vessels (I-5) reveals that these elements were similar morphology of traces has been reported during the last years juxtaposed in successive rows, one over another, to completely build the documented in several Early Neolithic contexts of the Western Medi­ vessels (Fig. 8). terranean (Gomart et al., 2017; Manen et al., 2019b). The macroscopic Once the patches were partially or completely juxtaposed (Fig. 6b4), analysis of macro-traces and the integration of the micro-computed they were possibly fused and then scraped, causing a modification of the 7 J. Cámara Manzaneda et al. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 43 (2022) 103457 Table 3 Systematisation of traces associated with the juxtaposition of circular elements, similar to the traces documented in other Early Neolithic contexts from the Western Mediterranean (Gomart et al., 2017; Manen et al., 2019b). 1-2: Traces with an indirect formation process: fracturing patterns. 3-6: Traces with a direct formation process: formal variations on the wall-thickness, texture and irregularities on the surfaces. 7-8: Internal Figs. 5, 6, Reconstruction of pottery forming sequences identified at Cova del Frare. 6, 7 5, 8 6, 8 6, 7 8 6 6 8 5 – Forming N. ◦ Base forming Belly forming Upper part - rim Surface methods Vessels forming modification Overlapping and shaping Partial or Partial or Partial or Without Without without without without Partial Partial CF1 9 Circular Coiling with an Scraping the With With juxtaposed oblique alternate internal – and fused overlapping (S/Z- surface (n = 4) elements, each shaped Individual or Individual or possibly configurations), Association Individual Individual Individual formed by a with a last coil Grouped Grouped Grouped Grouped Grouped grouped grouped spiral coil internally (series of overlapped (n = 3), arciform externally traces) overlapped (n = 4) Irregular Irregular Concave Convex or superimposed (n Section = 2) Flat Flat CF2 7 Circular juxtaposed and fused Scraping the – – – – elements, each possibly formed by a internal and Irregular Irregular Irregular Without spiral coil (series of arciform traces) external Oblique Blunt surfaces (n = Edge 3) – – – – – 9 – Coiling with an – oblique alternate Location Belly - Belly - Belly - Belly - overlapping (S/Z- Belly Belly Belly Belly Belly Belly rim rim rim rim shaped configurations), with a last coil the surfaces Location on internally overlapped (n = 3), Internal- Internal- Internal- Internal- External external external external external Internal Internal Internal externally overlapped (n = 3) – – or superimposed (n = 1) Disorganised Disorganised Disorganised Disorganised Disorganised Disorganised Disorganised 31 Circular Circular Scraping the Organised Organised Organised – – Structure juxtaposed juxtaposed internal and fused and fused surface (n = 5) elements (n elements, each = 1) possibly organisation of pores and a-plastic particles in the cross-sections and surfaces (tangential and radial planes). Discontinuous Discontinuous Discontinuous Discontinuous Discontinuous Discontinuous Discontinuous Discontinuous formed by a Distribution Continuous Continuous spiral coil (series of arciform traces) Total 56 vertical or isolated Horizontal or Horizontal or Horizontal or Horizontal or Arrangement Horizontal, surfaces and on the thickness of the walls. Indeed, the scraping tech­ diagonal diagonal Circular Circular Isolated Vertical Vertical isolated isolated nique is attested on several vessels that display linear grooves on the inner surface, with marked edges and flattened sections associated with erratic striations (Fig. 7a4). Altogether, these traces suggest the Perpendicular Perpendicular Perpendicular Perpendicular extraction of clay during the modification of the surfaces. Direction Parallel Parallel Parallel Parallel Parallel Parallel 4.1.2. Forming of the upper parts and rims with assembled coils The upper parts of a limited number of vessels and the majority of the rims exhibit a series of traces associated with the coiling technique configurations with circular Circular/ arciform fractures (Table 5). The assembly of coils is identified in 9 ceramic vessels that Sub-circular and detached Sub-circular and flattened only preserve the rim and part of the belly or solely preserve diagnostic Circular/Sub-circular Circular/sub-circular Shape/ morphology macro-traces corresponding to the forming of the rim. In another sample Arciform V-shaped Arciform V-shaped of 9 vessels, the rim is formed with coils while the body is built with the configurations configurations Long oblique Long oblique use of circular elements. In contrast, no traces of forming linked to this Arciform fractures technique have been identified on the potsherds from layers C6-C5c and C5b. The rim and the upper parts of vessels develop horizontal linear fractures, with an irregular or inverted U-shaped section (Fig. 9a1). The Orientation of pores and Orientation of pores and particles (radial plane) inner and outer surfaces present continuous or discontinuous wavy burrs particles (tangential Laminar fractures that can be correlated with the horizontal variations. Altogether, these Leftovers / burrs traces indicate that the rim and the upper parts were built with hori­ Depressions Convexities zontal coils, varying from one to several coils according to each specific Flat areas Fractures Feature case. plane) In the radial plane, cross-sections present a heterogeneous internal Table 4 structure with a regular distribution of pores and particles forming S/Z- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 8 J. Cámara Manzaneda et al. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 43 (2022) 103457 Fig. 5. Macro-traces associated with the juxtaposition of circular elements [I-4]. a & c. Arciform fractures and depressions visible on the external and internal surfaces of the sherds. These fractures delimit the edge of circular elements (patches), partially juxtaposed among them. b. Heterogeneous internal structure without a regular distribution of particles and voids in the radial plane. Long oblique configurations can be observed in the cross-sections of the vessels, which in this case correspond to the edge of a patch. Scale bar: 50 mm. shaped configurations (Fig. 9a2). These configurations suggest the use of edge of the handles (4 ribbon handles and 1 non-determinable handle), thin or slightly deformed coils with a slightly internal-external which present convexities at their edges. Handles were inserted on the overlapping. bellies applying direct pressure without completely drilling the walls The height of coils on the upper part of the vessels oscillates between (Fig. 10). However, none of the handles is completely detached, so it 13.3 mm (thickness of 8.1 mm) and 17.9 mm (thickness of 11.8 mm). cannot be ruled out that some handles were also attached to the belly by The last coil of the rim is assembled with an internal overlapping (in­ using complete insertions. ternal oblique discontinuity) (n = 6), external overlapping (external Furthermore, 3 beginnings of handles, 1 tunnelled handle, and 2 oblique discontinuity) (n = 7) or superimposed (O-shaped discontinuity) cords were attached with a simple hook by applying direct pressure (n = 3) (Fig. 7a3). Here, the height of coils oscillates between 9.2 and without requiring any type of insertion (n = 6). In these cases, the 20.8 mm for a wall-thickness of 8.2 and 10.8 mm respectively. The handles are detached from the walls and their edges present laminar number of assembled coils vary according to the upper part and rim of fractures parallel to the surfaces with flat sections. each vessel, comprising from 1 to 6 coils, being the assembly of one or two coils the most common ones. 4.3. Reconstruction of forming sequences 4.2. Attachment systems of handles and secondary elements Forming techniques were recognised in 56 ceramic vessels and 143 non-decorated potsherds, showing that at least two forming sequences Grip elements are mainly represented by ribbon handles, placed (CF1 and CF2) were used in the ceramic productions of Cova del Frare vertically or diagonally, although other grip elements such as ring (Table 3). The CF1 method combines the coiling technique (upper parts handles, tunnelled handles and digitally impressed cords can be docu­ and rim) and the use of the circular juxtaposed elements (belly), whilst mented within the ceramic assemblages. Out of 12 handles associated the CF2 method is based on the exclusive use of circular elements for with the ceramic individuals and 4 individual handles, 9 show traces building the belly and rim. The forming of bases, rarely preserved in the associated with their attachment systems. Two more secondary elements context of Cova del Frare, was only identified in a single base from an related to cords also exhibit traces associated with their joining systems. Epicardial vessel which was built with circular elements. Given the large The main attachment system corresponds to partial insertions by number of undecorated potsherds associated with this forming tech­ creating a concavity on the walls (n = 5). This system is observed on the nology, the use of patches probably covered from the base to the belly in 9 J. Cámara Manzaneda et al. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 43 (2022) 103457 Fig. 6. Macro-traces associated with the CF2 forming sequence [C-5 & C-6A]. a2-b3. Arciform traces visible on inner and the outer surface of the rim (a2) and the belly (b3). a3. Laminar fractures (1) with an arciform shape (sub-circular distribution of particles and voids) and circular convexities (2) on the outer topography of the belly. These traces, that delimit the edge of circular-shaped elements, suggest the use of juxtaposed patches for building both the belly and rim of vessels. several cases. 5. Discussion In the Cardial vessels, very fragmented but with several profiles decorated with cardium shells, smooth shells or other multi-tipped tools, 5.1. Cardial/Epicardial ceramic decorations and forming practices at the recurrent use of circular elements is observed (Fig. 6a-b) (Table 6). Cova del Frare The coiling technique was also identified in 2 vessels decorated with cardium and 1 vessel with multiple impressions. The Epicardial vessels, The Early Neolithic occupations of Cova del Frare are characterised represented by ceramic individuals with several sherds and a large part by the presence of a wide range of decorative techniques included within of their profile preserved, provide the largest evidence of the use of the Cardial and Epicardial ceramic styles. The reconstruction of forming circular elements and the assembly of coils for the entire Early Neolithic processes shows that the ceramic productions of Cova del Frare assigned assemblage of Cova del Frare. Circular elements are documented on to these decorative styles were produced with circular juxtaposed ele­ vessels with distinct shapes and decorative techniques (Fig. 5, Fig. 7, ments and then a series of generally one or two coils were used for Fig. 8) (Table 6), to which 1 or several coils were assembled to finish the building specific parts of the vessels. rim with an internal and/or external overlapping (Fig. 7a3; Fig. 9a2). These two ceramic styles represent the most common decorative Finally, the use of circular elements and the assembly of coils were features of the Early Neolithic ceramic productions in the northeast of identified in 1 and 3 undecorated vessels respectively. the Iberian Peninsula, excluding here some sporadic ceramic evidence Overall, the CF1 method is identified in 9 ceramic individuals (1 assignable to the Impressa decorations (Oms et al., 2014; 2020). The Cardial and 8 Epicardial vessels) and the CF2 method is recognised in 7 ceramic productions belonging to the Cardial sphere appeared with the vessels (2 Cardial, 4 Epicardial and 1 undecorated vessel). implementation of the Neolithisation process towards 5550 cal. BCE and prevailed until 4850 cal. BCE (Oms 2017; Oms et al., 2016). Decorations 10 J. Cámara Manzaneda et al. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 43 (2022) 103457 Fig. 7. Macro-traces associated with the CF1 forming sequence [I-2]. a1-a2. External and internal surfaces. a3. Cross-section of the rim with an internal oblique discontinuity. a4. Horizontal & diagonal grooves on the inner surface of the belly. Surface grooves present a morphology with flat sections, lineal striations with marked edges and protruded grains. b1-b2. Arciform ‘V’-shaped fractures observed on the inner surface of the sherds from the belly. b3. Circular and sub-circular organisation of pores and particles in the tangential plane. The distribution of pores and particles follows the contour of the subcircular fractures. Altogether, these traces indicate that the belly was formed by means of juxtaposed and fused circular patches (b4), each previously formed by a spiral coil (b3), which were scraped afterwards (b). The rim was formed with a coil internally overlapped (a3). Scale bars: 50 mm. of the Cardial style were mainly concentrated in the coastal and pre- At Cova del Frare, the radiocarbon dates place the Cardial evidence littoral areas, although they were also documented in several Early from layers C6-C5c between 5208 and 5030 cal. BCE 1σ and 5217–4960 Neolithic sites of the mid-Ebro valley and the pre-Pyrenees area (Oms, cal. BCE 2σ. The Epicardial evidence, largely documented in layer C5b, 2017; Laborda, 2019; Rojo Guerra et al., 2018). Furthermore, the Car­ is dated between 5031 and 4846 cal. BCE 1σ and 5201–4796 cal. BCE 2σ dial wares were extensively distributed along the Mediterranean coast of (Table 1). These radiocarbon dates indicate the temporal extension of the Iberian Peninsula (Bernabeu et al., 2017b; 2018) and southern these two styles in Cova del Frare, although they present deviations France (Guilaine, 2018; Manen et al., 2019a). In contrast, the Epicardial corresponding to the plateau on the calibration curve between 5200 and style, which includes the impressed-grooved/incised decorations, as 5050 cal. BCE (Reimer et al., 2020), which affects the accuracy of the well as the boquique technique (stab-and-drag), were initially located in calibration intervals (Manen et al., 2019a; Laborda et al., 2021). Thus, the inner lands of the northeast Iberia from c. 5350 cal. BCE (Oms, based on the radiocarbon dates but also on the decorative traits of the 2017), but latter spread throughout the NE territory between c. 5100 ceramic vessels, the Cardial ceramics of Cova del Frare belonged to the and 4500 cal. BCE (Oms et al., 2016; 2020). These set of decorative Late Cardial horizon in NE Iberia (Oms, 2014). The Epicardial ceramics, techniques also had an important entity on the Early Neolithic sites in contrast, correspond to the floruit of the Epicardial decorations, located in the mid-upper Ebro valley and the inner lands of the Iberian widely documented during the first half of the Vth millennium BCE in Peninsula (e.g., Alday Ruiz, 2009; Alday and Moral del Hoyo, 2011; this area (Oms et al., 2016; Martín et al., 2010). García-Martínez de Lagrán, 2015; Rojo Guerra et al., 2018, Laborda, From a technological perspective, the analysis of traces reveals that 2019). forming processes did not changed significantly in parallel to the The distribution of these ceramic styles, mainly between the coastal decorative techniques, especially the patchwork technology used in both and inland areas (e.g., Laborda, 2019; Guilaine, 2018; Oms, 2017; Rojo ceramic wares. Nonetheless, the use of coils, whether due to the Guerra et al., 2018) opened the discussion that these two decorative assemblage preservation or other factors, seems that were more complexes were contemporary, linked with two Neolithisation tradi­ frequently used in the Epicardial than in the Cardial ceramics of Cova del tions (e.g., Manen et al., 2019a; Van Willigen, 1999). Moreover, other Frare. Hence, it is not possible to rule out the hypothesis that the coiling proposals also derived to interpret that the Epicardial was originated technique would have been more linked with Epicardial productions, from the Cardial or the former emerged independently from an accul­ but limited to a reduced number of coils for building the upper parts and turation process of Mesolithic groups (Bernabeu & Martí Oliver, 2014; the rims. The fact that these two techniques were used within the same Van Willigen, 2004). Although these questions are still the subject of forming sequence (CF1 method) also suggests that they were potentially several discussions, after c. 5150–5100 cal. BCE the irruption of the integrated within the same forming practices of Cova del Frare com­ impressed-incised decorations progressively replaced the Cardial munities. Indeed, the combination of several techniques is a common impressed ceramics, thus covering the coastal areas of the Iberian practice attested in the archaeological record and documented in Peninsula and southern France (e.g., Bernabeu & Martí Oliver, 2014; modern-day societies that maintain handmade ceramic traditions (e.g., Bernabeu et al., 2017b; Manen et al., 2019a; Oms, 2017). Calvo Trias and García Rosselló, 2012, 2013; Gelbert, 2003; Gosselain, 11 J. Cámara Manzaneda et al. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 43 (2022) 103457 Fig. 8. Macro-traces associated with the juxtaposition of circular elements [I-5]. The belly present sub-circular fractures (1) visible on the inner and the outer surfaces of the vessel. The external topography of the belly is uneven, combining both sub-circular variations and flat areas (a2). The internal topography displays inverted ‘V’-shaped arciform depressions (1) which merge with the sub-circular fractures into circular elements (b2). Altogether, these circular elements appear partially juxtaposed among them, forming horizontal bands of patches for building the vessels (b2). On the other side, the lower part of these elements appears fractured, forming an irregular wavy fracture (white discontinuous dashes). 2002). It seems therefore that the groups of herders that seasonally Mediterranean correspond to the sites of Ripa Tetta and Colle Santo inhabited Cova del Frare used the same forming practices to produce Stefano from southeast Italy (5900–5600 cal. BCE) (Angeli and Fabbri, their Cardial and Epicardial wares, regardless of their shapes and dec­ 2017; Colombo, 2017). The coiling techniques were initially used during orations, and solely varied between the use of patches (CF2 method) or Early Neolithic in the Balkans (c. 6100 BCE) (Gomart et al., 2020) and the assembly of coils (CF1 method) for building the rims. spread with the introduction of farming to Central (Hungary, Czech This evidence from Cova del Frare raises the question of whether the Republic) (Neumannová et al., 2017; Thér et al., 2019; Gomart et al., Cardial and Epicardial decorations were not necessarily connected with 2020) and North-western Europe (Belgium and north-eastern France) forming practices, which indeed would have prevailed during the Early (Bosquet et al., 2005; Gomart, 2014; Van Doosselaere et al., 2013). The Neolithic occupations of Cova del Frare over four hundred years, be­ Impressa vessels from the Italian sites were built with thin and elongated tween 5217 and 4796 cal. BCE 2σ. A large number of ceramic pro­ coils, superimposed or internally-externally overlapped (Angeli and ductions assigned to the Cardial and Epicardial spheres must be analysed Fabbri, 2017), showing similarities on the assembly procedures and to see if these forming technologies were also connected with the earliest coils’ deformation to the coiling sequences documented in the Linear ceramic productions from NE Iberia or whether there was a transfer of Pottery in continental Europe (c. 5500–4950 cal. BCE) (Gomart et al., technical know-how between the Cardial-Epicardial spheres (García- 2017). Martínez de Lagrán, 2015) or if this occurred in a reciprocal way (Manen The production of the Early Neolithic ceramics with the coiling et al. 2019a). forming sequences clearly contrasts with the spiralled patchwork tech­ nology documented in the Ligurian-Provencal Arc and the Mediterra­ nean Languedoc, in southern France. The first evidence of this 5.2. Distribution of first pot-forming processes in the Western technology has been attested in Abri Pendimoun and Arene Candide Mediterranean sites (Gomart et al., 2017), as well as in the open-air sites of Peiro Sig­ nado, Pont de Roque-Haute (Manen and Guilaine, 2020) and ZAC la With the expansion of the Neolithisation process across the Western Farigoule 2 (5800–5600 cal. BCE) (Manen et al., 2019b). The fact that Mediterranean, the pioneer communities of farmers that settled the these two forming sequences coexisted at separate areas of the Western coastal areas of Italy and southern France used two completely different Mediterranean derived to propose that the Neolithisation process was technical traditions to produce the earliest Impressa ceramic pro­ linked with the arrival of several groups of farmers bearers of distinct ductions: the coiling techniques in south-east Italy and the patchwork technical practices (Gomart et al., 2017; Gomart et al., forthcoming). technology in southern France and the Ligurian-Provencal Arc (Gomart In this context, the reported data of Cova del Frare show that the use et al., 2017; Manen and Guilaine, 2020). The forming processes identi­ of circular patches was also distributed in the northeast of the Iberian fied in the ceramic productions of Cova del Frare present similarities Peninsula during the Early Neolithic and linked with the Cardial and with these forming practices, being especially prominent the parallels Epicardial productions. Indeed, this technology has also been recognised with the patchwork technology, but also with the coiling techniques that in more recent chronologies such as the Cardial layers of Abri Pendi­ were limited for building the rims. moun (5550–5150 cal. BCE) (Drieu et al., 2021), in several sites of the The earliest evidence of the coiling techniques in the West of the 12 J. Cámara Manzaneda et al. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 43 (2022) 103457 Epicardial horizon from southern France (Languedoc, c. 5200–4800 cal. Systematisation of traces associated with the coiling forming technique. 1: Traces with an indirect formation process: fracturing patterns. 2-3: Traces with a direct formation process: formal variations on the wall-thickness, Fig. BCE) (Caro, 2020) and in more remote sites, such as Cueva de El Toro 9 7 7 9 7 – (Málaga, 5280–4780 cal. BCE) in the south of the Iberian Peninsula (Cámara et al., 2021). At Cova del Frare, these elements present an Overlapping average diameter of 50 ± 6.4 mm, more variable than those reported for Without Without Abri Pendimoun (44 ± 2.3 mm) and ZAC La Farigoule 2 (42 to 47 mm), but slightly smaller than those of Cueva de El Toro (52 ± 8.4 mm). – – – – Regardless of their location and chronology, these Early Neolithic pro­ Individual or ductions were manufactured using spiralled juxtaposed patches irre­ Association Individual Individual Individual Grouped spective of the ceramic shapes (Gomart et al., 2017) and linked to vessels Grouped grouped with Impressa, Cardial and Epicardial decorations (Caro, 2020; Manen and Guilaine, 2020). These studies, therefore, seem to indicate that this forming technology was generally used and distributed since the onset and development of the Early Neolithic in several regions of the Western variations in Inverted U- Mediterranean. vertical Section The ceramic productions of Cova del Frare show that a limited shape Wavy number of coils were also used for building the rims, but combined with – – – – the circular juxtaposed elements that predominated within the forming Irregular sequences. The use of the coiling technique at Cova del Frare could have Edge followed a similar dynamic to Cueva de El Toro where several coils were – – – – – frequently used for producing the upper parts, collar and rim of vessels (Cámara et al., 2021). Conversely, patches could have been generally Upper part Upper part Upper part used for building from the base to the body and could reach the upper Location parts, both in Cova del Frare and Cueva de El Toro contexts. The inte­ - rim - rim - rim Rim Rim Rim gration of both forming techniques within the same forming sequences has also been reported in other Early Neolithic sites from the Mediter­ texture and irregularities on the surfaces. 4: Internal organisation of pores and a-plastic particles in the cross-sections (radial planes). ranean Languedoc between c. 4800-4550 cal. BCE (Caro, 2020). How­ the surfaces Location on Internal or -external ever, the use of complete forming sequences with coils cannot be ruled external Internal out, as it has been proposed for the site of Los Cascajos (Navarra, – – – – 5200–4800 cal. BCE) (Caro et al., 2020), in the north of the Iberian Peninsula. Disorganised Disorganised Given that the coiling techniques were included within the Organised Organised Organised Organised Structure manufacturing sequences of patches, this raises the hypothesis that the forming practices might have slightly varied or changed with the development of the Neolithisation process. In addition, within the patchwork technology, some modifications might have emerged depending on the size of these circular elements. Based on the evidence Discontinuous Discontinuous Discontinuous Discontinuous Continuous or discontinuous Distribution Continuous of Cova del Frare and Cueva de El Toro, these variations can respond to the hypotheses that the first communities of farmers integrated both techniques since the beginning of the Neolithisation process in the Iberian Peninsula (i) and/or the same communities progressively varied Arrangement their forming practices and included technical modifications (ii), such as Horizontal Horizontal the assembly of a large number of coils or the use of more sized patches. Circular Vertical Vertical Vertical 6. Conclusion Perpendicular Perpendicular Perpendicular Perpendicular The technological analysis of the Cardial and Epicardial wares of Direction Cova del Frare (5217–4796 cal. BCE 2σ) brings the first evidence of the Parallel Parallel forming practices that were used by the first communities of farmers in the northeast area of the Iberian Peninsula. The analysis and system­ atisation of technological traces, as well as their comparison with the oblique discontinuity Wavy and elongated traces reported from other Early Neolithic contexts, facilitated the Shape/ morphology Internal/ external recognition of two forming processes: the use of circular juxtaposed Horizontal and configurations discontinuity elements, possibly each formed by a spiral coil, and the assembly of thin S/Z shaped Horizontal elongated O-shaped coils. These forming processes were used irrespective of the shapes and decorations to produce the Cardial and Epicardial vessels and were potentially integrated within the same technical practices of the groups of herders that inhabited Cova del Frare, standing out the use of patches over the assembly of coils. Horizontal variations and particles (radial Orientation of pores The circular elements recognised at Cova del Frare present clear Leftovers/ burrs Linear fractures parallels with the ‘spiral patchwork technology’ documented in the earliest Neolithic sites in the Ligurian-Provencal Arc (Gomart et al., Feature 2017), as well as during the development of the Early Neolithic in plane) southern France (Caro, 2020; Manen and Guilaine, 2020) and in the Table 5 south of the Iberian Peninsula (Cámara et al. 2021). This research also 1 2 3 4 confirms that this technology was distributed in the northeast of the 13 J. Cámara Manzaneda et al. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 43 (2022) 103457 Fig. 9. Macro-traces associated with the forming of the upper part and rim with coils with slightly oblique alternate overlapping [I-26]. a1. Horizontal lineal fractures on the upper part of the belly. a2. Cross-section with ‘S’-shaped configurations. The orientation of the porosity and particles is oblique to vertical. Fig. 10. Macro-traces associated with the attachment system of ribbon handles [I-3]. a-b. Vertical handle with its lower part broken. c. Parallel laminar fracture on the lower edge of the handle. The edge present convexities visible on its part, which indicate that was joined on the walls with a partial insertion, without completely drilling the wall. Iberian Peninsula and was possibly transmitted with the spread of the geographic areas of the Iberian Peninsula, including here the Cardial Neolithisation process to this area. Nonetheless, the reported results and Epicardial productions, as well as expanding the methodological from Cova del Frare as well as the ones from Cueva de El Toro (south analyses for reconstructing forming processes. These new data will allow Iberia, 5280–4780 cal. BCE) (Cámara et al., 2021) also reveal that us to deepen in their relation with implementation of the Neolithisation several technical variations existed within the ceramic production of process in the Iberian Peninsula and, to a larger extent, in the Western these sites complementary to the patchwork technology, such as the Mediterranean. assembly of a series of coils or variations in the size of circular elements. Regardless of whether the spiralled patchwork method was used during CRediT authorship contribution statement the Early Neolithic in these areas, these variations raise the possibility that these pottery forming practices would have varied with the advance Javier Cámara Manzaneda: Conceptualization, Methodology, of the Neolithisation process in the northeast and south of the Iberian Formal analysis, Investigation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Peninsula. Writing – review & editing. Xavier Clop García: Conceptualization, The hypotheses arisen throughout this work will have to be proven Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Project by analysing a large number of Early Neolithic vessels from several administration, Funding acquisition. Jaume García Rosselló: 14 J. Cámara Manzaneda et al. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 43 (2022) 103457 Table 6 2015 Séance de La Société Préhistorique Française 11. Société Préhistorique Comparison between decorative techniques and forming techniques and Française, Paris, pp. 93–108. Antolín, F., Navarrete, V., Saña, M., Viñerta, Á., Gassiot, E., 2018. Herders in the methods identified on the Early Neolithic ceramics from Cova del Frare. mountains and farmers in the plains? A comparative evaluation of the Decorations CF1 CF2 Use of Use of Total archaeobiological record from Neolithic sites in the eastern Iberian Pyrenees and the (belly (belly coils circular southern lower lands. Quat. 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