Regional Environmental Change (2022) 22:73 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-022-01924-0 ORIGINAL ARTICLE Local and tourist perceptions of coastal marine habitats in Cap de Creus (NE Spain) Miguel Mallo1 · Patrizia Ziveri1,2 · Sergio Rossi1,3,4 · Victoria Reyes‑García1,2,5 Received: 21 July 2021 / Accepted: 5 April 2022 © The Author(s) 2022 Abstract Direct human pressure on Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) adds to climate change impacts on marine habitats, especially in coastal biodiversity hot spots. Understanding MPA user perception towards the Coastal marine Habitats (CMHs) could improve awareness of the challenges that such areas have to face, eventually providing insights for the design of conservation and tourism management plans. We studied perception of ecosystem services, impacts and threats of CMHs by locals and tourists (n = 624) of Cap de Creus MPA (NW Mediterranean Sea). Overall, we found that perceptions of tourists and locals are similar. Respondents perceived that CMHs provide valuable regulating services, and they assigned less value to cultural services. Locals valued the food provision ecosystem service of CMHs significantly more than tourists, probably because of the historical importance of fisheries for subsistence. Respondents ranked marine pollution of inland origin, climate change and people’s behaviour towards nature as the most impactful and threatening to CMHs, and invasive marine species as the least. Respondents also perceived that climate change impacts would increase soon, whilst the impact of people’s behaviour towards nature would decrease. Tourists perceived mass tourism as significantly more impactful and threatening to CMHs than locals did. Overall, our study shows that conservation of CMHs is highly valued, so more effort needs to be directed toward this goal. Keywords Anthropogenic pressure · Ecosystem services · Impact · Coastal marine habitat · Perception · Survey Introduction The Mediterranean Sea, despite representing only 0.8% of Communicated by Debbie Ley the surface world’s ocean and 0.32% of its volume (Defant * Miguel Mallo 1961), is a biodiversity hotspot (Lejeusne et al. 2010), where miguelmallo91@gmail.com 4 to 18% of the world’s marine species live, including a * Victoria Reyes‑García high percentage of endemic species (Bianchi et al. 2012). Victoria.reyes@uab.cat Mediterranean marine species range from 12,000 to 20,000 Patrizia Ziveri in number, a diversity only comparable with the southern Patrizia.ziveri@uab.cat coast of Australia (Coll et al. 2010; Bianchi et al. 2012; Bou‑ Sergio Rossi douresque 2004). In the Mediterranean basin, biodiversity is Sergio.rossi@unisalento.it mostly concentrated in coastal and continental shelves. The 1 habitats distributed in these areas have higher biodiversity Institut de Ciència i Tecnologia (ICTA), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain in the northwestern basin, where the uppermost seawater is 2 relatively colder, fresher and more productive than in the rest Institució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats (ICREA), Barcelona, Spain of the Mediterranean Sea (Coll et al. 2010, 2012). 3 Northwestern coastal marine habitats (CMHs) play a Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Biologiche e Ambientali (DiSTeBA), Università del Salento, Lecce, Italy crucial role in maintaining Mediterranean biodiversity, as a 4 high number of species feed, nurse and are protected there, Labomar, Universidade Federal do Ceará, Fortaleza, Brazil especially in the seagrass meadows (Duffy 2006; Boudour‑ 5 Dept. Antropologia Social i Cultural, Universitat Autònoma esque 2004) and the coralligenous (Valisano et al. 2019; de Barcelona (UAB), Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain 13 Vol.:(0123456789) 73 Page 2 of 14 Regional Environmental Change (2022) 22:73 Casas-Güell et al. 2015; Kipson et al. 2011). These CMHs the three municipalities with marine jurisdiction in the also provide numerous ecosystem services to people, includ‑ 3073 ha of the Cap de Creus Natural Park, which was estab‑ ing food provision, control of pollutants, oxygen release, lished in 1998 (Fig. 1). For this work, we focus on the three biological and climate regulation, coastal protection, ocean municipalities neigbouring a Marine Protected Area (MPA), nourishment, recreation and symbolic and aesthetic values the Natural Park of Cap de Creus, where the quality of the (Liquete et al. 2013; Barbier et al. 2011; Lloret 2010). As natural habitat plays a major role as tourist attractor. blue carbon sinks, CMHs also contribute to carbon seques‑ The study area has a mild climate, characterised by mod‑ tration (Mallo et al. 2019; Coppari et al. 2019; Krause- erate annual precipitations and temperatures. The coastal Jensen and Duarte 2016; Duarte et al. 2010). marine environment is influenced by an important river As the coasts of the Mediterranean are highly populated runoff from the Rhône, the Fluvià and the Muga, and an (UNEP/MAP 2012) and the region is a major world tourist intense vertical mixing in winter due to typical dry, cold destination (Weston et al 2019), the Mediterranean faces and strong winds, causing strong coastal currents (Rohling enormous human pressure, and it is the sea with the greatest et al. 2015; Gili et al. 2011). Such features make the Cap anthropogenic impacts on Earth (Claudet et al. 2020; Coll de Creus coastal and offshore system one of the most pro‑ et al. 2010). Anthropogenic impacts (e.g. pollution, hypoxia, ductive marine areas of the Mediterranean Sea (Gili et al. invasive species or bottom trawling; Coll et al 2012; Clau‑ 2011). Sandy bottoms characterise the marine vegetation in det and Fraschetti 2010) are particularly concentrated in this system where seagrass meadows, especially Posidonia coastal areas (Gray 1997), especially in the northwestern oceanica, dominate (Ruiz et al. 2015; Sardà et al. 2012). The region (Coll et al. 2012). These stressors affect CMHs by shallow and deep rocky bottoms are dominated by coral‑ decreasing their complexity, sometimes through fragmenta‑ ligenous species, like Paramuricea clavata, Eunicella spp., tion and patchiness, lowering water quality, decreasing bio‑ Axinella spp. and Corallium rubrum (Sardà et al. 2012; Gili diversity, altering food chains and decreasing their carbon et al. 2011; Gori et al. 2011; Linares et al. 2018). sequestration potential. These changes, in turn, imply less Traditionally, the main source of income in Roses, Cada‑ habitat resilience to perturbations, less ability to mitigate qués and El Port de la Selva were fisheries and agriculture. climate change and a lower capacity for sustaining biodi‑ However, since the 1960s, these villages became strong versity (e.g.: Rossi 2019; Montefalcone et al. 2017; Rossi tourist attractions, and today, tourism is the main source et al. 2017; Deudero and Alomar 2015; Micheli et al. 2013; of income for the local population (Newsletter Costa Brava Lacoue-Labarthe et al. 2016). From a social point of view, 2019). Recreational activities with potential impacts on a habitat’s low health status decreases the area’s tourism the Cap de Creus Natural Park include recreational boat‑ attraction potential, affecting the local economy and liveli‑ ing (anchoring), artisanal fishery, recreational fishing, non- hoods (Krelling et al. 2017; Rodrigues et al. 2015; Kirillova regulated shellfish collection, spearfishing and inappropriate et al. 2014; Van der Merwe et al. 2011; Petrosillo et al. 2007; recreational scuba diving. Most of these activities happen Liu et al. 1987). during the summer months, affecting the seagrass meadows, In this article, we explore the ecosystem services, impacts the coralligenous and the infralittoral algal habitats (e.g. (including stressors) and threats of CMHs in Cap de Creus Hereu et al. 2018; Corrales et al. 2020; Vilas et al. 2020; (NE Spain) as perceived by the local population and tourists Font and Lloret 2011; Lloret and Riera 2008). visiting the area. Understanding how the users of coastal marine areas perceive the ecosystem services, impacts and Data collection threats of CMHs would be a step forward towards effec‑ tive marine life conservation and management policies of We conducted research in two phases combining qualitative coastal areas, as awareness of the problems is a key step and quantitative data collection methods. During December for proposing new conservation measures or maintaining 2017 and July 2018, we performed exploratory semi-struc‑ the existing ones, including a better design of a sustainable tured interviews. We used information from these interviews tourism model (e.g. Llausàs et al. 2019). to design a survey to collect data during July and August 2019. Participation in our research was voluntary, and the Ethics Committee on Animal and Human Experimentation Methods of the Autonomous University of Barcelona approved the research protocol (CEEAH 4792). Study area Semi‑structured interviews We conducted research in the Cap de Creus peninsula (42º 33’N; 03º19’E), Costa Brava (Girona, Spain). Specifically, We used semi-structured interviews to assess how peo‑ we collected data in Port de la Selva, Cadaqués and Roses, ple who are directly or indirectly dependent on the CMHs 13 Regional Environmental Change (2022) 22:73 Page 3 of 14 73 Fig. 1  Map of the study area for their income perceive environmental changes and To select the target sample, we first compiled a list of local their impacts. The sample for semi-structured interviews businesses. We contacted the 93 potential candidates in included owners and managers of tourist accommoda‑ our list, from which 40 (43%) agreed to be interviewed tions, fresh seafood restaurants and scuba diving centres. (see Online Resource 1). 13 73 Page 4 of 14 Regional Environmental Change (2022) 22:73 We asked informants to list the changes perceived in informants (Table 1). We considered respondents were local the area since they had begun work there. We highlighted if they resided in the study area or the closest neighbouring that we were interested in changes affecting them and/or towns (listed in Table 1), and tourists if they lived 120 km other local inhabitants. Responses to our question included or further from the study area. impacts, drivers and/or stressors (all named as “impacts” Ordinal answers of ecosystem services, impacts and hereafter). We handwrote responses referring to environ‑ threats questions have a non-normal and homoscedastic dis‑ mental changes. tribution according to the Shapiro–Wilk normality test (Sha‑ piro and Wilk 1965) and the Levene’s test for homogeneity Survey of variance (Levene 1961), respectively. To know if the dif‑ ference in average values of the different ecosystem services, In the second phase of the research, we conducted a survey impacts and threats across the two groups (e.g. local and to assess people’s perceptions of the ecosystem services pro‑ tourist) was statistically significant, we did a Kruskal–Wal‑ vided by the local CMH, as well as the impacts and threats lis rank sum test (Kruskal and Wallis 1952) establishing an affecting it (Online Resource 2). To select survey respond‑ alpha of 0.05. Subsequently, we used the Dunn test (Dunn ents, we used convenience sampling. Our sample included 1964) with p-values adjusted with the Holm method (Holm adults found in the three municipalities of the study area, 1979) as a post-hoc test to know which groups were statisti‑ regardless of their place of residence (i.e. including tourists). cally different between them. We performed all the analy‑ We approached 1227 people, from which 624 (51%) agreed ses with the software programme R-Studio v1.2.5033 © to respond to the survey (see Online Resource 1). 2009–2019 Rstudio, Inc. The survey collected information on respondent’s soci‑ odemographic status and perceptions of Cap de Creus CMH Limitations ecosystem services, impacts and threats (Online Resource 2; Online Resource 3). To form a list of CMH ecosystem We acknowledge that, as other research based on survey services, we used published literature to select the six more data, the results presented here might be potentially affected relevant and easy to identify ecosystem services provided by by several types of biases including omitted variable bias CMH (Liquete et al. 2013). In our survey, we asked respond‑ (e.g. informants’ identity or profession), complacency bias ents to rank the six listed ecosystem services from the most (e.g. when respondents answer what they think is socially (= 1) to the least (= 6) relevant. Respondents could put an correct rather than their own perception) or respondent’s “x” if they perceived that some ecosystem service(s) in our fatigue. A potential source of bias specific to this work is list were not relevant in the area. that, although we asked participants to provide responses in To examine perceptions of the main impacts on local relation to the Cap de Creus Natural Park, their responses CMHs, we selected the eight negative environmental might have been conditioned by experiences in other coastal changes most frequently reported in the semi-structured areas. Finally, our questionnaire might not have captured interviews (Online Resource 4). We asked respondents to sensitive information with the same precision than more rank the selected impacts from the most (= 1) to the least qualitative methods could do. For example, we asked (= 8) impactful. Respondents could also indicate that some respondents to rank elements in a predetermined list of eco‑ elements in the list did not affect local CMHs (= x). To system services, impacts and threats, which might not have examine perceptions of the main threats affecting CMHs, we fully captured the informants’ complex perceptions of all the used the same procedure, but asked respondents to speculate processes influencing the local CMH. how important would be the same eight selected impacts in 2050. Results Data analysis Semi‑structured interviews We calculated the mean and median value of each ecosystem service, impact and threat, considering the rank assigned The average age of semi-structured interview respondents by our pool of respondents. Given our scales, higher values was 51 years (± 12) and they had been running their busi‑ account for less beneficial, less impactful and less threaten‑ nesses for 31 years (± 14) on average. Fourteen (37%) inter‑ ing items than lower values. We then conducted three analy‑ viewees did not mention any environmental negative change, ses for each element in our list: we compared the mean and whilst the remaining interviewees reported 12 different types median values of (i) the full sample, (ii) tourists vs. locals of changes. We used the list of the most reported changes and (iii) tourists vs. locals but disaggregating the sample to select the eight impacts used in the survey (Online according to other sociodemographic characteristics of Resource 4). 13 Regional Environmental Change (2022) 22:73 Page 5 of 14 73 Table 1  Sociodemographic variables used for the statistical analysis. The question(s) we took from them are as follows: how we refer this vari‑ able in the article, what methods we used to group them and which categories we considered for the analysis Question at the survey Referred in the Grouped as/named as Grouping method Discarded for the statistical questionnaire (Online article as analysis Resource 2) Town/city of residence Local/tourist Local, tourist Locals are from: Roses, Cadaqués, El Port de la Selva, Cala Jòncols, Castelló d'Empuries, Empuriabrava, Llançà, Selva de Mar, and Vilajuïga. Tourists: the ones living more than 120 km away from the area. The respondents that lived closer than this distance but were not locals are not included in this study Town/city of residence Residence respect Coastal, near coast, Coastal = the town/city of residence Near coast locals due to low sea proximity inland limits with the sea. Near coast = it sample size takes less than 1 h to arrive to the closest coast by car (calculated with © Google Maps). Inland = it takes more than 1 h to arrive to the closest coast How often do you visit Frequency and Born locals, not born Born locals = Locals born in the study Not born locals and infrequent this area? AND What antiquity locals, frequent, area. Not born locals = Locals not locals due to low sample size was the decade of infrequent, first born on the study area but liv‑ your first visit? timers ing there for more than a decade. Frequent = Tourists that visit the study area since more than a decade, either frequently or once per year. Infrequent = Locals not born on the study area with less than a decade living there, or tourists that visit the study area since less than a decade (either frequently or once per year), or tourists that visit the study area infre‑ quently. First timers = Tourists that visit the study area for the first time To what extent do you Affinity/depend‑ Depend, joy, indiffer‑ We grouped the first two answers into Indifferent and avoid (locals think you depend on ance ent, avoid one category: Depend = “Strongly. and tourists) due to low the marine environ‑ I need it frequently” and “I need it sample size ment in your daily once in a while, I cannot spend too life, either for your much time without it.” Joy = “I enjoy work and/or income it, but I do not depend on it.” Indif‑ or for your leisure ferent = “Indifferent. It has nothing to activities? do with me.” Avoid = “I avoid it.” Age group Age group Young, middle, older Young = 18–29 years. Mid‑ dle = 30–49 years (30–39 and 40–49 grouped). Older =  > 50 years (50–59, 60–69, 70–79, 80–89, > 90 grouped) What is the highest Education level Low, medium, high Low = “No schooling completed,” level of education “Primary school” and “Middle that you have com‑ school” grouped. Medium = “High pleted? school” and “Professional degree/ technical school training” grouped. High = “University,” “Master, post- graduate” and “Doctorate/PhD” grouped Choose one of the Income Low, Mid, High Low =  < 14,000 €/year. No income (locals and tourists) following that best Mid = 14–35,000 €/year. due to low sample size indicate your average High =  > 35,000 €/year (35–56,000 yearly income. If you and > 56,000 €/year grouped) are retired think in your income when you were working 13 73 Page 6 of 14 Regional Environmental Change (2022) 22:73 Survey Finally, we noted that only a minority of respondents used the “x” option (17%) when ranking, and some misunder‑ Survey respondents were quite homogeneously distributed stood the use of “x” and used it like “N/A”; therefore, we did across the three study sites: Cadaqués (34.1%), El Port de not take into account these responses in the analysis. la Selva (33.8%) and Roses (32.1%). Most respondents had Spanish nationality (67.8%), followed by French (19.7%). Perceived ecosystem services The rest of the sample belonged to 28 other countries, each representing less than 2% of the sample. Local people repre‑ The question on the ecosystem services of the CMH was sented 34.3% of the sample and tourists 65.7%, which should answered by 98.1% of respondents. On average, respond‑ be taken into account when interpreting survey results ents ranked biodiversity protection and preservation (mean (Online Resource 3). 2.45) and climate regulation (2.81) as the most important Whilst almost all local respondents lived in coastal areas, ecosystem services provided by the local CMH. Conversely, only 31% of tourists did (Fig. 2a). Overall, our sample had aesthetic (4.25) and recreation (4.81) were ranked as the a balanced distribution regarding frequency and antiquity least important ecosystem services (Fig. 3a). visiting the area (Fig. 2b) and dependence on CMHs for The only significant difference between tourists and locals their living or well-being (Fig. 2c; Table 1). A higher per‑ regarding their ranking of CMH ecosystem services was that centage of locals (61%) than of tourists (40%) considered locals valued the food provision ecosystem service more than themselves dependent on CMHs (Fig. 2c). The distribution tourists did (p = 0.017; Fig. 3a). Other less important differ‑ of the sample is less balanced regarding age, education and ences between the two groups refer to biodiversity protection income level. The youngest age group (18–29 years) is the and aesthetic value. Thus, although the biodiversity protection most represented in our sample (30.5%), whilst the oldest ecosystem service was generally valued by all people in the age group (≥ 80 years) is the least represented (2%; Fig. 2d). sample, locals with a high education level value it more (2.32) The share of tourists in the group with highest education than tourists with a low education level (3.02). Additionally, level was higher than that of locals (Fig. 2e) and, whilst most whilst aesthetics was one of the lesser valued ecosystem ser‑ of our respondents (67%) earn less than 35,000 €/year, the vices provided by CMHs, tourists who came frequently to the share of tourists in high income categories was larger than study area ranked this ecosystem service higher (4.00) than the share of locals (Fig. 2f). locals born there (4.51, Table 2; Online Resource 5). (a) Residence respect sea proximity (b) Frequency and antiquity (c) Marine affinity/dependence (d) Age group (e) Education level (f) Income Fig. 2  Sample distribution across sociodemographic characteristics. Black boxes: total sample. Grey boxes: locals. Crossed boxes: tourists 13 Regional Environmental Change (2022) 22:73 Page 7 of 14 73 (a) (b) (c) (d) Fig. 3  Average rank values for a ecosystem services, b impacts and cal bars. Significant p-values from the Kruskal–Wallis rank sum test c threats. The difference between b and c is shown in d. Ecosystem within locals and tourists: (*) = p < 0.05, (**) = p < 0.01. Pro Bio: pro‑ services range from 1 to 6 and impacts and threats range from 1 tection and preservation of biodiversity. Cli Reg: climate regulation. to 8. A number closer to “1” in a, b and c means more beneficial/ Food: food provision, Coast Prot: coastal protection. Aesth: aesthetic impactful/threatening than higher values. In graph d, zero represents value. Rec&Tou: recreation and tourism. IP: inland pollution dis‑ no change; positive numbers are the ones with a lower average in charging in the sea, CC: climate change, PB: people’s irresponsible threats than impacts, whilst the negative values mean the opposite. behaviour, MT: mass tourism, CCM: coastal construction and modifi‑ Average = black circles (total sample), diamonds (locals) and squares cation, OF: overfishing, HDB: habitat degradation due to boat transit (tourists). Median = red crosses. Standard deviation is shown in verti‑ and anchoring, IMS: invasive marine species Perceived impacts and threats and less threatening (p = 0.028; Fig. 3c) to the local CMH than tourists do. However, this overall similarity between The questions on impacts and threats were answered by local and tourist perceptions of the impacts and threats to 96.3% and 84.1% of the respondents, respectively. We found the local CMH hides some subsample differences, mostly that 147 respondents (28%) provided the same responses to related to age and education level. Thus, when asked about the impacts and threat questions, which calls for caution in future threats, locals over 50 years of age ranked people’s the interpretation of these results. behaviour higher than tourists of the same age category and Overall, inland pollution discharging into the sea was the than the youngest respondents (Table 2; Online Resource highest ranked impact on the CMH (mean 3.38), followed by 5). Additionally, climate change was perceived as more climate change, (3.61) and people’s irresponsible behaviour impactful by respondents with low education levels, whilst towards nature (3.74; Fig. 3b). These three impacts were respondents with the highest education level perceive it as also considered as the greatest threats, although the order less impactful. This difference was significant for both local was different, with climate change receiving the highest rank and tourist education level subgroups. In addition, elder as a threat (2.39; Fig. 3c). Indeed, the average ranking of locals and locals with low education levels considered inva‑ climate change from impact to threat increased by 1.22 and sive marine species as more impactful than younger tourists its median by 2 points in our scale (Fig. 3d). On the other and tourists with medium and high education levels. side of the scale, invasive marine species had the lowest ranking as an impact (6.24; Fig. 3b), and also received the lowest rank as threat by 2050, although with a lower mean Discussion (5.88; Fig. 3c). Indeed, after climate change, invasive marine species was the element with the largest ranking increase Results from this work suggest that locals and tourists (+ 0.36; i.e. getting more threatening), whereas people’s irre‑ have similar perceptions regarding the ecosystem services, sponsible behaviour towards nature was the element with the impacts and threats of the Cap de Creus CMH, with three largest ranking decrease (− 0.52; Fig. 3d). exceptions (food provision ecosystem service, and mass Overall, tourists and locals share similar perceptions tourism impact and threat). In this discussion, we com‑ regarding the importance of current impacts and future ment on the overall ranking of CMH ecosystem services, threats on CMHs, with one significant exception: locals impacts and threats and discuss differences between locals perceive mass tourism as less impactful (p = 0.001; Fig. 3b) and tourists. 13 73 Page 8 of 14 Regional Environmental Change (2022) 22:73 Table 2  p-values from the Kruskal–Wallis rank sum test from cross‑ values are shown with asterisks: (*) p < 0.05, (**) p < 0.01. Signifi‑ ing the parameter “Local/Tourist” with the six sociodemographic cant values in bold are the ones that, after a post-hoc Dunn test, a sig‑ parameters that give title to the columns and with the dependent vari‑ nificant difference is found between at least one subgroup of locals ables (ecosystem services, impacts, threats). Significantly different and tourists (see Online Resource 5 for more detail) Local/tourist X Local/tourist X Local/tourist X Local/tourist X Local/ Local/tourist residence respect sea frequency and affinity/depend‑ education level tourist X X age group proximity antiquity ence income Ecosystem services Food provision 0.007** 0.186 0.111 0.027* 0.003** 0.000** Coastal protection 0.963 0.946 0.823 0.932 0.125 0.338 Climate regulation 0.045* 0.084 0.648 0.257 0.054 0.003** Protection and preservation 0.187 0.229 0.92 0.002** 0.023* 0.025* of biodiversity Aesthetic value 0.241 0.024* 0.321 0.082 0.468 0.9 Recreation and tourism 0.76 0.814 0.972 0.409 0.061 0.095 Impacts Climate change 0.556 0.813 0.325 0.000** 0.628 0.385 Overfishing 0.26 0.032* 0.328 0.409 0.334 0.072 Invasive marine species 0.279 0.748 0.772 0.000** 0.946 0.011* Habitat degradation due to 0.005** 0.302 0.998 0.562 0.247 0.737 boat transit and anchoring Inland pollution that ends 0.033* 0.234 0.25 0.248 0.766 0.495 up in the sea Coastal construction and 0.49 0.253 0.431 0.15 0.509 0.843 modification Mass tourism 0.005** 0.002** 0.001** 0.001** 0.004** 0.024* People’s irresponsible 0.833 0.55 0.245 0.482 0.335 0.368 behaviour/lack of respect towards nature Threats Climate change 0.211 0.574 0.1 0.834 0.366 0.965 Overfishing 0.359 0.639 0.835 0.618 0.509 0.214 Invasive marine species 0.208 0.1 0.963 0.143 0.114 0.02* Habitat degradation due to 0.011* 0.938 0.514 0.503 0.315 0.51 boat transit and anchoring Inland pollution that ends 0.023* 0.642 0.889 0.063 0.833 0.987 up in the sea Coastal construction and 0.386 0.319 0.064 0.712 0.263 0.808 modification Mass tourism 0.042* 0.258 0.004** 0.065 0.171 0.247 People’s irresponsibl 0.53 0.442 0.006** 0.282 0.708 0.004** behaviour/lack of respect towards nature Ecosystem services For example, regulating services were the most important services for pond fish farmers and other users in Lorraine, Results from our survey show that the most valued CMH France (Blayac et al. 2014), and cultural services were the ecosystem services perceived by our informants were bio‑ least prioritised services by local stakeholders of three diversity protection and preservation and climate regulation Pacific Chilean islands (Cárcamo et al. 2014). Our results (regulating services), whilst the least valued ecosystem ser‑ add to a growing body of literature suggesting that users vices were aesthetics and recreation and tourism (cultural of coastal marine areas value the regulatory services these services). These results are in line with results from previ‑ areas provide more than their provision and cultural services. ous studies in other coastal areas (Blayac et al. 2014; Ursi As seen in previous studies, our results also suggest and Towata 2018; Cárcamo et al. 2014; Blasiak et al. 2015). that valuations vary within the group of respondents. For 13 Regional Environmental Change (2022) 22:73 Page 9 of 14 73 example, Blayac et al. (2014) found that highly educated Marine pollution respondents prioritise the regulating over the provisioning ecosystem services. Our results about protection and pres‑ Using a combination of a literature review and expert opin‑ ervation of biodiversity, where respondents with a higher ions, Coll et al. (2010) ranks pollution as the third most education level valued this ecosystem service more than important impact on Mediterranean marine life. Marine respondents with a lower education level, are in line with pollution is generally associated with human concentra‑ these previous findings. However, we do not find the same tion on the adjacent coast (Kocasoy 1995, 1989). Although trend on the other two regulating services (climate regula‑ this is not the case in Cap de Creus, which displays a lower tion and coastal protection; Online Resource 5). population density than other areas of the region (Statistical An interesting element in CMH perception refers to the Institute of Catalonia 2020), respondents’ perceptions of the different valuation of the food provision service assigned by high impact of pollution on the local CMH find echoes in the locals and tourists, with locals’ valuing CMH food provision literature analysing pollution levels on Cap de Creus’ CMH. ecosystem services significantly more than tourists. This is Previous studies conducted in the area have documented sea particularly the case for older locals, who ranked the food pollution derived from macro-litter, microplastics and fish‑ provision service higher than middle-aged and young tour‑ ing gears (Garcia-Garin et al. 2020; Sardà et al. 2012; de ists. We explain this result within the context of the past rel‑ Haan et al. 2019; Purroy et al. 2014). For example, fish‑ evance of Cap de Creus fisheries, before the tourist boom of ing gears are reported to affect 70% of the Cap de Creus the 1960s, when fisheries were the main source of income MPA and were present in all the P. oceanica beds of the area and food provision in the area (Gómez and Riera Aragó (Purroy et al. 2014). 2007). Indeed, the local population continues to maintain The importance of pollution has been also reported in strong ties with fishing activities (including recreational surveys conducted elsewhere. For example, a survey in the fishing). A similar interpretation has been provided in other UK reported that litter was the main element of an unhealthy studies that have also found that elders valued significantly marine environment (reaching 60% of reports; Jefferson more the provisioning function than younger informants (e.g. et al. 2014). The authors of the previous study argued that Blayac et al. 2014), and that artisanal fishermen perceive the litter is easier to spot by non-experts than other drivers of food provision service as essential both economicaly and change, which is also the case in our study area (e.g. Garcia- socially (Queiroz et al. 2020; Hussain and Badola 2010). Garin et al. 2020; Purroy et al. 2014), which may explain Our survey also provided some previously unreported why pollution received the highest rank as a CMH impact. results. We found that tourists with a low education level ranked the biodiversity protection and preservation ecosys‑ Climate change tem service lower than locals with a high education level. This could be due to the fact that formal education empha‑ Climate change received the second highest rank as an sises the importance of species preservation for the well impact and the highest as a threat, a finding which is gener‑ functioning of a habitat, which gains even more importance ally in line with expert opinions. According to Coll et al. when related to the respondent’s home area. We also found (2010), experts expected climate change effects on marine that locals do not value the beauty of their surroundings taxa would grew by 10.8% in a decade. Similarly, our as much as visitors do, perhaps because they have always respondents expected that the threat would growth by 66.2% known the landscape and therefore it provides no novelty in 30 years. The tourists are indeed willing to to ameliorate effect for them. the CMH, being climate change one of the main concerns for the near future (Rodrigues et al. 2015). We suggest that Impacts and threats the overall perception of the importance of climate change as an impact and threat to the CMH reflects both personal The impacts receiving the highest ranking in our survey observations and mass media information. were, in order, inland pollution discharging on the sea, cli‑ Some people in the sample could have directly observed mate change and people’s behaviour towards nature. The climate change impacts through their direct interactions with impact receiving a lowest ranking was invasive marine spe‑ the local environment (e.g. scuba diving, fishing, snorkel‑ cies. A similar ranking was found amongst threats, although ling). For example, informants might have observed ther‑ climate change received the highest ranking as threat. When mophilic species increasing their landings on the MPA subtracting the averages of impacts minus threats of each (Lloret and Riera 2008; Gómez et al. 2006), or benthic spe‑ item, the values of climate change and invasive marine spe‑ cies increasingly dying (Hereu et al. 2018) due to increas‑ cies increased most, whereas people’s behaviour towards ing warm waters (Calvo et al. 2011). Indeed, during data nature decreased. Tourists and locals ranked impacts and collection, some informants reported that summer seasons threats similarly, with the exception of mass tourism. are now hotter and longer than they used to be and some 13 73 Page 10 of 14 Regional Environmental Change (2022) 22:73 respondents recalled an increase of weather extreme events, such reports (e.g. Piazzi et al. 2016; Zenetos and Galanidi especially storms. 2020). Second, it is also possible that local people have The effects of climate change, however, might be mani‑ noted invasive alien species presence, even if this has not fested slowly (decadal or multi-decadal scale) and gradu‑ been reported in the literature. In fact, this sometimes has ally and are expressed in multiple processes that can not been the case elsewhere, reinforcing the value of local always be detected through personal observations (Weber ecological knowledge in ecological monitoring (e.g. Coll 2016, 2010). Moreover, complex ongoing ecosystem trans‑ et al. 2014; Reyes-García et al. 2019, 2016; Aswani and formations and community shifts may not always result in Lauer 2014). Particularly, elders and locals working in dramatic changes, so they are perceived as part of the natu‑ direct contact with nature (e.g. fishermen) are in a suit‑ ral adaptation to current social and economic needs (Bearzi able position to detect changes in marine fauna, which 2009). This is why we argue that the high rank received indeed dovetails with our empirical result that older locals by climate change as an important CMH impact is also a and locals with low education levels rank invasive marine result of the fact that climate change and its impacts on the species as significantly more impactful than young and marine environment have been heavily reported by the media higher educated tourists (Online Resource 5). Another (Weber 2016, 2010). Indeed, previous work shows that mass issue that could be noticed by some locals is the use of media communication shapes perceptions of the importance non-native species as live bait, and the dumping of their of climate change (e.g. Graziano 2019; Tsfati and Cohen packing composed of live seaweed by recreational shore 2013; Bos et al. 2011; Loos 2003). anglers in the area, which might settle invasives in the One additional finding deserves attention. We found that marine habitat (Font and Lloret 2011). climate change received a higher ranking amongst inform‑ Finally, although invasive marine species does not ants with low levels of education compared with higher- rank high as a threat, its ranking did increase. Again, the schooled respondents (Online Resource 5). The finding finding is in line with the scientific literature suggest‑ is not knew, as previous work has shown that highly edu‑ ing that the accelerated Mediterranean Sea warming (i.e. cated people have a lower climate risk perception, typically Mediterranean tropicalization; Bianchi 2007) provides an because they are less involved in primary works and are advantange to the thermophilic invasive species over the less dependent on natural resources and natural fluctuations Mediterranean biota, helping them to expand and establish (like droughts or floods) for their livelihoods (O’Connor et al themselves (Zenetos and Galanidi 2020). Our survey, how‑ 1999; Bearzi 2020; García-del-Amo et al. 2021). The find‑ ever, did not allow us to test to what extent respondents ing, however, emphasises the importance of being connected were aware of this threat. to nature to understand how it changes. Invasive marine species People’s irresponsible behaviour/lack of respect towards nature The literature also provides support to the importance given by our respondents regarding the relatively low impact of Overall, survey respondents considered that people’s invasive marine species. Indeed, research shows that the behaviour towards nature would become less impactful northwestern Mediterranean region is the area with the in the future. The result shows an optimistic view of how highest native marine species biodiversity and lowest inci‑ humans relate to nature, arguably because of the effect of dence of marine alien species (Katsanevakis et al. 2014). sensibilization campaigns (e.g. Jacquet and Pauly 2007), The presence of marine invasive species at the MPA of Cap especially incident in natural parks (Petrosillo et al. 2007). de Creus is very recent (Rodríguez 2019), as the last reports Interestingly, older locals consider people’s irresponsible investigating the presence of invasive marine species did not behaviour as more threatening than other groups (Online find any (Hereu et al. 2018, 2016). Resource 5). Older locals might feel more rooted to their Interestingly, although the presence of alien species in traditions and the socio-cultural frame of their area, thus Cap de Creus is low and recent (Rodríguez 2019), 90% of feeling more threatened by the increasing tourism phe‑ people in our sample ranked them as having some impact. nomena in the area and the potential impact of tourist We do not have a clear explanation for this finding, but behaviour on the CMH. we can think of two potential reasons for this finding. First, it is possible that, as for climate change, people’s Mass tourism perception of invasive marine species is shaped by media communications. As the importance and effects of inva‑ Irrespective of other sociodemographic characteristics, sive marine species have recently received large media tourists consider mass tourism in Cap de Creus significally coverage, people’s responses might just be influenced by more impactful and threatening for the CMH than locals 13 Regional Environmental Change (2022) 22:73 Page 11 of 14 73 do. This finding is in line with findings from other studies CEX2019-000940-M), the CALMED project (CTM2016-79547-R) showing that tourists perceive themselves as more impactful and the Generalitat de Catalunya (MERS, 2017 SGR-1588). than locals (Priskin 2003; Petrosillo et al. 2007), and those locals perceive themselves as partly responsible for impacts Declarations to their surroundings (Liu et al. 1987). Other factors could Ethis approval and consent to participate The Ethics Committee on have affected the answers of locals regarding the impact of Animal and Human Experimentation of the Autonomous University tourism to the CMH: the economic ecosystem service of of Barcelona (CEEAH 4792) approved the research protocol. Before the tourism industry for the local inhabitants (Perdue et al. conducting the survey, we asked potential participants for their free, 1990), and/or the maintenance and improvement of recrea‑ prior and informed consent (FPIC). tional and public facilities to maintain a strong attractiveness Conlict of interest The authors declare no competing interests. for tourism in the area (Liu et al. 1987). Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attri‑ bution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adapta‑ tion, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long Conclusion as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are Overall, our study shows that conservation of CMHs is included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated highly valued both by local and tourist. People in our sample otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in acknowledge that the Cap de Creus CMH provides important the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not ecosystem services, with the regulating services of the CMH permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a being valued the most. Respondents also acknowledge that copy of this licence, visit http://​creat​iveco​mmons.​org/​licen​ses/​by/4.​0/. the CMH is impacted and threatened by different processes, mainly pollution and climate change. To a greater extent than locals, tourists in the sample consider mass tourism an important impact. The only impact perceived to improve References in the future is people’s respect towards nature. From these results, we conclude that more efforts toward conservation Aswani S, Lauer M (2014) Indigenous people’s detection of rapid ecological change. 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