Sites, rhythms and establishment Cypsela 22 and exploitation dynamics Pàg. 259-284 ISSN: 0213-3431 in the territory in the Early Neolithic Antoni Palomo (5,500-4,500 cal BC): the Ermengol Gassiot Àngel Bosch Pyrenees and Pre-Pyrenean Niccolò Mazzucco Josep Tarrús mountain ranges Sara Díaz Vasiliki Andreaki Laura Obea Joan Anton Barceló Guillem Salvador Rafel Rosillo David Rodríguez Raquel Piqué Xavier Terradas Ignacio Clemente Abstract Research on the Neolithic has until recently considered the Pyrenees as a secondary player in the process of introducing agricultural and livestock life forms as opposed to the pre- and coastal moun- tain ranges and the central depression. The work carried out in recent years in these territories, with a review of old collections, preventive excavations and new research projects, leads to a much more detailed and complex picture of the neolithic process of preconceived. In this sense, the work car- ried out in the high Pyrenees provides data from an incipient Neolithic since the second third of the sixth millennium BC at altitudes close to 2,000 meters, which opens a perspective of great interest unheard of a few years ago. On the other hand, consolidated projects such as the one developed at the Draga site make it possible to propose regional sequences for the eastern Pre-Pyrenees due to the introduction of the Neolithic. Keywords Early Neolithic, La Draga, Regional Sequence, Pyrenees, High Pyrenees Sommaire Jusqu’à une date relativement récente, les recherches sur le Néolithique considéraient les Pyrénées comme un acteur secondaire dans le processus d’introduction des formes de vie agricole et d’élevage par opposition aux massifs montagneux pré et côtiers et à la dépression centrale. Les travaux menés ces dernières années dans ces territoires, avec un examen des collections anciennes, des fouilles préventives et de nouveaux projets de recherche, conduisent à une image beaucoup plus détaillée et complexe du processus néolithique de conception préconçue. En ce sens, les travaux menés dans les hautes Pyrénées fournissent des données d’un Néolithique naissant depuis le deuxième tiers du sixième millénaire avant notre ère à des altitudes proches de 2 000 mètres, ce qui ouvre une perspective d’un grand intérêt inouï il y a quelques années. En revanche, des projets consolidés comme celui développé sur le site de Draga permettent de proposer un séquençage régional pour les Pré-Pyrénées orientales du fait de l’introduction du Néolithique. Mots clés Neolithique ancien, La Draga, séquence régionale, Pyrénées, Haut Pyrénées Cypsela 22 (259-284) 259 ANTONI PALOMO, ERMENGOL GASSIOT, ÀNGEL BOSCH, NICCOLÒ MAZZUCCO, JOSEP TARRÚS, SARA DÍAZ, VASILIKI ANDREAKI, LAURA OBEA, JOAN ANTON BARCELÓ, GUILLEM SALVADOR, RAFEL ROSILLO, DAVID RODRÍGUEZ, RAQUEL PIQUÉ, XAVIER TERRADAS, IGNACIO CLEMENTE The proposal that the origin of the Neolithic in Catalonia comes from the Mediterranean influence, that is, from the west coast of the Peninsula in the mid-sixth mil- lennium BC, is widely accepted. From the coastal lands, the colonisers gradually reached the inland regions, even the most mountainous ones. However, when we examine the record, we realise that reality may be considerably more complex and that territories lo- cated at the top of the Pyrenean valleys participated in the phenomenon of Neolithisation quite early on, even though the process of introducing a crop and livestock agricultural economy was not homogeneous in the different areas comprising this natural Pyrenean zone. We can partly attribute this fact to the different degree of connection among the different valleys, to the uneven distribution of resources and to the different dynamics of these settlements. 1. The territory and the climate Based on our perception of urban society, yet also administratively speaking, the Pyrenees are viewed as a boundary and even a frontier. However, from the physical perspective, we can also consider them the backbone of a broader territory (Cazals et al. 2007). They comprised of a mountain range made of siliceous rocks that extends from east to west, from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic, reaching altitudes higher than 3,000 metres. Other lines of calcareous mountains, with altitudes exceeding 2,000 metres, run parallel both north and south of it, comprising the Pre-Pyrenean mountain ranges. As the mountains draw closer to the Mediterranean, the altitudes gradually decrease. On the southern slope, which is the subject of this article, the Pre-Pyrenean mountain ranges bisect the Transversal Mountain range and give way to the delta plain of the Empordà. These east-to-west rows are bisected north-to-south by rivers which orig- inate in the Axial Zone of the Pyrenees and cross the Pre-Pyrenean ranges; the more western ones head towards the Ebro River while the more eastern ones lead to the Med- iterranean. Because of their erosive power on calcareous rocks, these rivers have carved out a series of valleys which separate the massifs. This phenomenon plays an extremely important role in the way human populations have occupied these lands, the activities they have engaged in and how they have connected with neighbouring territories. Thus, connections are more feasible north-to-south, taking advantage of river valleys, than east- to-west, hindered by the different outlying ranges. The different passes that crisscross the Axial Pyrenees are also good passes connecting north-to-south, while also facilitating east-to-west connections. Based on the anthracological data from some sites on the southern slope, such as Cova del Sardo de Boí (Gassiot et al. 2015), Balma Margineda d’Aixovall (Heinz, Vernet, 1995), Plansallosa (Burjachs, Ros 1998), Cova 120 in Sales de Llierca (Ros 1995), Cova de l’Avellaner a Cogolls-Les Planes d’Hostoles (Ros 1990), Cova d’en Pau de Serinyà (Ros 1996) and La Draga in Banyoles (Piqué 1996), the Holocene landscape must have been predominantly forest, with conifers in the highlands, while the lowlands were most likely dominated by deciduous oaks (Quercus sp. caducifoli, Buxus sempervirens, Corylus avellana, etc.) and Mediterranean taxa (Quercus ilex and coccifera, Arbutus unedo). However, there is a more noticeable presence of deciduous 260 (259-284) SITES, RHYTHMS AND ESTABLISHMENT AND EXPLOITATION DYNAMICS IN THE TERRITORY IN THE EARLY NEOLITHIC (5,500-4,500 CAL BC): THE PYRENEES AND PRE-PYRENEAN MOUNTAIN RANGES taxa in the Axial Pyrenees, and the altitudes were slightly during the central period of the Holocene than they are today. In recent years, pollen studies have been conducted, yielding the records of multiple lacustrine and peat bog in both higher areas in the mountains, such as Bassa Nera in Vall d’Aran, Lac Redon and Estany Llebreta in Alta Ribagorça, Estany Redó, Es- tanillas peat bog and Coma de Burg peat bog in Pallars Sobirà, and Bosc d’Estanyons peat bog in Madriu valley in Andorra, as well as around Estany de Banyoles (Catalan et al. 2013; Garcés-Pastor 2017; Miras et al. 2010; Pèlachs et al. 2011). Palynology confirms the expansion of the forested areas in the early Holocene and during the ‘Climatic Optimum’ thereafter. During the period studied in this article, the forest was larger than it is today, with an upper limit that was apparently over 2,400-2,500 metres in altitude, and there were more deciduous trees and mesophylous taxa in the montane ecosystems and even in the subalpine system in the mountain range. These records also show the recurring presence of fires in the Axial Pyre- nees in the early Holocene, which dovetail with the oldest signs of human occupations in the highest areas. These fires are common after 6,500-6,000 cal BC in many records (see, too, Uria 2013), along with the occasional appearance in some of the earliest pollen from Cerealia-t, which became more prominent after the fourth millennium BC, sustained and accompanied by obvious signs of pastures being cleared. The studies conducted at La Draga and around Estany de Banyoles (Revelles et al. 2015) also reveal this same scenario. 2. The last hunter populations In order to understand how the Neolithisation of this territory took place, we have to have information on the last hunter-gatherer populations who lived here in the Epipaleolithic or Mesolithic and their participation in consolidating new subsistence practices grounded on a crop and livestock economy. Unfortunately, the information available to us does not go far in helping to solve this problem: During the eighth and seventh millennia cal BC, what are called the bone and denticulate tool industries appeared on either side of the Pyrenees, which lasted in this zone longer than was common in other regions on the Iberian Peninsula (Oms et al. 2018). These occupations were characterised by heterogeneous sets of stone flakes with simple and denticulate knapping, with very few scrapers and projectiles, and a poor and unexceptional bone industry. The main sites located at a medium altitude, such as Font del Ros in Berga (Martínez-Moreno et al. 2006; Martínez, Mora 2009); Bauma del Serrat del Pont in Tortellà (Alcalde et al. 2009); Balma Margineda (Guilaine, Martzluff 1995); Sota Palou in Campdevànol (Carbonell et al. 1985) and Balma dels Fadrins in Queralbs (Díez-Canseco et al. 2020) show chronologies which are quite distant from the earliest Neolithic expressions. The most recent ones, the Mesolithic level at Bauma del Serrat del Pont, is still quite far from the start of the Neolithic and continues to occupy a time bracket that should correspond to a resumption of the geometric carving traditions along the entire coastal area of the Iberian Peninsula (Vaquero, García-Argüelles 2009). Cypsela 22 (259-284) 261 ANTONI PALOMO, ERMENGOL GASSIOT, ÀNGEL BOSCH, NICCOLÒ MAZZUCCO, JOSEP TARRÚS, SARA DÍAZ, VASILIKI ANDREAKI, LAURA OBEA, JOAN ANTON BARCELÓ, GUILLEM SALVADOR, RAFEL ROSILLO, DAVID RODRÍGUEZ, RAQUEL PIQUÉ, XAVIER TERRADAS, IGNACIO CLEMENTE Research in recent years has also documented sites occupied by Holo- cene hunters-gatherers in the Axial Pyrenees, which means that Balma Margineda is no longer a unique case. Unlike it, however, they are all higher-altitude occupations, over 2,300 m: Orris de la Torbera de Perafita I in Andorra (8,765-8,480 cal BC); the Obagues de Ratera shelter in Espot (with an older occupation of 8,180-7,727 cal BC) and Abric de l’estany de la Coveta I in Espot in Pallars Sobirà region (7,000-6,575 cal BC). Only one possible level under the dolmen in Font dels Coms in Baiasca (8,750-8,560 cal BC) is located at a lower altitude, specifically at around 1,800 m (Gassiot et al. 2014, 2017; Gassiot et al. 2021). Generally speaking, there are many small occupations with a very limited material record, except for Abric de les Obagues de Ratera, to which we shall return later. Nonetheless, the identification of these sites is valuable because it shows that just after the last cold late-glacial period, the Dryas III, the higher zones in the Pyrenees began to be frequented by the human groups that had also settled in the valley bottoms. Different assessments of this record have been made. One is the survival of the macrolithic bone and denticulate tool industries in most of Catalonia, which contrasts with the surrounding territories, such as the Ebro River valley and the northern part of the region of Valencia, where geometric industries are documented in juxtaposition with the first Neolithic expressions. At first glance, one could posit the marginal survival of the communities that carved these industries due to potential geographic isolation, but this seems difficult to understand as there is a very good connection between the Ebro River valley and the river valleys of the Catalan Pre-Pyrenees. A bit further west, in Upper Aragon, at sites such as Forcas II in Graus (Utrilla, Mazo 2014), there is also a level of geometric items, with a balance between triangles and trapezoids, albeit from dates considerably earlier than the first Neolithic expressions. Another proposal is that the loss of references to the Mesolithic settlements in this territory is the consequence of the episode of climate cooling which happened 8,200 years BP (6250 cal BC) (Alley et al. 1997; Alley, Ágústsdóttir 2005). We can also accept different arguments that climate change forced a shift in human activities which left no record in the known sites, or more likely that it led to the disappearance of the sedimentary layers where Mesolithic records would have been found (Oms 2012). Of the aforementioned sites, both Bauma del Serrat del Pont and Balma Margineda have Cardial levels superimposed directly over the Mesolithic levels. In the other sites in this territory, the early Neolithic is located at archaeological levels superimposed over much older or sterile ones. Therefore, we could conclude that we have no evidence of Mesolithic pop- ulations who interacted with the first Neolithic populations to reach the Pyrenees and Pre-Pyrenees, yet we cannot be certain that they did not exist. The most likely scenario is that this was a sparsely settled territory which would have made it easier for Neolithic populations to settle there, and that they occupied the ecological niches that best matched the development of a crop and livestock farm economy. 262 (259-284) SITES, RHYTHMS AND ESTABLISHMENT AND EXPLOITATION DYNAMICS IN THE TERRITORY IN THE EARLY NEOLITHIC (5,500-4,500 CAL BC): THE PYRENEES AND PRE-PYRENEAN MOUNTAIN RANGES 3. The first Neolithic evidence The first Neolithic populations to appear on the western Mediterranean coasts were characterised by impressed pottery and were widely disseminated on the Italian peninsula, from which they spread to the coasts of the Gulf of Lion and Languedoc. In terms of the Iberian Peninsula, only a few sites on the Alicante coast have been found before then. The timeline of their spread westward is situated between 5,800 and 5,500 BC. Their pottery which is an identifying element, has printed grooves (sometimes called boquique) and deep Cardial impressions, usually running vertically (Manen, Guilaine 2007). Even though they used the impressa technique, the decorative theme of the pottery differs from Cardial decorations. In the Pyrenees, just as in Catalonia as a whole, recent reviews have identified no element that could correspond to this phase, and the boquique impressions which ap- pear in some Cardial sites in the inland regions are more closely related to the development of the Neolithic in the inland regions of the Iberian Peninsula. Furthermore, they are from a later date in the development of the early Neolithic (Oms et al. 2018). We should also discard the peri-Cardial phenomenon, a name which has been used for some sites on the northern slopes that had little or no presence of Cardial impressed ware. Recent reviews (Manen, Guilaine 2007) have confirmed the lack of homo- geneity of these sites and the problems that could arise with their dates, as they are very old. Currently, most of them fall within late phases of the early Neolithic. Therefore, it seems clear that they were populations who brought Cardial ware and introduced the Neolithic way of life and material culture to all the Pyrenean and Pre-Pyreneans lands, and they most likely did so after the first settlements were founded on the Mediterranean coast. With the current record, the key document is probably Cova de Chaves (Bastarás) in the Aragonese Pyrenees. It is a large cave that was inhabited for hundreds of years which yields old dates before 5,500 cal BC, as confirmed by recent excavations and new absolute datings (Utrilla, Laborda 2018; Laborda 2019). It is surprising to find a Neolithic settlement this important at such an early date and so far from the coast without intermediate points, as the sites found so far in the eastern Pyrenees are much more recent. Related to Chaves, there is an important Neolithic nucleus in the central Pyrenees, where sites like Forcas (Utrilla, Mazo 2014), Cova del Moro in Olvena (Baldellou, Utrilla 1985) and Coro Trasito in Tella are located (Clemente et al. 2020; Gassiot et al. 2021) along with Cova Lóbrica (Clemente et al. 2020; Gassiot et al. 2021), Puyascada in La Fueva (Mazzucco 2018) and Trocs in Sant Feliu de Veri (Rojo 2013; Rojo 2020; Alt et al. 2020), which leads us to assume there was a route that penetrated from the coast of Languedoc following the course of rivers that originate in the Pyrenees. Thus, at first the easternmost territories were left out of this stream (Baldellou, Utrilla 1999; Utrilla 2002). However, if we examine the materials yielded by the excavations in Chaves, we find clear parallels with the sites on the coast of the Iberian Peninsula, and there is even a series of pebbles painted with figurations which may be related to the macro-schematic paintings in Alicante, such as the ones in Pla de Petracos, and schematic ones from the Segre and Cinca River valleys (Utrilla, Baldellou 2002; Hernández 2017). The massacre documented in Cova dels Trocs tells us that the Neolithic settlement process was quite complex and that the interaction Cypsela 22 (259-284) 263 ANTONI PALOMO, ERMENGOL GASSIOT, ÀNGEL BOSCH, NICCOLÒ MAZZUCCO, JOSEP TARRÚS, SARA DÍAZ, VASILIKI ANDREAKI, LAURA OBEA, JOAN ANTON BARCELÓ, GUILLEM SALVADOR, RAFEL ROSILLO, DAVID RODRÍGUEZ, RAQUEL PIQUÉ, XAVIER TERRADAS, IGNACIO CLEMENTE among groups with Mesolithic and Neolithic origins or among Neolithic groups with different affiliations was not always easy (Alt et al. 2020). If we focus on the strict administrative area of Catalonia, in the origin of the Neolithic we can distinguish between two broad zones which may have developed parallel to one another, one with the central Pyrenees and Pre-Pyrenees on the eastern part of the Segre River basin, which is most likely closely related to the set of sites in the Aragonese Pyrenees (west of the Segre and Cinca River basins), and the other in the eastern Pyrenees and Pre-Pyrenees, more closely related to the coastal and precoastal areas in the central Catalan coast and the coast of Languedoc. 4. The early Neolithic in the central Pyrenees and Pre-Pyrenees 4.1 Sites and chronology The scant number of archaeological sites from this period in the central and western Pyrenees of Catalonia is particularly notable west of the Segre River, which condi- tions our understanding of the process of the first Neolithic communities settling the moun- tains (Fig. 1). Still, the scene has changed substantially since the Montserrat Round Table was held (Guiu et al. 1981), especially in the inland ranges and the Axial Pyrenees. Broadly speaking, we have witnessed a significant growth in the number of known prehistorical sites and occupations, which also has to do with those situated between the second third of the sixth millennium and the mid-fifth millennium cal BC. This process has been caused by different factors which can basically be folded into two. The first is associated with the preventive archaeology actions which have en- abled outdoor sites like Font del Ros and Sanavastre, in Berga and Das, respectively, to be identified and excavated. The second, perhaps more important in terms of basic research, is archaeology’s increasing interest in high-altitude mountainous regions, spaces that had traditionally remained largely outside the discipline’s gaze. This has led to the major change in the record that has taken place over these decades: documentation on sites in the Axial Pyrenees, usually at altitudes higher than 1,200 and in some cases even over 2,300. The increase in archaeological evidence from the location and excavation of new sites has been joined by new campaigns at sites known since the mid-twentieth century, such as Cova Colomera and Cova del Tabac in Sant Esteve de la Sarga. South of Montsec, virtually at the outer edge of the Pyrenees, excavations have been resumed at some sites, and other studies have been initiated at Cova Gran in Santa Linya (Les Avellanes and Santa Linya), Cova del Parco in Alòs de Balaguer, etc. (Bosch et al. 2022, in this volume). In recent years, archaeology in the northeast Iberian Peninsula has clearly shown a concern with solidly establishing the archaeological sequences with absolute chronologies. In the sites in the central and western Pyrenees of Catalonia, including those at the top of the Valira (Andorra) and Segre (eastern Cerdanya) River basins, there are currently almost 30 absolute datings which have yielded a chronology from between the second third of the sixth millennium cal BC and the mid-fifth millennium cal BC. They come from 9 sites, and among them the ones that stand out for the sheer number of datings are the series from Balma Margineda, Cova del Sardo (Boí) and Cova Colomera (Sant Esteve de la Sarga), which reflect the researchers’ effort to robustly delimit the chronology of the 264 (259-284) SITES, RHYTHMS AND ESTABLISHMENT AND EXPLOITATION DYNAMICS IN THE TERRITORY IN THE EARLY NEOLITHIC (5,500-4,500 CAL BC): THE PYRENEES AND PRE-PYRENEAN MOUNTAIN RANGES Fig. 1. Sites mentioned: 1. El Esplugón; 2. Cueva Chaves; 3. Cueva Lobrica; 4. Coro Trasito; 5. Cueva del Moro de Olvena; 6. Forcas II; 7. Els Trocs; 8. Cova Colomera; 9. Cova Colomera; 10. Abric de les Obagues de Ratera; 11. Abric de l’Estany de la Coveta I; 12. Dolmen Font dels Coms; 13. Cova Gran de Santa Linya; 14. Cova del Tabac; 15. Cova del Parco; 16. Balma Margineda; 17. Orris de la Torbera de Perafita I; 18. Pleta de les Bacives; 19. Font del Ros; 20. Sanavastre; 21. Pla de l’Orri; 22. Llo; 23. Cova del Toll; 24. Bauma dels Fadrins; 25. Sota Palou; 26. Codella; 27. La Dou; 28. Cova Avellaner; 29. Cova de s’Espasa; 30. Cova del Bisbe; 31. Cova dels Ermitons; 32. Cova 120; 33. Plansallosa; 34. Balma Serrat del Pont; 35. Cova del Pasteral; 36. Cova de la Pólvora; 37. Bora Tuna; 38. Cova de l’Arbreda; 39. Cova de Mollet; 40. Cova d’en Pau; 41. La Draga; 42. Cova de Mariver; 43. Torre Vedruna; 44. Pi de la Lliura; 45. Banys de la Mercè; 46. Serra del Mas Bonet; 47. Roca de Malvet; 48. Cova d’en Sardineta; 49. Cova de l’Avellana; 50. Barraca de n’Oller; 51. Ca n’Isach; 52. Turó de les Corts; 53. Puig Mascaró; 54. Cau de les Guilles. occupations. This point is also very important, because some of these sites, specifically the ones located at higher altitudes, often have very few diagnostic elements that enable us to situate them chronoculturally. Figure 2 shows the datings published ordered by basins, and within them from north to south. In addition to the sites’ geographic expansion inland from the mountains, the research in last 40 years has modified the map of the early Neolithic in this area of the Pyre- nees in another way, too. Until 1980, all the sites in this timeframe known in the zone were located in cavities located in calcareous zones. Currently, outdoor settlements have been found in Andorra (Orris de la Torbera de Perafita I and Pleta de Bacives I), in the Cerdanya (Pla de l’Orri, Sanavastre and Llo-2) and in the Berguedà region (Font del Ros), which yield Cypsela 22 (259-284) 265 ANTONI PALOMO, ERMENGOL GASSIOT, ÀNGEL BOSCH, NICCOLÒ MAZZUCCO, JOSEP TARRÚS, SARA DÍAZ, VASILIKI ANDREAKI, LAURA OBEA, JOAN ANTON BARCELÓ, GUILLEM SALVADOR, RAFEL ROSILLO, DAVID RODRÍGUEZ, RAQUEL PIQUÉ, XAVIER TERRADAS, IGNACIO CLEMENTE chronologies spanning from 5600 to 4400 cal BC. This breaks the image held for most of the twentieth century of Neolithic settlement in the Pyrenees based on the occupation of caves by primarily livestock-holding populations. The aforementioned sites also point to the existence of outdoor encampments or settlements in the different zones and different high-altitude levels in the mountains. Basin Site Level/ Dating Material Lab. code Date (±) calBC (2σ) Bibliographic Context type bp reference Cova del A-9A2 AMS Pinus tipus syl- KIA-37689 6525 45 5613-5377 Gassiot et al. Sardo vestris/ uncinata 2015 Cova del A-8B1 AMS Pinus tipus syl- KIA-37690 5850 40 4834-4556 Gassiot et al. Sardo vestris/ uncinata 2015 Cova del A-8A2 AMS Pinus tipus syl- KIA-40878 5715 35 4678-4456 Gassiot et al. Sardo vestris/ uncinata 2015 Cova del A-8A2 AMS Pinus tipus syl- KIA-36935 5695 35 4672-4448 Gassiot et al. Sardo vestris/ uncinata 2015 Cova del A-8B2 AMS Pinus tipus syl- KIA- 40817 5685 35 4652-4407 Gassiot et al. Sardo vestris/ uncinata 2015 Noguera Cova del A-8A6 AMS Pinus tipus syl- KIA-41134 5645 25 4542-4371 Gassiot et al. Ribagorçana Sardo vestris/ uncinata 2015 Cova del A-8A4 AMS Pinus tipus syl- KIA-40815 5635 35 4542-4363 Gassiot et al. Sardo vestris/ uncinata 2015 Cova EC-1 AMS Buxus sp. Beta-279478 6180 40 5286-5003 Oms et al. Colomera CV10 2016 Cova CE1 4 AMS Tritticum a/d OxA-23634 6170 30 5214-5015 Oms et al. Colomera 2016 Cova CE1 3-14 AMS Tritticum a/d Beta-240551 6150 40 5215-4960 Oms et al. Colomera 2016 Cova CE1 2 AMS Buxus sp. Beta-248523 6020 30 4999-4803 Oms et al. Colomera 2016 Abric de les 11B2 AMS Pinus tipus syl- CNA-4630.1.1 6800 35 5735-5631 Gassiot et al. Noguera Obagues de vestris/ uncinata 2019 Pallaresa Ratera 266 (259-284) SITES, RHYTHMS AND ESTABLISHMENT AND EXPLOITATION DYNAMICS IN THE TERRITORY IN THE EARLY NEOLITHIC (5,500-4,500 CAL BC): THE PYRENEES AND PRE-PYRENEAN MOUNTAIN RANGES Basin Site Level/ Dating Material Lab. code Date (±) calBC (2σ) Bibliographic Context type bp reference Orris de la Torbera de AMS Charcoal Beta-285100 6570 40 5617-5475 Orengo et al. Perafita I 2014 Pleta de Dwe- AMS Charcoal Poz-18807 5660 40 4603-4366 Orengo et al. Bacives I llingM152 2014 Balma C3f AMS Capra pyrenaica CNA-2682.1.1 7401 37 6395-6092 Oms et al. 2016 Margineda Balma C3/C4 Con- Charcoal LY 3290 6870 170 6061-5482 Guilaine et al. Margineda ven-cional 1995 Balma C3b-F3 Con- Charcoal LY 3289 6850 150 6016-5483 Guilaine et al. Margineda ven-cional 1995 Balma C3b base Con- Charcoal LY 2839 6670 120 5801-5374 Guilaine et al. Margineda -F3 (base) ven-cional 1995 Balma C3a-F1 Con- Charcoal LY 3288 6640 160 5885-5226 Guilaine et al. Margineda ven-cional 1995 Valira Balma C3b AMS Hordeum Beta-398960 6690 30 5666-5537 Manen et al. Margineda 2019 Balma C3a AMS Corylus Beta-325681 6630 40 5625-5485 Manen et al. Margineda 2019 Balma C3a-F1 AMS Corylus avellana Beta-325681 6630 30 5624-5483 Oms et al. 2016 Margineda Balma C3b AMS Corylus avellana Beta-325682 6410 40 5475-5314 Oms et al. 2016 Margineda Balma C3F AMS Ovis/Capra CNA-2681.1.1 6083 38 5207-4847 Oms et al. 2016 Margineda Balma C3a AMS Ovis/Capra CNA-2679.1.1 5850 35 4798-4608 Oms et al. 2016 Margineda Balma C3a AMS Triticum Beta-398959 2520 30 789-544 Manen et al. Margineda 2019 Pla de l’Orri Cab 128 AMS Charcoal Poz 10902 6550 40 5617-5390 Mercadal et al. 2018 Llo-2 C5 N10 Conventional Gif 6749 5700 80 4715-4362 Mercadal et al. 2018 Sanavastre Level 2, Conventi- Charcoal UBAR-574 5780 60 4785-4462 Aliaga, Cam- Estr. 4 onal pillo, s.d. Cova Gran CG-3N-E9 AMS Acorn Beta-265982 6020 50 5197-4788 Mora et al. 2011 Cova Gran CG ANA- AMS Charcoal Beta 305465 5850 40 4834-4556 Polo et al. 2014 LIT 57 Segre Cova del Estratum III Conventi- Bone CSIC-280 6450 230 5830-4847 Petit, 1996 Parco onal Cova del Estratum III Conventi- Charcoal CSIC-281 6170 70 5306-4938 Petit, 1996 Parco onal Cova del Estratum III Conventi- Charcoal GrN-20058 6120 90 5301-4801 Petit, 1996 Parco onal Cova del Estratum III Con- Charcoal CSIC-403 5970 60 5001-4716 Petit, 1996 Parco ven-cional Cova del Estratum III Conventi- Bone CSIC-279 5790 170 5203-4275 Petit, 1996 Parco onal Cypsela 22 (259-284) 267 ANTONI PALOMO, ERMENGOL GASSIOT, ÀNGEL BOSCH, NICCOLÒ MAZZUCCO, JOSEP TARRÚS, SARA DÍAZ, VASILIKI ANDREAKI, LAURA OBEA, JOAN ANTON BARCELÓ, GUILLEM SALVADOR, RAFEL ROSILLO, DAVID RODRÍGUEZ, RAQUEL PIQUÉ, XAVIER TERRADAS, IGNACIO CLEMENTE Basin Site Level/ Dating Material Lab. code Date (±) calBC (2σ) Bibliographic Context type bp reference Font del E.15 AMS Seed AA16499 6443 56 5517-5308 Pallarés et al. Ros 1997 Font del E.36 AMS Seed AA16502 6370 57 5474-5218 Pallarés et al. Ros 1997 Llobregat Font del E.33 AMS Seed AA16501 6307 68 5471-5065 Pallarés et al. Ros 1997 Font del E.21 AMS Seed AA16500 6058 79 5211-4788 Pallarés et al. Ros 1997 Fig. 2. Dating by C14 in sites of the basins of Noguera Ribagorçana, Noguera Pallaresa, Valira, Segre and Llobregat. 4.2 The first Neolithic settlement The sites in Font del Ros and Balma Margineda show the presence of Ne- olithic communities in the central and western Pyrenees early in the second half of the sixth millennium cal BC. In Balma Margineda, the new absolute datings seem to confirm the existence of a Neolithic occupation late in the first half of the sixth millennium cal BC (Manen et al. 2019). Thus, there seems to be no doubt that in around 5600-5550 cal BC, the small cavern on the side of Valira was occupied as a habitat space by groups that had domesticated herds of ovicaprids, who cultivated or at least stored and ate grains, and whose goods included pottery vessels. In addition to hearths and some storage pits, the excavation also yielded mills, carpological remains of barley (Hordeum sp.), wheat (Triticum aestivum and durum) and peas (Pisum sativum), as well as the remains of domesticated sheep (Ovis aries) and goats (Capra hircus) (Antolín et al. 2018). Fully Neolithic activities have also been found in Font del Ros. Next to an occupation level measuring more than 100 m2, at the Neolithic level the excavations revealed 45 storage pits over an area measuring 1.300 m2, which provided a considerable volume of carpological materials made up of barley seeds (Hordeum vulgare L.), wheat (mostly Tritticum dicoccum) and weeds. They also revealed the specialisation of the pits, in that barley and wheat were seldom mixed (Pallarés et al. 1997). Despite the poor conservation of the fauna remains in Font del Ros, both sites seem to reveal the spread of crop farming and livestock practices in the Pyrenees at a relatively early date quite far from the oldest Neolithic sites on the Catalan coast. During this same period, a second phenomenon has only been documented in recent years: the presence of occupations sites from between 5,700 and 5,400 cal BC at high altitudes. To date, the sites in Cova del Sardo, Abric de les Obagues de Ratera and Orris de la Torbera de Perafita I have not been documented (Gassiot et al. 2021.). The former is a small glacial cavern excavated out of the granite base in Aigüestortes valley at an altitude of around 1,800 m, which was repeatedly occupied throughout the Neolithic and later during the historical period (Gassiot et al. 2015). The second is a small shelter located under an erratic granite block in the stony valley of Obagues de Ratera above Sant Maurici lake. Located at an altitude of 2,320 m, the shelter has an extensive sequence of occupations from the Mesolithic, Neolithic and later periods (Gassiot et al. 2020; Gassiot et al. 2021). 268 (259-284) SITES, RHYTHMS AND ESTABLISHMENT AND EXPLOITATION DYNAMICS IN THE TERRITORY IN THE EARLY NEOLITHIC (5,500-4,500 CAL BC): THE PYRENEES AND PRE-PYRENEAN MOUNTAIN RANGES A mediaeval dwelling is documented in Torbera de Perafita I, and under it the surveying found a level with charcoal and stone remains which can be attributed to the Mesolithic, as well as another level from the mid-sixth millennium (Orengo et al. 2014). In all three cases, they are generally small occupations which yield few archaeological remains, apart from the existence of hearths. They are all located in acidic soils in which the fauna materials are very poorly conserved, which may explain their absence. Pottery materials associated with the dated hearths have not been found in any of them. The lithic ensemble found in Abric de les Obagues de Ratera do yield interest- ing information. In this phase, we find a major presence of geometric materials: trapezoids and triangles with abrupt knapping and triangles and segments with bifacial retouching, a mix of Mesolithic and Neolithic features (Mazzucco et al. 2019) which may reveal transfers from one type of population to the other. What stand out in this context are two triangles with bifacial retouching on rock crystal, a local material which was possibly knapped at the site. From a technological standpoint, they resemble the goods found in other sites in Aragon, such as Esplugón and Forcas II (layers IV and V). Many of the geometric materials show traces of impact, and remains of their repair have been found in the shelter. The existence of this second type of site opens up interesting questions on the settlement and mobility patterns in the mid-sixth millennium cal BC, dovetailing with the regional introduction of crop farming and livestock practices. First, we see a twofold pattern. First, we find sites with a fully Neolithic material culture in zones located under an altitude of 1,500 m in both Catalonia and Aragon. The examples of Balma Margineda and Font del Ros in Aragon are joined by Cueva Lóbrica (Clemente et al. 2020), along with Cueva de Chaves and Forcas II on the southern foothills of the mountains. After 5,300 cal BC, Trocs and Coro Trasito caves joined this set of sites. Secondly, there are high-altitude occupations, with chronologies that virtually span those of the sites in the first group. In fact, Andorra is a paradigmatic case because the distance between Balma Margineda and Torbera de Perafita can be travelled in one day. This makes it unfeasible to posit that they were isolated groups and opens the door to understanding this dichotomy as the specialisation of settlements. The specialisation of the stone record in Abric de les Obagues de Ratera shows that in this phase the shelter was used as a hunting camp. Con- versely, the settlements in the lower zones show more stability, with a centrality of storage practices and consolidated crop and livestock farming. 5. The early Neolithic in the eastern Pyrenees and Pre-Pyrenees The territory of northeast Catalonia has never been considered pioneering in the Neolithisation process of Catalonia because very few remains have been found there. There are some elements which hinder this, such as the predominance of moun- tains with granite rocks, which have left few karstic cavities except in Alta Garrotxa, and plains occupied by wetlands in both the Empordà and in the Selva depression, where major sedimentations can accumulate. Despite this, there are signs that enable us to posit that Neolithic settlement dated from the early second half of the sixth millennium, dovetailing with the establishment of the first communities with Cardial ware in the west- ern Mediterranean. Cypsela 22 (259-284) 269 ANTONI PALOMO, ERMENGOL GASSIOT, ÀNGEL BOSCH, NICCOLÒ MAZZUCCO, JOSEP TARRÚS, SARA DÍAZ, VASILIKI ANDREAKI, LAURA OBEA, JOAN ANTON BARCELÓ, GUILLEM SALVADOR, RAFEL ROSILLO, DAVID RODRÍGUEZ, RAQUEL PIQUÉ, XAVIER TERRADAS, IGNACIO CLEMENTE This scarcity of data on the early Neolithic contrasts with the fact that there is such an important, well-documented site as La Draga in Banyoles (Bosch, Chinchilla, Tarrús 2000, 2006, 2011), located in a unique landscape, a lacustrine basin, where 40 absolute datings have been analysed. The analysis of the radiocarbon datings of the site in Banyoles (Andreaki et al. 2020) covers most of the development of the early Neolithic, which enables us to organise the development of the early phases of Neolithic development in this territory based on its chronostratigraphic sequence (Fig. 3). Basin Site Level/context References Lacustrine of Banyoles La Draga Phase I in La Draga [-5292; -5216] Andreaki et al. 2020 [-5213; -5085] Phase II in La Draga [-5093; -4907] [-4943; -4713] Fig. 3. The two construction phases of the Draga, in relation to the C14 dating obtained. We should note that the stratigraphic dynamic of the outdoor site at La Draga is related to the distinct preservation of organic matter in the different sectors excavated, which is conditioned by the height of the phreatic levels. Thus, sectors B and C (subaquat- ic) preserve horizontal levels with plenty of organic matter, while only the tips of wooden pillars beaten deeply into the carbonated sands are conserved in sector A (Palomo et al. 2014). Based on stratigraphic, sedimentological and radiometric studies, we can glean that there were two main phases of occupation. The initial phase was characterised by the construction, use and repair of wooden platforms, and by the amortisation of these spaces through the construction of large travertine floors and different structures, including hearths, dwelling foundations and pits. 5.1 Phase prior to La Draga. The earliest evidence Approximately 100 years before the construction of the first wooden structure in La Draga in around 5,400 BC, the oak groves around Banyoles lake already show signs of forest management. The oaks used to build the platforms reveal the use of regrowth specimens after the mature oak stand had been felled. This reveals the activities of possibly Neolithic groups that we have not yet located in the archaeological record of La Draga and its closest environs (Piqué et al. 2021). We are aware of two settlements contemporary to this forest activity prior to the construction of the platforms in La Draga, which indicates that the territory was not entirely depopulated. Likewise, in a relatively nearby geographic setting, we find the occupation of Bauma del Serrat del Pont in Tortellà (5480-5380 cal BC) (Alcalde, Molist, Saña 2002; Alcalde et al. 2009). This is a rocky shelter located on the banks of the Llierca River, a tributary of the Fluvià, which was most likely used briefly by a small group of people who were probably heading towards the steeper mountainous zones and primarily consumed forest resources. Finally, we have Cova del Toll (Moià), located in the Ter River basin, where a recent survey (Cebrià et al. 2014) yielded datings from the mid- 270 (259-284) SITES, RHYTHMS AND ESTABLISHMENT AND EXPLOITATION DYNAMICS IN THE TERRITORY IN THE EARLY NEOLITHIC (5,500-4,500 CAL BC): THE PYRENEES AND PRE-PYRENEAN MOUNTAIN RANGES sixth millennium (level IIb: 5510-5310 cal BC; 5490-5290 cal BC) which are located among the oldest in Catalonia and show the speed with which the earliest Neolithic communities reached the inland regions (Fig. 4). Fig. 4. Ideal reconstruction of the construction of huts in the Neolithic village of La Draga (Banyoles). Museu Ar- queológico Regional de Madrid. Conception: MACB/CSIC/UAB/ MAC. Designs: Albert Álvarez Marsal (Palomo et al. 2018). Cypsela 22 (259-284) 271 ANTONI PALOMO, ERMENGOL GASSIOT, ÀNGEL BOSCH, NICCOLÒ MAZZUCCO, JOSEP TARRÚS, SARA DÍAZ, VASILIKI ANDREAKI, LAURA OBEA, JOAN ANTON BARCELÓ, GUILLEM SALVADOR, RAFEL ROSILLO, DAVID RODRÍGUEZ, RAQUEL PIQUÉ, XAVIER TERRADAS, IGNACIO CLEMENTE 5.2 Phase I in La Draga. The last third of the sixth millennium The first constructive phase documented in La Draga is defined by the con- struction and use of wooden platforms which could be situated at -5292-5216 cal BC (68% interval) and -5213-5085 cal BC (68% interval) (Andreaki et al. 2020). The length of this first phase is grounded on the 25-year difference between the felling of the first pole used to build the platforms and the last one used for repairs, which dovetails with the arithmetic mean of 34 years within their likely duration of between 13 and 55 years. This first phase corresponds to a dry phase (Andreaki et al. 2020), which fa- cilitated the use of the lakeside to build the platforms on which dwellings measuring around 12-15 m2 were built, with two-pitched roofs and probably no side walls, within a brief time interval. La Draga is an extensive settlement that reveals a great deal of planning in its con- struction and organisation, as well as deep familiarity with the territory, as expressed in the variety of biotic and abiotic resources consumed and their range of provenances, which in some cases extend beyond the strictly regional (Terradas et al. 2012). The abundance of food remains reveals a fully consolidated crop farming and livestock economy with contri- butions from hunting and forest gathering (Fig. 5). Basin Site Level/Context Dating type Material Lab.code Data (±) calBC (2σ) References bp Fluvià Balma del Serrat Level III.4 AMS Bone BETA-172521 6470 40 5509-5344 Alcalde et al. del Pont 2002 Fluvià Plansallosa I Base of pit num- AMS Charcoal BETA-74311 6180 60 5250-4940 Bosch et al. ber I 1998 Fluvià Plansallosa I Top of pit number I AMS Charcoal BETA-74313 6130 60 5230-4910 Bosch et al. 1998 Fluvià Plansallosa II Coal concentration AMS Charcoal OXA-2592 5890 80 5000-4545 Bosch et al. 1998 Fluvià Plansallosa II Perimeter pit II AMS Charcoal BETA-74312 5890 60 4900-4580 Bosch et al. 1998 Fluvià Plansallosa II Western sector AMS Charcoal BETA-87965 5720 70 4725-4425 Bosch et al. structure 1998 Fluvià Codella Dwelling AMS Bone Beta-221900 5720 60 4780-4490 Alcalde et al. 2008 Fluvià La Dou Dwelling AMS Charcoal Beta-221903 5660 50 4690-4450 Alcalde et al. 2008 Fluvià La Dou Combustion AMS Charcoal Beta-221904 5520 50 4560-4360 Alcalde et al. structure 2008 Fluvià La Dou Combustion AMS Charcoal Beta-221905 5450 50 4450-4205 Alcalde et al. structure 2008 Fluvià Serra del Mas Silo E22 AMS Bone Beta-280361 5930 40 4909-4862 Unpublished Bonet Fluvià Ca n’Isach Combustion Conventional Charcoal UBAR-317 5840 230 5008-4481 Tarrús et al. structure E20/21 2017 Fluvià Ca n’Isach Combustion Conventional Charcoal UBAR-318 5770 170 4837-4463 Tarrús et al. structure E22 2017 Ter Avellaner Burial cavity 1 Conventional Charcoal GAK-12933 5920 180 5281-4373 Bosch, Tarrús 1990 272 (259-284) SITES, RHYTHMS AND ESTABLISHMENT AND EXPLOITATION DYNAMICS IN THE TERRITORY IN THE EARLY NEOLITHIC (5,500-4,500 CAL BC): THE PYRENEES AND PRE-PYRENEAN MOUNTAIN RANGES Basin Site Level/Context Dating type Material Lab.code Data (±) calBC (2σ) References bp Ter Avellaner Burial cavity 3 Conventional Human UBAR-109 5830 100 4930-4461 Bosch, Tarrús bone 1990 Ter Avellaner Burial cavity 2 AMS Human CNA-3305.1 6204 34 5290-5055 Gibaja et al. bone 2018 Ter Avellaner Burial cavity 3 AMS Human CNA-3306.1 6094 34 5210-4860 Gibaja et al. bone 2018 Ter Torre Vedruna/ Silo E34 Conventional Charcoal UBAR-1071 6470 220 5805–4900 Unpublished Sector Transport Ter Cova del Toll Level IIb AMS Bone OXA-26070 6425 35 5510-5310 Cebrià et al. 2014 Ter Cova del Toll Level IIb AMS Bone OXA-26071 6390 40 5390-5190 Cebrià et al. 2014 Fig. 5. Dating by C14 in sites in the Ter and Fluvià basins. The pottery at La Draga, which were an identitarian element in this area during the early Neolithic, are characterised by impressions and incisions (often dragged) which create simple or complex motifs usually organised into horizontal bands. Depending on the shape of the vessel, the bands could be by themselves under the edge, or there could be multiple bands together, especially when attached with holding elements. In this latter case, new vertical bands appear on the holding elements which reach the edge and join the two horizontal bands. They could also be used to support other decorative elements hanging from them (triangles, garlands, other bands) which could cover up to two-thirds of the upper part of the vessel. None of the decorative elements seems to depict a natural element, and they are vaguely reminiscent of the cordages with which the vessels were suspended. The rest of the material culture is very interesting in terms of both the conservation of organic remains (wooden objects, baskets), the abundant bone and stone industry and the vast number of ornamental objects. We have further evidence from this phase, which we should chronologically and culturally situate in the second half of the Cardial period. Near La Draga, there is a series of travertine shelters in the Reclau-Viver (Serinyà) site, namely Arbreda, Mollet, Pau and Reclau-Viver itself (Tarrús 2000), which are important in Palaeolithic population, although by the Holocene were already teeming with sediments and were partly sunken, which led to small cavities which were most likely used as refuges, or the first two as funerary spaces. Unfortunately, this burial use was kept up in subsequent periods, and these cavities were also repeatedly used as burrows by many animals. The outcome is that we have only been able to retrieve some pottery remains with characteristics similar to those in La Draga, and some human remains which are difficult to chronologically pinpoint. These cavities were most likely used as graves during the early stages of the Neolithic, especially bearing in mind that there is a similar example, also in a travertine shelter, namely Cova de l’Avellaner (Cogolls, Planes d’Hostoles), which we shall discuss below. Cypsela 22 (259-284) 273 ANTONI PALOMO, ERMENGOL GASSIOT, ÀNGEL BOSCH, NICCOLÒ MAZZUCCO, JOSEP TARRÚS, SARA DÍAZ, VASILIKI ANDREAKI, LAURA OBEA, JOAN ANTON BARCELÓ, GUILLEM SALVADOR, RAFEL ROSILLO, DAVID RODRÍGUEZ, RAQUEL PIQUÉ, XAVIER TERRADAS, IGNACIO CLEMENTE On the Empordà coast, the only site that has yielded archaeological materials from this period is Cau de les Guilles in Roses (Soler, Serangeli 2010), a small shelter most likely used for brief stays. A pottery fragment of a handle and edge decorated with a dragged band and Cardial impressions shows clear similarities with the goods in La Draga. Turó de les Corts (L’Escala), a famous necropolis from the early Iron Age, is also located on the coast; Josep Tarrús (1980) identified some Neolithic pottery among its remains, one piece coming from a vessel decorated with combed bands clearly affiliated with the Cardial. Inland in the Empordà, we have signs of a settlement in Banys de la Mercè in Campmany (Rosillo et al. 2021), although most of the occupation dates from later. Ten pottery fragments with impressed linear decorations, some of them Cardial, were retrieved, though they are not associated with any structure. Inland, in the valley of the Llémena River, a tributary of the Ter River, scant remains have been retrieved from Cova Bora Tuna in Sant Martí de Llémena (Bosch 1991). A vessel decorated with bands of comb impressions edged with impressions from a spatula was found, which displays a clearly Cardial theme. What stands out in Tortellà (La Garrotxa) is the first occupation of Plansallo- sa (PSL I: 5250-4940 cal BC and 5230-4910 cal BC), a site which has been identified as late Cardial. This settlement is located on the right bank of the Llierca River on a flat area across from Balma del Serrat del Pont, in a site that connected the river plain with the more mountainous inland landscape. It is characterised by the base of a circular dwelling, two pits around the perimeter, two combustion structures, two support structures, two pits and a pit lined with stone that conserved a large pottery container (Bosch et al. 1998). Together, they show a building technique that has been documented in other sites in Languedoc (Baratin, Courthézon) and the Ebro River valley (Barranc d’en Fabra, Riols), which differs from the earliest constructions at La Draga because they are differently adapted to the environment and they have a different cultural tradition. Among the pottery, we can still find Cardial impressed decorations and other elements, but incisions or grooves predominate, along with the artistic application of many impressed cordons. It had an econ- omy based on crop and livestock farming, and unlike La Draga, a very local supply area, where they most likely used some caves in the mountains as refuges or stables, particularly Cova s’Espasa (Sales de Llierca), which has pottery decorated with impressed cordons similar to those from Plansallosa. Finally, we should consider the Cova de l’Avellaner (Tarrús, Bosch 1990) in the Baixa Garrotxa. This is a small travertine shelter which was modified to make three funerary spaces where the remains of 15 individuals of all ages were apparently deposited, on whom an interesting genetic study has been conducted (Lacan et al. 2011). The small funerary spaces were reused several times with the deposit of human remains accompanied by pottery vessels, body ornaments and foods in the form of fauna remains. The pottery is decorated with plain cordons and very few (non-Cardial) impressions and grooves. The dates initially published, yielded from carbon from space 1 and human bone from space 3, correspond to the early fifth millennium. In a recent review of the human bone in cavities 2 and 3, the datings span from the late sixth millennium to the first quarter of the fifth millen- nium (5290-5055 cal BC and 5210-4860 cal BC) and show the start of their funerary use in the late Cardial period. 274 (259-284) SITES, RHYTHMS AND ESTABLISHMENT AND EXPLOITATION DYNAMICS IN THE TERRITORY IN THE EARLY NEOLITHIC (5,500-4,500 CAL BC): THE PYRENEES AND PRE-PYRENEAN MOUNTAIN RANGES 5.3 Phase II in La Draga. The first quarter of the fifth millennium The second building phase in La Draga was characterised by a major change in the building strategy and management of the occupied space. The use of the platforms built in the first phase now contrasts with the massive use of travertine blocks mined nearby to build veritable occupation floors over the old wooden constructions, as well as structures like pits, hearths and perhaps the foundations of dwellings. This time dovetails with a wetter period, which, along with other factors, conditioned the inhabitability of the space occupied by the earlier inhabitants of La Draga. Perhaps the travertine was used as the insulation needed to prevent water from seeping in. The data analysis is not conclusive when asserting whether it is a reoccupation or a continuation of the previous settlement. In any case, this phase that spans the first quarter of the fifth millennium cal BC is characterised by the use of stone as an important building element which happened at two different times without any chronological interruption: The first was between -5093 and -4907 cal BC and the second was between -4943 and -4713 cal BC, (Andreaki et al. 2020). In this case, what we call a phase should be considered a palimpsest which brings together evidence of diverse archaeological contexts. The proximity to the surface, the ef- fects of farming and the fluctuations in the phreatic level have led to the poor conservation of the archaeological remains at this level, particularly the food or other plant fibre remains, which no longer exist, and pottery, which is highly fragmented and often damaged. The few pottery decorations are limited to some impressions and incisions or grooves, and especially plain cordons. This is a common feature of the sites in the coastal and pre-costal regions in the northeast, which are usually classified as Epicardial, where plain cordons were the last decorative elements to disappear. During this period, there is much more and varied evidence of occupations throughout the entire territory, which occupy virtually all of it. In relation to La Draga, we must once again consider the travertine shelters in Serinyà, especially Cova del Reclau-Viver and Cova del Pau, which continued to be used as shelters and have yielded pottery with a clear Epicardial affiliation. Also very close by is the burial cave of Mariver d’Esponellà (Tarrús 2000), which is a large cavity used repeatedly during the first half of the fifth millennium. On the Empordà coast we have evidence of two settlements located at elevated points in wetlands near the coast. In Ca n’Isach (Palau-saverdera), a dwelling and hearths have been documented, associated with pottery materials characterised by carinated vessels, tubular handles and plain cordons (Tarrús 2017). Likewise, only archae- ological materials attributed to the epi-Cardial have been found at Puig Mascaró in Torroella de Montgrí (Bosch 1991), as the later occupations destroyed the habitation floor. In Les Gavarres, there is a series of granite shelters, Avellana, la Sardineta, Barraca de n’Oller and Malvet caves (Calonge) (Bosch 1991), which have yielded some Epicardial pottery. The small size of these caves leads us to believe that they were used for burials more than as shelters, but the acidity of the soil has prevented us from retrieving human bone remains. Even further south in the Ardenya massif are the late Bronze Age necropolises of Pi de la Lliura in Vidreres (Pons, Solés 2008), in the centre of which are different structures, including a silo with Epicardial ware, the testimony of a settlement area. Inland in the Empordà region, the signs of a new settlement from the Epicar- dial Neolithic have been documented in Serra del Mas Bonet in Vilafant (Rosillo et al. 2012) (4909-4862 cal BC), where four structures have been documented: two are medium-sized Cypsela 22 (259-284) 275 ANTONI PALOMO, ERMENGOL GASSIOT, ÀNGEL BOSCH, NICCOLÒ MAZZUCCO, JOSEP TARRÚS, SARA DÍAZ, VASILIKI ANDREAKI, LAURA OBEA, JOAN ANTON BARCELÓ, GUILLEM SALVADOR, RAFEL ROSILLO, DAVID RODRÍGUEZ, RAQUEL PIQUÉ, XAVIER TERRADAS, IGNACIO CLEMENTE and small pits-silos, and two are more indeterminate pits. The pottery materials are char- acterised by globular vessels with medium-sized or large cylindrical necks and always with convex bottoms, equipped with tubular or loop handles or conical applications. The decorations, which are never excessive, and bearing in mind that undecorated vessels predominated, are in the form of fingernail impressions on the edge, incised grooves with motifs in a ladder shape, plain cordons or impressions, sometimes orthogonal, with finger- prints or fingernail prints, and also with scraped or combed surfaces. Further inland, in the calcareous massif in Alta Garrotxa, we find the second phase of occupation of Plansallosa (PSL II) (5000-4545 cal BC, 4900-4580 cal BC, 4725- 4425 cal BC), which occupies a much larger area than what has been documented from the first phase. This phase is characterised by an elliptical structure which has been interpreted as the base of a habitat space, a large pit around the perimeter, a hearth, a workshop where polished tools were made and different support structures. Most of the pottery is undecorated, with plain cordons and few impressions. Resource exploitation was still quite local. Related to the exploitation of the mountainous region, most of the caves in the upper part of Llierca valley have remains that can be attributed to their use as refuges or stables, as in Cova dels Ermitons and Cova del Bisbe (Bosch 1991), or for storage, as in Cova 120 (Agustí et al. 1987). Similar to the latter, on the La Muga side of Alta Garrotxa is Cova de la Pólvora (Albanyà), which was also used for storage (Buch et al. 1996). In the midst of the volcanic zone in the same county of la Garrotxa, two outdoor settlements have been documented with habitat structures and a variety of functions. The first is the settlement of Codella (Les Preses) and the second is la Dou (Vall d’en Bas), a settlement organised with dwellings dispersed around an area that may exceed 800 m2 (Alcalde et al. 2016). Further south in Baixa Garrotxa, specifically in the valley of Brugent River, a tributary of the Ter River, Cova de l’Avellaner, mentioned above, was used as a funerary space, and in the Ter River valley we find another burial cave, Pasteral de la Cellera de Ter (Bosch 1991), which was used over much of the fifth millennium. This latter cave, whose morphology is complicated, has different galleries and rooms, some with mixed materials, but its remains are exclusively Epicardial. There were vessels decorated with grooves and applications, as well as some impressions and human remains from different individuals. Just like l’Avellaner, we should consider it a grave used repeatedly by a community that lived near it and deposited their dead there, accompanied by personal ornamentation, foods contained in pottery vessels and symbolic elements, like a tortoiseshell. Following the Ter but now in the Girona plain, two mostly levelled pits were found in Torre Vedruna de Vilablareix (García 2009). Although it shows a notable deviation, the dating of one of these pits (5805-4900 cal BC) shows signs of Neolithic occupations in this zone. 6. Conclusions If we compare the knowledge of the early Neolithic in the Pyrenees and Pre-Pyrenees shared at the Round Table held in Montserrat in 1980 with the data we currently have, we can see that major strides have been made from both the quantitative 276 (259-284) SITES, RHYTHMS AND ESTABLISHMENT AND EXPLOITATION DYNAMICS IN THE TERRITORY IN THE EARLY NEOLITHIC (5,500-4,500 CAL BC): THE PYRENEES AND PRE-PYRENEAN MOUNTAIN RANGES standpoint—more sites—and the qualitative standpoint—more knowledge of these sites. In this sense, in recent years we have delved further into aspects like the chronology of their occupations, the natural environment around them and the way they exploited the resources, as well as their technical productions and funerary practices. All of this has been possible thanks to improvements in excavation and analysis techniques, as well as the participation of more research teams, who have turned this period into one of the main focal points in prehistoric research. The lay of the land in this broad territory has meant that the easternmost part is more geared towards the coastal developments to take advantage of the connections provided by the Fluvià, Ter and Llobregat River valleys, while the central part is more focused on the development of the Ebro River valley, to take advantage of the valleys of the rivers that flow into the Ebro from the Pyrenees. With regard to chronologies, we can see that the distances were never too great, and that after taking advantage of a territory that was sparsely or not at all settled, the first Neolithic expressions reach the highest levels in the mountains shortly after they reached the coastal areas. We also see how in the more recent early Neolithic, a kind of functional specialisation of the occupied sites took place, both outdoors and in cavities. We still have many questions and gaps which future research should resolve, such as about the Mesolithic settlement in the first half of the sixth millennium, especially in the eastern zone, and the genesis of the Epicardial, regardless of whether it is viewed as an evolution of the Cardial or a unique entity. We also need more information on these Ne- olithic communities, which so far has been excessively grounded on the evidence retrieved from caves and shelters, especially in the central zone. 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Authors Antoni Palomo Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya, Barcelona Cypsela 22 (259-284) 283 ANTONI PALOMO, ERMENGOL GASSIOT, ÀNGEL BOSCH, NICCOLÒ MAZZUCCO, JOSEP TARRÚS, SARA DÍAZ, VASILIKI ANDREAKI, LAURA OBEA, JOAN ANTON BARCELÓ, GUILLEM SALVADOR, RAFEL ROSILLO, DAVID RODRÍGUEZ, RAQUEL PIQUÉ, XAVIER TERRADAS, IGNACIO CLEMENTE Ermengol Gassiot Sara Díaz Vasiliki Andreaki Laura Obea Joan Anton Barceló Guillem Salvador Rafel Rosillo David Rodríguez Raquel Piqué Departament de Prehistòria Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona Campus Universitari 08193 Bellaterra Àngel Bosch Josep Tarrús Museu Arqueològic Comarcal de Banyoles Niccolò Mazzucco Department of Civilizations and Forms of Knowledge University of Pisa Xavier Terradas Ignacio Clemente CSIC – Institució Milà i Fontanals de recerca en Humanitats Barcelona 284 (259-284)