Agronomy for Sustainable Development (2022) 42:91 https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-022-00806-3 RESEARCH ARTICLE Climate change in the Catalan Pyrenees intersects with socioeconomic factors to shape crop diversity and management Joana Blanch-Ramirez 1 & Laura Calvet-Mir 1,2 & Laura Aceituno-Mata 3 & Petra Benyei 1 Accepted: 26 June 2022 # The Author(s) 2022 Abstract Most studies on climate change’s impacts on agriculture focus on modeling techniques based on large-scale meteorological data, while few have investigated how farmer’s perception of climate change’s impacts can affect crop diversity and crop management practices, especially in industrialized contexts. To fill this gap, we conducted 24 semi-structured interviews in a study site located in the Catalan Pyrenees. Our results show for the first time in an industrialized context that farmers perceive multiple interrelated climate change impacts on local agroecosystems. For instance, snowfall and freeze events have decreased, which respondents associated with the increase of pests and diseases affecting both wild flora and cultivated plants. Similarly, changes in precip- itation patterns lead to a perceived decrease in useful rain for agriculture. Farmers are also reporting changes in their management practices, such as increased irrigation or use of pesticides, which respond to these climatic factors but also to changes in the crops that are cultivated. Crop diversity is in decline in the area both at the species and landrace levels, especially in rainfed fields. This is mainly driven by socioeconomic factors such as agricultural abandonment or access to commercial seeds, although climate change factors such as increased pests or decreased rainfall can have an impact. Despite the crop diversity losses found, many landraces have been maintained, mainly due to their cultural value, and also new crop species have been introduced, which are now viable due to the increase in temperature. Although we focused on a specific case study, we found several trends that are also present in other contexts. Therefore, the results of this research are relevant at a global scale since they show that climate change is affecting mountain agroecosystems in industrialized contexts and may affect more drastically both agrobiodiversity and crop management practices in agroecosystems worldwide. Keywords Adaptation . Agricultural industrialization . Agrobiodiversity . Home gardens . Landraces . Traditional ecological knowledge 1 Introduction millennia of favorable trait selection, aiming at producing larger, earlier ripening, culturally appropriate, or frost- Crop diversity, or the variance in genetic and phenotypic char- resistant crops (Goland and Bauer 2004). Breeding lines, wild acteristics of plants used in agriculture, is the result of progenitors, related species, and landraces (also called local varieties, traditional varieties, heirloom varieties, or farmer varieties) are part of this diversity (Negri 2005; Riu-Bosoms * Petra Benyei et al. 2014). Specifically, landraces have been defined as dy- petra.benyei@uab.cat namic populations of a cultivated plant with a historical origin, distinct identity, often genetically diverse and locally adapted, 1 Institut de Ciència i Tecnologia Ambientals, Universitat Autònoma and associated with traditional farming systems (Camacho de Barcelona, Building Z Campus UAB, 08193 Barcelona, Bellaterra Villa et al. 2005). Indeed, landraces have been evolving in (Cerdanyola), Spain association with traditional knowledge and local culture over 2 Internet Interdisciplinary Institute (IN3), Universitat Oberta de time, continuously changing as the environmental and socio- Catalunya, Av. Carl Friedrich Gauss, 5. Parc Mediterrani de la Tecnologia, Castelldefels, 08860 Barcelona, Spain economic conditions changed (Negri 2005). 3 Generally speaking, crop diversity contributes to the resilience Instituto Madrileño de Investigación y Desarrollo Rural, Agrario y Alimentario (IMIDRA), Finca El Encin, Autovía del Noreste A-2 of farming systems, while crop homogeneity makes farming Km 38,2., 28805 Alcalá de Henares, Spain systems more vulnerable to ecological, political, and economic 91 Page 2 of 14 <. Blanch-Ramirez et al. disturbances (Wolff 2004; Rotz and Fraser 2015). Indeed, some by farmers themselves are not that abundant. Indeed, some studies have pointed out that agrobiodiversity can be a robust authors have highlighted the relatively untapped potential of way towards sustainable development (Altieri and Nicholls looking into how the local perception that farmers have about 2017) and crop diversity has a prospective important role to play climate change impacts on agroecosystems can shape crop in crop adaptation to climate change (de Carvalho et al. 2016). diversity and management choices (Soubry et al. 2020; For example, landraces could be crucial to maintain healthy Labeyrie et al. 2021). This data source remains largely unex- agroecosystems since crop genetic uniformity is directly associ- plored in industrialized contexts such as the European one. ated with pest invasions and outbreaks (Altieri et al. 2015). To fill this gap, we conducted fieldwork (interviews and Moreover, landraces can improve soil quality, increase carbon participant observation) in a study site in the Catalan sequestration in the soil, reduce the need for agrochemicals, and Pyrenees. The site was selected because of its relative isolation promote the recovery of associated wild biodiversity (Carranza- (leading to better-preserved traditional knowledge systems) Gallego et al. 2018). This is why several policy agreements, such and the fact that farmer communities there have had long- as the Convention of Biological Diversity (CBD), the Agenda term interactions with the environment. Our main objectives 21, and the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for were (1) assess the perceived climate change impacts in the Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA), have emphasized the need to study area, (2) explore how farmers have changed their crop promote crop genetic diversity conservation in the form of land- management practices to adapt to those impacts, (3) document race conservation programs as a component of sustainable agri- changes in crop species and landraces, and (4) identify the culture (Veteläinen et al. 2009). climatic and socioeconomic factors driving those crop chang- And yet, paradoxically, there are several reports of global es. To narrow down the scope of the study, we focused on the landrace abandonment trends (Negri 2005; Martin et al. 2019; home garden agroecosystem when asking about changes in McLean-Rodríguez et al. 2019). Historically, humans have crop management and landraces (see Fig. 1). used more than 7000 plant species for food and agriculture, but only 150 species are under extensive cultivation nowadays (Thrupp 2000; Gepts 2006), and only about 100 species are used in 90% of the world’s food cropping systems (FAO 2 Materials and methods 1997). Indeed, according to FAO (FAO 1999, 2004), about 75% of the genetic diversity found in agricultural cropping For this research, we adapted the LICCI data collection pro- systems has been lost over the last century. tocols (see Labeyrie et al. 2020; Reyes-García et al. 2020 for In order to revert this genetic erosion, it is important to more details) that are specifically constructed to explore the understand crop diversity trends through time and the global local indicators of climate change impacts perceived by local and regional socioeconomic and climatic events that drive communities and the crop diversity trends based on local those trends. Even if the causes of agrobiodiversity loss are knowledge (see Supplementary materials for more details on multiple and interrelated, those most reported by the existing our adaptation of the original methods). This study is part of a literature refer to socioeconomic and historical factors. These larger project on local indicators of climate change impacts on include agricultural industrialization and commoditization, ru- crop diversity that is taking place in five mountain ral de-population, low prices of agricultural products, and agroecosystems of the Iberian Peninsula (Cabrales, Alpujarra technological changes that have led to the spread of monocul- Alta, Muntanyes de Prades, Vall d’Àssua, and Vall de tures where subsidized, low-labor demanding crops and mod- Cardós). Qualitative data was collected using semi- ern hybrid varieties predominate (Naredo 2004; Wolff 2004; structured interviews and participant observation in Vall de Negri 2005; Cebolla-Cornejo et al. 2007; Aceituno-Mata 2010; Calvet-Mir et al. 2011; Riu-Bosoms et al. 2014; Sardaro et al. 2016). However, there is also abundant literature about climate change impacts on agroecosystems. This in- cludes reports on how climate change will affect crop produc- tivity due to the increased climate variability, and the changes in seasonal, precipitation, and temperature patters that will affect crop growth and crop pests and diseases (Dangi et al. 2018; Aguirre-Liguori et al. 2019; Birhanu Abegaz and Hailu Tessema 2021). Still, there is a predominant focus on using modeling techniques based on data from experimental plots, temperature and precipitations records, or remote sensing (Mann and Gleick 2015), and studies looking specifically at Fig. 1 A farmer from the study site explains the different crops he grows. the impacts of climate change on crop diversity as perceived Credit: Joana Blanch. Climate change in the Catalan Pyrenees intersects with socioeconomic factors to shape crop diversity and... Page 3 of 14 91 Cardós, northern Catalonia, between July and August 2020. Normally, the rainiest season of the year in the Pyrenees is This project had received the ethical approval of the Ethics summer; however, Vall de Cardós is the great exception of the Committee of UAB (CEEAH 4781 and CEEAH 5108). Pyrenean territory. In this valley, the wettest season is spring, followed by autumn (de Gràcia 2016). The annual precipita- tion has an altitudinal gradient, and it varies from 700 to 1100 2.1 Study site mm. Also, snow is a frequent phenomenon during the winter. The climatic staggering, together with the complicated Vall de Cardós is a glacial Pyrenean valley situated in the orography, determines the type of vegetation and consequent- north of Pallars Sobirà county (Fig. 2). It includes the munic- ly the human activity. Four vegetation layers can be differen- ipalities of Esterri de Cardós, Lladorre, and Vall de Cardós tiated: snow line, alpine, subalpine, and montane zone. The with a total area of 220 km2 (Idescat 2019). The total popula- snow line zone is located around 3000 masl, and it has a rocky tion is 664 inhabitants, and the valley has had a demographic appearance due to frosts. The alpine zone is situated between evolution similar to others Pyrenean valleys, where population 2300 and 3000 masl, and it is the realm of pasture, with some declined considerably during the second half of the twentieth mountain pine (Pinus uncinata). The subalpine zone is be- century, although during the last decades there has been a tween 1600 and 2300 masl and is dominated by coniferous certain recovery due to tourism. Part of the study site is in- forests, mostly mountain pine and firs (Abies sp.). It is the cluded in the Natural Park of High Pyrenees, and the river most sensitive habitat to human action as it has been inten- Noguera de Cardós is the backbone of the area. The altitude sively exploited to supply coal and wood. The montane zone in the region varies from 898 masl at the bottom of the valley occupies the bottoms of the valleys, and it is composed of to nearly 3000 masl at the peaks of the mountains. The orog- deciduous forests and riparian trees that follow the river’s raphy factor determines the climate of Vall de Cardós: sum- courses such as oak, ash, birch, poplar, alder, or willow. mers are cool, and winters are long and cold. There is a sig- Human presence has altered these ecosystems converting nificant climatic contrast between the different seasons of the them into mowed meadows to feed livestock. However, the year, and the average annual temperature is 10°C (Sudrià i gradual abandonment of traditional livestock has recently trig- Andreu 2003). gered the expansion of forest cover (Sudrià i Andreu 2003). Fig. 2 Regional map of Cardós Valley. Source: Google My Maps. 91 Page 4 of 14 <. Blanch-Ramirez et al. The isolation of this valley until relatively modern times This script was based on the data collection protocols of the (the road was first opened in the 1930s and completed in the LICCI project and included questions such as “Have you per- 1950s) contributed to maintaining an agrarian economy based ceived any change in the local environment (e.g., rain, soil, on self-sufficiency (Mateu i Llevadot 1983). In the mid- water, plants animals)? And in the cropping systems in the nineteenth century, wheat, rye, barley, potato, some fruit trees, area? If so, what is driving this change? And have you done and grass were grown. Cattle of different kinds were raised, anything to adapt to those changes?”. but especially cattle and mules for fieldwork. Other common To analyze changes on a temporal scale, the interview activities were partridge hunting and trout and eel fishing. questions included a relationship to the past, referring to when Recently, the increase in tourism has been replacing the tradi- the interviewee was young and to specific historical events tional primary sector of the Vall de Cardós. However, tourism that were known (e.g., when the road was built). In cases activities are concentrated only in summer, especially in where the interviewee was clear about the time of the obser- August, and the benefit they bring to the valley’s population vation, he or she was asked specifically about the year in are scarce (Sudrià i Andreu 2003). which the change occurred. Moreover, a catalogue of land- races (Arribas Quintana et al. 2011) was shown to the respon- 2.2 Data collection dents to contrast their information and to identify possible synonyms or homonyms of landraces in cases where the iden- Our research was conducted in seven villages selected from a tification of landraces was unclear. This catalogue was pro- total of 17 villages geographically located in the Vall de duced by the County Council in 2011 and is based on a set of Cardós that had similar altitude and environmental conditions. descriptive sheets of 23 landraces of the Pallars Sobirà region, The selection of the villages was carried out to have a repre- accompanied by photographs. sentation of the three municipalities of the valley and of the environmental and socio-cultural conditions of the site. 2.3 Data processing and analysis Villages without home gardens or permanent residents were excluded. After fieldwork was conducted, notes from the interviews and Data was collected via 24 in-depth semi-structured inter- audio recordings were revised, and a series of tables were views (SSI), participant observation (the first author lived in completed with the aggregated information from all the inter- the valley during the research period), and a field diary to views. Four tables were created and obtained regarding cli- understand the context of the site, the perceived local indica- mate change impacts, crop management practices, and crop tors of climate change impacts (LICCI), the changes in crops, diversity changes at both species and landrace levels. These landraces, and management practices over time and the tables were later analyzed using descriptive statistics to obtain drivers and consequences of these changes. the number of mentions and the relative percentage of those Interviewees were selected based on purposeful and snow- mentions. ball sampling, targeting elder farmers (60+ years old) with The observations of climate change impacts were catego- long-term experience and close relationships with (a) the local rized and clustered according to the classification of the LICCI environment in general and/or (b) the home garden protocol (Reyes-García et al. 2020). This classification is agroecosystem. Specifically, 22 home gardeners (17 women based on four systems (climatic, physical, biological, and so- and 5 men) were interviewed (managing a home garden for at cioeconomic system), which in turn include different subsys- least 25 years), and two elders that, despite not having a home tems (e.g., temperature, precipitation, air masses, and seasons garden, had sufficient long-term knowledge about the local for the climatic subsystem) that break down into different environment to be able to perceive climate change impacts impacted elements (e.g., mean temperature, temperature ex- and general changes in cropping systems. The sample’s gen- tremes, seasonal temperature, and sunshine for the tempera- der balance is biased towards women because, in this area, ture subsystem). For each impacted element, there are several women have historically been in charge of home gardens defined and specified LICCI categories that have been used to and seed management. classify and quantify the observations and mentions. Interviews (that lasted about one hour each) were digitally Concerning crop diversity changes, the information given audio-recorded after obtaining agreement from participants by the interviewees was clustered to obtain lists of crop spe- (free prior informed consent forms and oral permissions). cies and landraces that were cultivated in the past and their Interviews were conducted directly in the home gardens or current permanence or abandonment, as well as of crop spe- at the interviewee’s houses but always following the LICCI cies and landraces that have been introduced and were not project safety and security measures adapted to the COVID- grown in the past. The identification of landraces was done 19 pandemic. The interviews were performed following a following the nomenclature used in the Spanish Inventory of script with different sets of questions, and they were conduct- Traditional Agrobiodiversity Knowledge (Tardío et al. 2018). ed in Catalan (see Supplementary materials for more detail). To solve problems of identification, we consulted the book Climate change in the Catalan Pyrenees intersects with socioeconomic factors to shape crop diversity and... Page 5 of 14 91 “30 varietats tradicionals de l’Alt Pirineu” (Col·lectiu particular season (in spring and summer). Moreover, six re- Eixarcolant 2020) published in December 2020, and we also spondents said that now the rain is more variable or harder to contrasted our information with Marc Talavera, one of the predict. Nine interviewees also mentioned that this has a neg- book authors. ative consequence for the yield of crop fields and home gar- In addition, the audio recordings were revised to identify dens. An elder farmer from Lladorre stated, “It may fall the the climatic and socioeconomic factors driving changes in same amount of water as before, but nowadays there are crop species and landraces. With this information, we created strong storms, and the water is not as useful as in the past. a mental map with Miro software that synthesizes the infor- Before, rainfalls were more regular and predictable; the rain mation about the interconnected links between the reported was light so that the water could soak into the soil”. Reports of changes and the driving socioeconomic and climatic factors. temperature changes (13 respondents) were also abundant and Finally, we calculated the number of mentions for each were mostly related to mean temperature increase (eight re- change and the number of respondents who have observed spondents) and an increase in temperature extremes (four the same change. Percentages were calculated from the total respondents). number of mentions (108) and the total number of respondents Another much-mentioned observation was the change in (24). the transition between seasons. Eight interviewees observed After data processing and analysis, we conducted five that in the past, seasons were more defined and transitioned follow-up interviews with people from the same sample to more gradually than now. clarify questions and resolve contradictory information. Regarding the terrestrial wild fauna subsystem, two respon- dents stated that now the mortality of insects has increased, and one interviewee mentioned that bees before were more 3 Results abundant. Respondents associated this imbalance in insect populations (decrease of beneficial insects such as bees and 3.1 Perceived local indicators of climate change increase of pests) with changes in the terrestrial wild flora impacts on Vall de Cardós’ agroecosystems subsystem. Specifically, respondents stated that trees abun- dance and productivity have decreased, while mortality has All of the interviewees indicated at least one perceived change increased. The decrease in the abundance of insects may be in the climatic, physical, biological, or socioeconomic systems also due to an increase in the use of insecticides according to over time that were directly or indirectly impacting the local home gardeners. agroecosystems, primarily the home gardens (see Table 1). Despite this general trend of decrease in the abundance of Applying the LICCI classification system to our observations insects, there is a perceived increase in pests affecting both resulted in 32 local indicators of climate change impacts cat- wild trees and cultivated plants. Local perceptions associate egorized in seven subsystems and four systems (Table 1). this trend with climate change, as a home gardener from Most observations were reporting impacts in the climatic Cassibrós stated “Now there are more pests than before be- system (50% of the total mentions), although respondents also cause in winter is not as cold and it snows less; therefore pests reported changes in the physical, biological, and socioeco- can survive easier”. Indeed, the most mentioned impact in the nomic systems (see Table 1 for details). In fact, most men- socioeconomic system, specifically to the agriculture subsys- tioned changes were related to changes in the cryosphere tem, is the increase in crop diseases and pests, mentioned by (23.1%), precipitation (21.3%), temperature (21.3%), and ag- 13 respondents. Home gardeners reported two major drivers riculture subsystems (18.5%). of this increase. On the one hand, as snowfall and freeze The most affected subsystem was the cryosphere (ice and events have decreased and temperatures have risen, pest pop- snow), and the most mentioned change pointed to the decrease ulations have grown faster. Crop diseases follow a similar in the amount of snowfall (15 respondents). Changes in the pattern particularly in the case of pathogens like fungi. frequency of freeze events and the duration and temporal dis- Therefore, the spread of crop diseases and pests is linked in- tribution of snow cover were also reported. An elder home directly with climate changes. On the other hand, interviewees gardener from Lladrós town stated, “It used to snow much also believe that this increase in pests and diseases is due to the more than it does now. Grandparents celebrated the snow in decrease of beneficial insects for pest control such as lady- November and December because it meant that in summer the bugs. For example, a respondent from Ribera de Cardós stat- water from the springs would come down. Now it snows less ed, “There used to be more ladybugs, bees, earthworms… and there is less water in general”. These animals are good for home gardens since they prevent More than half of the respondents mentioned changes re- certain pests such as aphids”. Moreover, two respondents also lated to rainfall. The most reported change in this subsystem mentioned that now there are many birds in the home gardens was the fact that it used to rain more than now (12 respon- and fruit trees. The respondents’ explanation is based on the dents), both at the average general rainfall level and in a fact that there are no grain fields now where the birds could 91 Page 6 of 14 <. Blanch-Ramirez et al. Table 1 Local indicators of climate change impacts (LICCI). Frequency is proportional to the number of mentions. Subsystem Observation Mentions Climate Precipitation Nowadays it rains less than in the past (mean rainfall) 7 Nowadays rains are heavier than in the past (changes in the intensity of rainfall) 1 Rain is now more variable (changes in variability of rainfall) 4 Now it is harder to predict when it is going to rain (changes in the predictability) 2 Now there is more drought than before (frequency of drought events) 3 Before it rained more often (temporal distribution) 1 Now there is less rain in summer (changes in the amount of rainfall in a given season) 3 Now there is less rain in spring (changes in the amount of rainfall in a given season) 2 Total 23 (21.3%) Temperature Nowadays it is warmer than in the past (increase of the mean temperature) 8 Increase in the frequency of cold waves 1 Now the temperature is more variable than before 1 Now the frequency of days with extreme temperatures have increased 3 Now summers are warmer (changes in the mean temperature in a given season) 4 Now it is less cold in winter (changes in the mean temperature in a given season) 5 Now there are more unusual temperatures in a given season (frequency) 1 Total 23 (21.3%) Seasons Before seasons were more defined (changes in the transition between seasons) 8 (7.4%) Cryosphere (ice and snow) Nowadays it snows less than in the past (changes in the amount of snowfall) 15 Now it does not freeze as much as before (frequency of freeze events) 3 Before the snows started earlier (changes in the calendar/temporal distribution of snowfall) 3 Now the formation of snow cover has changed (temporary snow cover) 2 Before, the snow cover used to last longer (duration) 1 Now there are more late frosts (frequency of freeze events) 1 Total 25 (23.1%) Biological Terrestrial wild fauna Now, there are many insects that die (mortality) 2 Before, there were more bees (abundance) 1 Total 3 (2.8%) Terrestrial wild flora There are fewer nuts now than before (productivity) 3 Now the trees get more pests than before (occurrence of diseases/pests in wild flora) 2 There used to be more walnut trees (abundance) 1 Total 6 (5.6%) Socioeconomic Agriculture (cultivated plant spp.) Now there are more crop diseases and pests 13 Now there is the potato beetle (crop pests) 2 Now, some vegetables bloom later (changes in flowering time) 1 Now there are more spider mites that damage the home gardens (crop pests) 2 Now there are many birds in the orchards and fruit trees (crop pests) 2 Total 20 (18.5%) supply their feeding needs and therefore birds search now for 3.2 Adaptations to climate change impacts through additional food in home gardens. Finally, another perceived home garden management changes change in the agriculture subsystem includes changes in crop flowering time, which respondents relate to changes in precip- There has been a notorious change in cropping systems and itation and temperature patterns. management practices in the valley. The landscape has Climate change in the Catalan Pyrenees intersects with socioeconomic factors to shape crop diversity and... Page 7 of 14 91 changed drastically as a result of crop abandonment and de- in pests, some farmers try to use them less because of envi- population as well as due to socioeconomic transformation. In ronmental concerns. the early 1960s, the change of self-subsistence economy to a Another adaptation related to climate change is the change market economy began resulting in a rural exodus from the in sowing and planting periods. Six respondents reported that valley and a consequently gradual increase of the forest mass. nowadays they cannot sow and plant as early as before be- In parallel with this, respondents mentioned seven changes cause now there are more late frosts that can damage their in management practices in home gardens directly or indirect- home gardens. For instance, an interviewee said, “We used ly related to climate change (see Table 2 for more detail). A to plant in early April and harvest earlier, now in April it can total of 20 interviewees reported a change in management still freeze so it’s not worth planting until May 15th”. practices, and half of them mentioned that nowadays, home Therefore, this change in management practices is related to gardens need to be irrigated more than in the past. According changes in the cryosphere and seasons’ subsystems (see to the interviewees, this adaptation responds to the lower pre- Table 1). Moreover, eight farmers reported that before, they cipitation and the higher variability of rainfall patterns (see used to plant potatoes, peas, beans, and cereals using a rainfed Table 1). For example, an elder from Benante town said system, but that today, it would not be possible due to the “Before it rained more than now, no more than eight days decrease in rainfall. As an elder from Lladorre stated, went by without raining; so now home gardens need to be “Before, potatoes, beans, peas, and chickpeas were grown in more irrigated”. the fields without irrigation; now it could not be done because Eleven respondents have stated that they now need to use it used to rain more regularly and now the weather is drier”. more pesticides than before, and this is related to the reported increase in pests (see Table 1). Indirectly, this adaptation is linked with the snowfall change perceived by the respondents 3.3 Changes and drivers of crop species and landraces as often the driver of this pests’ increase was mentioned to be diversity over time the decrease in snow during winter. However, five respon- dents stated that about 40 years ago they used more pesticides Respondents reported several changes in crop species diversi- than today. In the 1970s and 1980s, new pests appeared, and ty (see Table S3 in Supplementary materials and Fig. 3 below people started using pesticides. At present, pests have in- for details on the drivers of diversity). As mentioned before, creased, but also the awareness about the impacts of pesticide the traditional economy of self-sufficiency and the isolation of overuse. Indeed, three interviewees said that today farmers are Vall de Cardós implied the need to grow cereals and other more aware of the negative impact of pesticides and they try crops both for human consumption and for livestock. In the not to use them as often as before. A home gardener from past, wheat, hemp, chickpea, oat, sunflower, lentil, barley, Ribera de Cardós stated, “People used pesticides a lot, now maize, thistle, white beet, and rye were grown in rainfed there is more awareness about health and the environment, so fields. Nowadays, no one cultivates these crop species in the people try not to use so many chemicals as before”. Thus, fields for different reasons. Therefore, eleven crop species although pesticides are more needed now due to the increase have been abandoned. Table 2 Changes in management practices (i.e., adaptations) related Adaptation Mentions Climatic LICCI associated to climate change and the local relation subsystem indicators of climate change impacts (LICCI) associated “Nowadays we water or we need to water the home 10 Yes Precipitation and subsystem with the number of gardens more than before” temperature respondents who mentioned each “Now we use fewer pesticides than 30–40 years ago” 5 Indirectly Diseases and pests adaptation. (agriculture and wild fauna) “Now we need to use more pesticides than in 50 years 11 Indirectly Diseases and pests ago since there were fewer pests in the past” (agriculture and wild fauna) “Now we sow or plant later than before” 6 Yes Ice and snow and seasons “Before potatoes, peas, beans, and cereals were grown in 8 Yes Precipitation and rainfed land and now it would not be possible” temperature “Today, there is a longer harvesting period in summer 2 Yes Precipitation and crops” temperature “New summer crop species are viable due to warmer and 3 Yes Precipitation and longer summers” temperature 91 Page 8 of 14 <. Blanch-Ramirez et al. Fig. 3 Mental map of changes and drivers of crop diversity in Vall de Cardós. Cereals (wheat, oat, barley, and maize), which in the past used for pigs’ consumption, but pig farming has been totally occupied large extensions of the valley, are no longer cultivat- abandoned. ed because nowadays, it is more profitable to buy the grain As explained so far, the abandonment of crop species is than to grow it. This is ultimately due to both the easier ac- mostly due to socioeconomic changes. However, respondents cessibility to the market and to the complicated orography, also mentioned a potential climatic driver, the decreased rain- which makes the mechanization of agriculture in this valley fall, and the shift from rainfed cropping systems (fava bean, difficult. Similarly, farmers used hemp for spinning fabrics pea, and potato) to irrigated home gardens. As mentioned and gave it to chickens and chicks. However, farmers no lon- before, eight farmers stated that now it would be impossible ger conduct these practices. to grow these crop species without irrigating them, and thus, Moreover, some crop species such as sunflower, thistle, decreased rainfall might be a potential underlying factor en- white beet, and potato have been abandoned because their couraging their abandonment. use was related to specific livestock that has been lost. For In contrast with this crop species loss, there are seven veg- example, sunflowers were given as fodder to dairy cows, etables and fruits that have been introduced, specifically in the which was a traditional agrarian activity in this valley that home gardens: eggplant, cucumber, melon, flat peach, red was intensified from 1932 onwards, when the first dairy co- beet, watermelon, and pepper. These species have been intro- operative was created. Nowadays, milk production is not prof- duced due to dietary changes and access to commercial seeds itable in the valley because feed for cows, transportation, and and seedlings. Apart from these socioeconomic drivers, three labor costs have increased. Therefore, most cows are beef respondents stated that the reason for the introduction of these cattle today, thus, no protein-rich fodder crops are required species is also climatic changes that allow farmers to plant since cows are left in the pasture lands. In line with this, thistle some species that would not have grown in the past (see Fig. was used as rennet for cheese production, but now, it is no 2). One of them said, “Now I have a flat peach tree that before longer produced in the valley. In addition, white beets were would not have grown because now it is warmer”. The longer Climate change in the Catalan Pyrenees intersects with socioeconomic factors to shape crop diversity and... Page 9 of 14 91 summer season allows the cultivation of cold-sensitive species disappearing due to pests”. Since there are not as many inhab- that require warmer summers. itants as in the past, certain crop species and trees are not cared As per the landrace diversity, a list of 59 landraces culti- for, and these landraces are gradually being lost. A home vated by more than one generation has been obtained from the gardener from Ribera de Cardós stated that “Nowadays, as fieldwork (see Table S4 in Supplementary materials) along fewer people are living in the area, fava beans are sowed less with the changes associated with the use of these landraces, and are being lost”. the drivers of those changes, and the influence of climate Despite this loss of crop diversity, there is still an important change impacts. maintenance of landraces in home gardens (see Table S4 in Respondents mentioned eight landraces that are no longer Supplementary materials). This maintenance is due to organ- grown and have therefore been lost. Moreover, many of the oleptic properties since home gardeners have a preference for landraces still present in the home gardens are declining as the certain tastes and smells associated with landraces that com- number of farmers who grow them is much lower than in the mercial varieties lack. Another important reason for this main- past. In fact, 25 landraces (41% of the total) have suffered a tenance is the adaptation of landraces to the local climate, decrease in their use in home gardens of Vall de Cardós, specifically to cold and snow. For example, bleda de sempre leading to a loss of crop diversity. However, almost half of (chard landrace), col de tocino (cabbage landrace), or enciam the landraces mentioned (45.9%) do not present any change or negre (lettuce landrace) are landraces that respondents value have increased their presence in home gardens. because they are kept throughout the winter, they are cold and The loss of landraces is due to several reasons. First, now snow resistant, and so they do not freeze during the winter. people buy commercial seeds because it involves less labor However, due to warmer conditions, some landraces are not as work while in the past home gardeners sowed all the seeds valued as before since now they have a shorter harvest period, themselves. For instance, an interviewee from Lladrós stated such as enciam negre (lettuce landrace), which spikes more “Before, everything was seeded at home and now people buy rapidly than other commercial varieties. seeds and plants because it is easier”. Therefore, one important Other reasons are the cultural and traditional appreciation driver of landraces’ changes is greater market accessibility. of certain landraces and the maintenance of dishes and culi- Moreover, some landraces have fallen into disuse because nary preparations that involve these landraces. Also, the di- their seeds are not for sale, so people cannot access them versity of landraces allows some crop species to be present unless they have someone that gives them seeds or they save throughout the year; this is the case with cabbage. Home gar- their own seeds from one season to the next one. This is the deners have different landraces of cabbage that are harvested case of tomàquet del país (tomato landrace). Other reasons are in different seasons, and in doing so, they can eat cabbage all problems of transportation (as in the case of préssec blanc year round. Similarly, some landraces are valued for their long peach tree landrace), or processing difficulties (as in the patata conservation, such as ceba valenciana (onion landrace), del bufet potato landrace, which is difficult to peel). pomera de Cardós (apple tree landrace), and pomera morro The loss of landraces is due to several reasons. First, now de llebre (apple tree landrace). people buy commercial seeds because it involves less labor The last reason that respondents mentioned related to the work while in the past home gardeners sowed all the seeds importance of maintaining landraces is the fact that traditional themselves. For instance, an interviewee from Lladrós stated seeds sometimes give more productive crops than commer- “Before, everything was seeded at home and now people buy cially grown and bought plants. This depends on the type of seeds and plants because it is easier”. Therefore, one important crop species and landrace. For example, two farmers driver of landraces’ changes is greater market accessibility. complained that when they buy a potato plant, it is not as Moreover, some landraces have fallen into disuse because productive as when they plant their own landrace. Others also their seeds are not for sale, so people cannot access them mentioned that when they buy a plant, it already has pests or unless they have someone that gives them seeds or they save diseases (such as the potato beetle), so they prefer to sow their own seeds from one season to the next one. This is the themselves the landraces and avoid buying the commercial case of tomàquet del país (tomato landrace). Other reasons are variety. problems of transportation (as in the case of préssec blanc peach tree landrace), or processing difficulties (as in the patata del bufet potato landrace, which is difficult to peel). 4 Discussion Second, and related to the first point, some landraces are very pest sensitive, and therefore, they are not effectively In this section, we discuss our results focusing on (1) the adapted to the new climatic context with pests increase. As perceived impact of climate changes on home gardens and an example, a woman from Lladorre said that “Here, there changes in management practices to adapt to those impacts, used to be a giant perera de Cardós (pear tree) that always (2) the changes in crop species and landraces, and (3) the produced a lot of pears, but now this type of pear tree is climatic and socioeconomic factors driving those changes. 91 Page 10 of 14 <. Blanch-Ramirez et al. Before all else, we account for a set of caveats to interpret the about climate change perceptions in regions with similar cli- results correctly. matic conditions (Roco et al. 2015). These impacts affect the whole agroecosystem of Vall de Cardós and specifically the 4.1 Caveats home gardens. Respondents mentioned that changes in the climatic system (precipitation, temperature, and seasons sub- First, the list of landraces stems from respondents’ individual systems) affect the feasibility of rainfed crops and the irriga- reports, without the possibility of conducting focus group dis- tion of home gardens due to the decrease of useful rainfall. cussions to get a cultural consensus agreement about landraces Changes in the climatic system also affect the productivity of due to the COVID-19 sanitary situation. Therefore, there may nut trees, the frequency and types of crop pests and diseases, be a repetition of the same landrace since it could be named and the sowing and planting time. These climate change im- differently in different towns or households. Similarly, two pacts are also well documented in the literature on climate different landraces may have the same name, but different change trends, specifically in Spain where they are expected genotypes. To solve this limitation, we used a previously pub- to lead to an increased demand for irrigation, an increase in lished catalogue of landraces of the area and conducted addi- crop plagues, and a strong decrease in crop production are tional interviews to solve incongruences as stated in the expected (Moreno et al. 2005; Vargas-Amelin and Pindado methods section. 2014). Moreover, changes in snow accumulation and snowfall Second, although the classification of the local indicators have been detected previously in the Pyrenees (López- of climate change impacts has been carried out according to Moreno 2005). the LICCI protocol (Reyes-García et al. 2020), there is neces- The vulnerability of systems to climate change depends on sarily a simplification of the observations perceived by the the actual exposure to climate change, their sensitivity, and their respondents in the act of classifying and clustering that may adaptive capacity (IPCC 2001). Thus, climate change adapta- lead to a loss of part of the complexity of such perceptions. In tion is not only limited by exogenous forces in terms of physical a case study analyzing qualitative data, there is an inevitable and ecological limits, but by societal factors. Indeed, perceived reinterpretation of observations and a difficulty to establish impacts of climate change in a local community could be an cause-effect connections to reach conclusions (Queirós et al. early indicator of potential adaptation measures to those chang- 2017). For instance, interviewees might see an increase in es (Adger et al. 2009; Abid et al. 2015). birds as an increase in pests, and thus, this will be classified Changes in crop management (understood as a form of ad- in the agricultural subsystem, even though bird increases aptation) can largely reduce the potential impacts of climate could also be an impact in the terrestrial fauna subsystem. change. This is why respondents were asked about changes in Third, indicating exactly how climate change influences management practices in their home gardens (Reidsma et al. crop management and diversity can be complex, because the 2010). A clear adaptation found in this study is the fact that now climatic system, although it is well defined in the LICCI pro- they water or need to water more than before, which is related to tocol, is interrelated with the other systems (physical, biolog- the lower precipitation and the higher variability of rainfall ical, and socioeconomic). We deeply discuss this systemic patterns perceived by the respondents. However, the introduc- interrelation in the subsequent section. tion of more water-demanding crop species such as vegetables and certain fruit trees is also influencing the increased water use 4.2 Climate change impacts and adaptations in in the area. In addition, interviewees observed that in the past mountain home gardens they grew potato, pea, bean, and cereals in rainfed fields, but that now it would not be possible. The increase in irrigation to As several previous studies have pointed out, the perception of supplement rainwater and to compensate for the loss of water climate change impacts often drives the implementation of due to increased temperature is well documented in the litera- adaptation strategies in agricultural systems (Adger et al. ture (Deressa et al. 2009; Khanal et al. 2018). 2009; Lereboullet et al. 2013; Abid et al. 2015). To reduce Interestingly, home gardeners are now sowing or planting vulnerability and to strengthen resilience to environmental later than before. At first, this may seem inconsistent with the risk, it is important to understand perceptions of climate perceived temperature increase. However, this change is ex- change risks (Vogel et al. 2007). In this study, respondents plained by an increase in climate variability and by the unpre- were asked how the weather had changed over the years. All dictability of the frosts. Farmers stated that now it can freeze at the respondents (24 farmers) perceived some climate-related any time, which in the past did not happen. Changing planting changes occurring in the area, so they believe that the climate dates is an adaptation strategy used by home gardeners in is changing and that it is no longer as it was in the past. different countries, such as Sri Lanka, India, or Ethiopia Reports of changes in rainfall patterns, temperature, snow- (Deressa et al. 2009; Marambe et al. 2012). fall, agriculture, and transitions between seasons were the Nevertheless, the most mentioned management change is most abundant. These results are in line with other studies the increased use of pesticides, even if some home gardeners Climate change in the Catalan Pyrenees intersects with socioeconomic factors to shape crop diversity and... Page 11 of 14 91 agreed that now people are more aware of the negative im- Crop species’ introduction in home gardens is also related pacts of using them. Using more pesticides is also a common both to a changing climate and a globalized rural context. On adaptation action taken by farmers, as reported in previous the one hand, people have incorporated new species due to findings in other contexts (Khanal et al. 2018). This result also improved access to new seeds through markets. Moreover, aligns with one of the most perceived climate change impacts dietary changes have also caused an increase in the diversity in this case study, which is the increase of crop diseases and of crop vegetable species, as it is a major driver of the intro- pests. Regarding this impact, the local perception of climate duction of species such as melon, cucumber, or pepper. This is change captures the complexity of systemic effects. Several in line with previous studies in home gardens of the Iberian respondents pointed out the impact of the reduction of snow- Peninsula in which researchers found that before the 1960s, fall and freezing events in the insect life cycles, leading to an home gardens were focused on providing staple food, but increase in the pests, which significantly affects some pest nowadays dietary changes have decreased the number of sta- sensitive landraces, as also observed in apple orchards in ple crops and have increased the diversity of vegetable species Italy (Reedy et al. 2014). However, there is likely also a cultivated in home gardens (Reyes-García et al. 2014). socio-economic explanation to this increase: the better access Although most respondents perceived this introduction of cul- to agrochemical products farmers have experienced. tivated species as a consequence of entering the market econ- omy, some home gardeners reported that it is also influenced 4.3 Crop diversity in a changing climate and a by changes in climate, particularly by the warmer tempera- globalized rural context tures. This is the case of the eggplant, which has been grown for more than 30 years, but it is not very productive as it Home gardens in Vall de Cardós are a repository for the in situ should be grown at lower altitudes and in warmer conditions. conservation of crop genetic diversity as is the case with many Similarly, the flat peach tree has not been traditionally culti- home gardens studied in different regions in the world vated in the valley, but currently, a farmer has this species (Galluzzi et al. 2010; Calvet-Mir et al. 2011). since the temperature has increased in the last decades. At the species level, eleven crop species have been aban- Home gardeners also perceived that peppers (except doned mainly as a consequence of land-use changes. As men- Capsicum annuum var. longum) were not grown before be- tioned above, the shifts towards a market-oriented economy cause the climate was cooler and there was more humidity and the mechanization and industrialization of agriculture led than nowadays. That is in line with the physiological charac- to the abandonment of most agricultural activities. Before, teristics of this crop species since pepper has a temperature cereals and fodder crops used to be grown as there was a range for germination higher than cool-season vegetables and self-subsistence economy. Also, crops have been abandoned low temperatures can reduce fruit quality (Abou-Hussein due to migration to urban areas in lowland zones, reducing the 2012). Indeed, crop shifts or the adoption of crops and crop area under cultivation, as has been the case in other areas of varieties in response to new climate conditions is a process the world (López-Moreno et al. 2008). Therefore, the loss of taking place in several places in the world, as described by agrobiodiversity at the species level is mainly a consequence other authors (Skarbø and VanderMolen 2016). of socioeconomic and demographic changes, such as the rural At the landraces level, a total of 59 local landraces were exodus and the transformation of the traditional agrarian sys- found, a number larger than in previous studies in similar tem that started in the 1960s in Spain (Aceituno-Mata 2010). valleys of the Catalan Pyrenees (Calvet-Mir et al. 2011; Riu- Indeed, decisions taken in the rural context are mostly influ- Bosoms et al. 2014). This can be explained by the presence of enced by global socioeconomic trends (FAO 2004). However, elder farmers that have lived in relatively high isolation and our results highlight that climate change potentially intersects connectedness with nature. According to several authors, the with socioeconomic drivers when we explain species' aban- key variables promoting crop diversity are market isolation, donment, as demonstrated in other areas in the world (Tripathi environmental heterogeneity, and generational effects, and the and Mishra 2017; Zhang et al. 2018). In Vall de Cardós, home principal stewards of diversity are isolated and older farmers gardeners stated that, given the rainfall decrease experienced (Van Dusen and Taylor 2005). nowadays, some species cannot be grown in rainfed lands as Still, there is a loss in crop diversity associated with landrace they used to grow in the past. Nevertheless, the changes in abandonment (31 landraces have been abandoned or are in de- species’ composition show different trends in rainfed lands cline). The drivers of this loss are in line with the crop species and home gardens. In our study, seven new species were re- changes mentioned before, including the increasing use of com- ported in home gardens, while eleven were abandoned in mercial seeds, the abandonment of cattle farming and rainfed rainfed plots. Therefore, there has been a loss of crop diversity crops, and the increase of crop pests and diseases. The overall at the species level in rainfed plots but not in home gardens diffusion of modern varieties has produced a decrease in the systems, which was also reported in a previous study in an- number of landraces and therefore an increase of the genetic other area in Spain (Aceituno-Mata 2010). erosion in agriculture, as reported in the literature for other parts 91 Page 12 of 14 <. Blanch-Ramirez et al. of the world (Negri 2005; Barrera-Bassols et al. 2009). large number of landraces. Landraces are preserved not only Landraces also require more intensive labor since home gar- because of their organoleptic properties or their high resis- deners need to make seedbeds and some landraces are less pro- tance to cold and snow but also because of local appreciation ductive than commercial varieties (Calvet-Mir et al. 2011). and relation to culinary and plant use culture. This Even so, people have expressed a preference for landraces agrobiodiversity, if maintained, can play a key role in climate rather than for commercial varieties and that is why they keep change adaptation, as landraces and traditional crop species maintaining or have increased the cultivation of 28 landraces in grown in home gardens are better fitted to the environmental home gardens, which is consistent with findings in previous conditions of the valley. Therefore, the in situ conservation of studies in the high-mountain agroecosystems of the Iberian local crop diversity and its associated traditional ecological Peninsula, such as in Vall Fosca (Calvet-Mir et al. 2011). This knowledge is key to mitigate the increasing effects of climate preference is associated with the organoleptic properties of land- change, especially in the Mediterranean area. races (taste and color mostly), but also with their adaptability, as people stated that many commercial varieties are not adapted to Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-022-00806-3. the local environmental conditions of the area. Landrace’s resis- tance to cold and snow was also mentioned as a factor for their maintenance, although given the current climatic trends this Acknowledgements We are immensely grateful to all the respondents might no longer be a favorable trait. These observations are in from Vall de Cardós for their collaboration and support, without which line with previous studies in other areas of the world that found this research would not have been possible. We thank Jordi Pujal Lladós that landraces’ genetic diversity is a defense against environmen- for his collaboration in the data collection and continuous support throughout the research. We are also very grateful to Marc Talavera and tal changes (Negri 2005; Galluzzi et al. 2010). the Eixarcolant Collective for assistance with landraces identification and their advisory and feedback on findings. Finally, we would like to ac- knowledge the support of the LICCI project and its core team, which 5 Conclusions helped to design and implement this research, especially the crop diver- sity research group. The results of this study suggest that both climate change Authors’ contributions PB, LCM, and LAM designed the methods. JBR impacts and socioeconomic factors are affecting home gar- conducted fieldwork, did the analyses, and wrote the full manuscript dens in Vall de Cardós. Regarding climate, the main impacts draft. PB, LCM, and LAM corrected the manuscript draft and prepared perceived are changes in the rainfall, temperature, cryosphere, it for submission. and seasons, which have cascading effects such as the imbal- Funding Open Access Funding provided by Universitat Autonoma de ance of insects’ populations, the extended length of the sum- Barcelona. This study was funded by the ERC Consolidator Grant (agree- mer cultivation season, and the increase of crop pests and ment No. 771056-LICCI-ERC-2017-COG) and contributes to “María de diseases. Consequently, home gardeners are changing their Maeztu Unit of Excellence” (CEX2019-000940-M). management practices to cope with climate change through increasing irrigation, changing the sowing and planting date, Data availability Raw data in the form of audio recordings is available and introducing new summer crop species that before were under request to protect respondent’s confidentiality. not viable. Although these adaptation strategies also respond Code availability Not applicable to changes in the crop species that are now cultivated. Crop diversity in the area is in decline, a change that is spe- Declarations cifically affecting rainfed crop species. This decline is mostly driven by socioeconomic factors, but also by climate change. Ethics approval This work had received the ethical approval of the In fact, the agrobiodiversity loss found in this valley is mostly Ethics Committee of UAB (CEEAH 4781 and CEEAH 5108). due to decreased profitability of agriculture, depopulation, high labor demand, and low productivity associated with some crop Consent to participate All interviewees agreed to participate fol- species and landraces in comparison to commercial varieties. lowing an oral free prior informed consent protocol. Although climate change was not found as a primary driver of crop diversity loss, changes in the climatic system are affecting Consent for publication All interviewees and co-authors agreed to crop diversity. For instance, climatic changes are associated with publish and the people appearing in Fig. 1 agreed to share their the incorporation of new crop species from warmer climates or image. the abandonment of pest-sensitive landraces. Conflict of interest The authors declare no competing interests. Still, even despite the overall crop diversity decline, home gardens in this valley are a repository of agrobiodiversity and are key for its in situ conservation since home gardeners have Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, maintained the same crop species and still keep growing a Climate change in the Catalan Pyrenees intersects with socioeconomic factors to shape crop diversity and... Page 13 of 14 91 adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as Col·lectiu Eixarcolant (2020) 30 Varietats Tradicionals de l’Alt Pirineu. long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the Col·lectiu Eixarcolant source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if Dangi MB, Chaudhary RP, Rijal K, Stahl PD, Belbase S, Gerow KG, changes were made. 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