ORIGINAL RESEARCH published: 26 April 2022 doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.858745 Examining the Relation Between Practicing Meditation and Having Peak Experiences and Lucid Dreams. A Cross-Sectional Study Javier Garcia-Campayo 1,2 , Rinchen Hijar-Aguinaga 2 , Alberto Barceló-Soler 1,3* , Selene Fernández-Martínez 1 , Roberto Aristegui 4 and Adrián Pérez-Aranda 1,5 1 Institute of Health Research of Aragon (IIS), Zaragoza, Spain, 2 Department of Medicine, Psychiatry and Dermatology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain, 3 Navarra Medical Research Institute (IdiSNA), Pamplona, Spain, 4 Department of Psychiatry and Mental Health Oriente, Faculty of Medicine, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile, 5 Department of Basic, Developmental and Educational Psychology, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain The aim of this study was to compare meditators and non-meditators in terms of their tendency to have peak experiences and their dream lucidity, while examining the associations between these outcomes and some related variables such as non- Edited by: dual awareness, mindfulness facets and absorption. In this cross-sectional study, 237 Cristiano Crescentini, participants from general Spanish population completed an online survey that included University of Udine, Italy ad hoc questions related to the study aim, along with the Five Facet Mindfulness Reviewed by: Alessio Matiz, Questionnaire (FFMQ), the Non-dual Embodiment Thematic Inventory (NETI), the University of Udine, Italy Tellegen Absorption Scale (TAS) and the Lucidity and Consciousness in Dreams Scale Joseph Glicksohn, Bar-Ilan University, Israel (LUCID). Of the total, 110 participants were identified as meditators and 127 as non- *Correspondence: meditators. More than half of the sample (58.2%) reported having experienced at Alberto Barceló-Soler least one peak experience in their life; these showed no differences in the number, abarcelosoler@hotmail.com intensity, or self-inducing ability of these experiences between both groups but were Specialty section: significantly more common among meditators (71.8% vs. 46.8%; p < 0.001), who This article was submitted to also presented higher scores in most of the questionnaires, except for some LUCID Consciousness Research, a section of the journal subscales. Regression models demonstrated that being a meditator was a significant Frontiers in Psychology predictor of having had a peak experience, but not of LUCID scores. These results, Received: 20 January 2022 which need to be interpreted considering the study limitations, support the potential Accepted: 05 April 2022 of meditation to facilitate having peak experiences, while its impact on lucid dreams Published: 26 April 2022 remains unclear. Citation: Garcia-Campayo J, Keywords: mindfulness, peak experience, lucid dreams, absorption, non-dual experience, self-transcendence Hijar-Aguinaga R, Barceló-Soler A, Fernández-Martínez S, Aristegui R and Pérez-Aranda A (2022) Examining the Relation Between Practicing INTRODUCTION Meditation and Having Peak Experiences and Lucid Dreams. Meditation has become a normalized activity for many people, regardless of whether it is practiced A Cross-Sectional Study. as a technique for reducing stress or as a contemplative exercise in a spiritual or religious context. Front. Psychol. 13:858745. In recent decades, several studies have observed that individuals who meditate regularly present doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.858745 significant differences when compared to non-meditators, including greater self-acceptance and Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 1 April 2022 | Volume 13 | Article 858745 Garcia-Campayo et al. Meditation, Peak Experiences, and Lucid Dreams self-awareness, feeling less upset over criticism from others, less effects of meditative techniques on the development of non- somatic symptomatology such as pain, better health (particularly, dual awareness. A study conducted by Mills et al. (2018) mental health) and different health-related behaviors (e.g., lower found that an intensive 6-day mind-body program addressed use of tranquilizers or drugs to change mood) (Easterlin and at physical, emotional, and spiritual domains was effective for Cardeña, 1998; Monk-Turner, 2003; Manocha et al., 2012); even increasing the levels of non-dual embodiment and that these brain function during attention tasks and heart rate variability changes were maintained after 1 month. In the same vein, dynamics have been observed to be different in meditators Martin et al. (2021), who deepened into the so-called “plateau (Kozasa et al., 2018; Goshvarpour and Goshvarpour, 2019; experiences”—also related to altered self-transcendence but in Luders and Kurth, 2019). These differences have been attributed a more calm, persistent (i.e., effects lasting for at least 1 year) by some authors to certain differential mechanisms related way compared to peak experiences (Krippner, 1972)–, reported to attention processing, as well as neuroplasticity, which are that most of the participants in their studies transitioned to activated through the regular practice of contemplative exercises deeper states of self-transcendence after taking part in online in which self-awareness plays a key role (Kozasa et al., 2018; meditation programs that included positive psychology exercises Guidotti et al., 2021). (e.g., forgiveness, gratitude exercises). The self-transcendent state Moreover, different types of meditation practices have of the participant and the possible transition to deeper states were proven effective for improving the symptomatology of based on self-reported measures and semi-structured interviews many syndromes and conditions. Among the different conducted by an expert in the field. This study included many meditation programs that have been tested, those based relevant variables, such as non-dual awareness, which is defined on the systematic practice of mindfulness (i.e., present- as an open, awake cognizance that goes beyond the primary focused, non-judgmental awareness) have shown to be identification with the mind–body and transcends the subject– particularly effective for treating different conditions, object dichotomy identification to where ordinary distinctions of including depressive, anxiety, stress-related, and hyperactivity subject and object do not exist (Mills et al., 2018). However, these disorders, as well as headaches and cardiovascular and studies did not quantify the frequency nor the intensity of peak neurodegenerative diseases, among others (Chimiklis et al., experiences, nor its association with other key variables such as 2018; Chételat et al., 2018; Goldberg et al., 2018; Gu et al., 2018; mindfulness facets or absorption. Scott-Sheldon et al., 2020). Mindfulness has been described as a multifactorial construct However, little study has been given to the potential that includes the facets of observing (i.e., noticing or attending to of practicing meditation techniques to promote wellbeing internal experiences such as sensations, thoughts, or emotions), through other ways that do not imply reducing pathological describing (i.e., labeling thoughts and emotions with words), symptomatology. In this regard, transcendent experiences, acting with awareness (i.e., focusing on one’s activities in the defined as those of a state of consciousness characterized by moment as opposed to behaving mechanically), non-judging altered or expanded awareness (Levin and Steele, 2005), can of the inner experience (i.e., taking a non-evaluative stance represent a source of wellbeing, and the upsurge in contemplative toward thoughts and feelings), and non-reacting to the inner sciences in recent years has increased the interest shown in such experience (i.e., allowing thoughts and feelings to come and phenomena (Garcia-Campayo et al., 2021). Peak experiences and go, without getting caught up in or carried away by them) lucid dreams are two examples of transcendent experiences that (Baer et al., 2008). While dispositional mindfulness has been could be enhanced, both in terms of frequency and intensity, associated with non-dual awareness (Hanley et al., 2018), and through the practice of meditation. therefore the possibility of having peak experiences, the role of The term “peak experience” was used by psychologist the mindfulness facets has not yet been explored. Absorption, on Abraham Maslow to describe states of unitive consciousness, the other hand, is defined as a disposition for having episodes or “moments of highest happiness and fulfillment” in people’s of total attention that result in a heightened sense of the reality lives (Maslow, 1964). Many other terms have been used to of the attentional object, imperviousness to distracting events, describe the same phenomenon, including non-dual awareness, and an altered sense of reality in general (Tellegen and Atkinson, enlightenment, mystical experience, and transcendental 1974). The connection between absorption, mindfulness and experience (Martin et al., 2021). At such times, individuals feel peak experiences is conceptually clear and previous studies have detached from the mundane particulars of their individual lives already reported higher levels of trait absorption in meditators and sense that they are at one with a fully integrated universe. (Holzel and Ott, 2006; Bowden et al., 2012; Grant et al., 2013), The emotions frequently reported during peak experiences and Berkovich-Ohana and Glicksohn (2017) observed that trait include wonder, awe, reverence, humility, surrender, and even absorption is associated with mindfulness expertise and with worship before the greatness of the experience (Maslow, 1964). transcendent experience. Achieving a peak experience is the ultimate goal of many In another vein, lucid dreaming, which is defined as traditional meditation techniques; however, Western science the experience of knowing one is dreaming while one is has focused much more on the long-term trait effects of dreaming (LaBerge, 1985), has also been described as a meditation, achieved after years of training, that are thought to transcendent experience linked to wellbeing, increased self- be therapeutic (Rubia, 2009). Although the impact of meditation confidence, psychological resilience, and positive emotions trainings on the frequency or intensity of peak experiences (Soffer-Dudek, 2020). Lucid dreaming is considered a hybrid has not been widely studied, some studies have analyzed the state of consciousness in which part of the brain operates in Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 2 April 2022 | Volume 13 | Article 858745 Garcia-Campayo et al. Meditation, Peak Experiences, and Lucid Dreams the primary mode, while another part has access to secondary civil status, level of studies, employment status), meditation consciousness (Stumbrys et al., 2012; Voss et al., 2013). Research (experience, frequency, minutes of practice, years of practice, indicates that around 55% of adults have experienced at context of meditation), and peak experiences (experience, least one lucid dream, while 23% experience them frequently frequency, intensity, consequences, ability to self-induce the (Saunders et al., 2016). Previous research has already reported peak experience, and the feelings derived from it). The following significant links between absorption and lucid dreaming—as questionnaires were also included to assess the main constructs well as with other consciousness states—suggesting that it of the present study: could be considered a predisposing factor for such experience The Five Facets of Mindfulness Questionnaire, 24-item version (Glicksohn and Barrett, 2003; Hunt, 2007; Terhune, 2009; Rosen (FFMQ-24; Bohlmeijer et al., 2011) is a short version of the et al., 2017; Glicksohn, 2019). In addition to absorption, some original FFMQ (Baer et al., 2008) in which the five facets of authors have identified other variables associated to that lucid mindfulness are assessed: “observing” (4 items), “describing” dreaming that suggest that this experience can be somehow (5 items), “acting with awareness” (5 items), “non-judging” (5 trained; in this regard, Stumbrys and Erlacher (2017) concluded items), and “non-reacting to the inner experience” (5 items). that cultivating mindfulness could increase dream control in The score of the subscales ranges between 5 and 25, except for those who experience lucid dreams. Interestingly, dispositional “observing,” which ranges between 4 and 20. The total score mindfulness in wakefulness has been associated with lucid dream of the FFMQ-24 is calculated by adding up the scores of the frequency (Stumbrys et al., 2015), suggesting that the attentional subscales and ranges between 24 and 120. Higher scores indicate control mechanisms that underline mindfulness trait could be higher levels of mindfulness. The FFMQ-24 presents strong also active in the dream state, increasing the ability to control psychometric properties, similar to the ones of the original FFMQ the dream. However, longitudinal studies should be conducted (Bohlmeijer et al., 2011). The scale was validated in Spanish to overcome the confirm such hypotheses. by Asensio-Martínez et al. (2019) with internal consistency The main objective of the present study was to explore the ranging between α = 0.65 (“observing”) and 0.80 (“acting with associations between practicing meditation and the transcendent awareness”). The internal consistency of the total scale in the experiences of peak experiences and lucid dreams in the general present study was high (α = 0.88, subscales ranging between 0.72, population. The role of non-dual awareness, mindfulness facets, for “observing,” and 0.86 for “non-judging”). and absorption was also assessed as possible predictors of the The Non-dual Embodiment Thematic Inventory (NETI; individual’s tendency to present peak experiences and dream Butlein, 2006) is a 20-item questionnaire designed to evaluate lucidity. The authors’ hypotheses were that the frequency and qualities of the non-dual experience and spiritual awakening. intensity of peak experiences and the occurrence of dream NETI assesses a number of variables, including frequency of non- lucidity would be significantly higher among meditators, and that dual experiences, which refer to states of self-transcendence states non-dual awareness, absorption, and mindfulness facets would be that have also been referred to as peak experiences (Martin et al., significant predictors of the primary outcomes. 2021). The total score is calculated with a range between 20 and 100, with higher scores indicating higher non-dual awareness. The scale has shown good psychometric properties (α = 0.91) MATERIALS AND METHODS (Butlein, 2006; Martin et al., 2021) and was translated to Spanish for the purpose of this study. The internal consistency of the Participants and Procedure NETI in the present study was high (α = 0.81). Participants were individuals who had taken the Master of The Tellegen Absorption Scale (TAS; Tellegen and Atkinson, Mindfulness program at the University of Zaragoza (Spain) 1974) is a 34-item questionnaire that assesses absorption, and students from other courses on mindfulness and related which has been previously described (section “Introduction”) disciplines offered by our group. The recruitment was conducted as a construct closely related to hypnotizability, openness to from February through April, 2021; emails with information experience, and imagination (Glisky and Kihlstrom, 1993). regarding the study were sent to every potential candidate. Those Moreover, absorption is associated with periods of relaxed who agreed to participate by signing the informed consent were focused attention (Owens et al., 1999). Each item requires a provided with a link to the survey, which, in addition to questions dichotomous answer (Yes/No), and every positive answer is pertaining to sociodemographic information and validated added up to give a total score that can range between 0 and 34, questionnaires, contained a number of ad hoc questions on peak where higher scores indicate higher levels of absorption. TAS has experiences and meditation practice (see section “Instruments”). shown good psychometric properties (Kihlstrom et al., 1989) and SurveyMonkey was the platform used for collecting the data. was translated to Spanish by Perona-Garcelán et al. (2013) with The study protocol was approved by the ethical review board high internal consistency (α = 0.93), similar to the one in the of the regional health authority of Aragon, Spain (PI21/243). All present study (α = 0.88). procedures performed in this study were in accordance with the The Lucidity and Consciousness in Dreams Scale (LUCID; 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments. Voss et al., 2013) is a 28-item questionnaire that assesses key aspects of dream lucidity in detail regarding one recent dream Instruments that the respondent has to choose. LUCID presents 8 subscales: The online survey included ad hoc questions regarding insight, control, thought, realism, memory, dissociation, negative sociodemographic information (gender, age, nationality, emotion, and positive emotion. Each item is answered using a Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 3 April 2022 | Volume 13 | Article 858745 Garcia-Campayo et al. Meditation, Peak Experiences, and Lucid Dreams 6-point Likert scale (0 = never, 5 = always); a score for every frequency of practice, 28 people (11.8%) reported practicing subscale as well as a global score can be obtained by calculating meditation daily, 36 (15.2%) did so multiple times per week, 20 the mean of the items. Scores range between 0 and 5, with (8.4%) practiced once per week, 26 (10.7%) practiced meditation higher scores indicating higher levels of lucidity. The Spanish at least once per month, and 3 (1.3%) never practiced. The mean version of LUCID has presented good psychometric properties practice duration in minutes was 22.46 (SD = 13.84). (α ranging between 0.65 for “memory” and 0.83 for positive Among those who had experience with meditation, 63 (55.8%) emotion) (García-Campayo et al., 2021). The internal consistency had learned by taking a course, 13 (11.5%) had learned in a of the total scale in the present study was very high (α = 0.91, religious context, 10 (8.8%) had learned in the context of therapy, subscales ranging between 0.72, for “realism” and “dissociation,” and 26 (23%) were self-taught. Of these, 21 participants (18.6%) and 0.90 for “positive emotion”). reported having been practicing for less than a year, while most had between 1 and 3 years of practice (n = 36, 31.9%), and 20 Analysis (17.7%) had more than 10 years’ experience. Only 15 participants The sociodemographic characteristics and study variables (13.3%) used meditation in a religious context. were described using frequencies (and percentages) or means This information was used to create two subgroups based not (and standard deviation, SD), depending on the distribution only on experience with meditation but also on the reporting of each variable. of at least sporadic frequency of practice: meditators (i.e., those Two subgroups were defined based on the self-reported who reported practicing meditation at least once per month; experience of meditation and frequency of practice: those n = 110) and non-meditators (i.e., those who reported no who reported practicing meditation at least once per month experience with meditation or practiced less than once per were considered meditators, while those who reported no month; n = 127). Table 1 shows the characteristics of each experience with it or practicing less than once per month subgroup; some significant differences were appreciated in the were considered non-meditators. Chi-squared or Student’s t-tests variables “Gender” and “Education level” (p < 0.050), since were conducted to assess between-group differences. Bivariate greater proportions of females and higher education levels were correlations between the study variables were computed and observed among meditators. reported as Supplementary Material. Linear regression models were computed to analyze the Peak Experiences predictive role of sociodemographic (i.e., sex, age, level of More than half of the sample (n = 138, 58.2%) reported having education, civil status, and employment status) and study experienced at least one peak experience in their life, with variables (i.e., being a regular meditator and the scores of the a mean of 13.68 (SD = 29.35), although two subjects that questionnaires and its subscales) on FFMQ, NETI, TAS, and were not included in this analysis reported having experienced LUCID total scores. A logistic regression model was computed countless peak experiences. The mean intensity (0–100) of these to analyze the predictive role of the same variables on the self- experiences was 68.81 (SD = 28.02), although it should be noted reported occurrence of a peak experience. that 52 individuals (37.7%) described an intensity of 80 or higher. An alpha level of.050 was set, using a two-tailed test. The The mean for the number of participants who reported that Benjamini-Hochberg correction for multiple tests was applied peak experiences involved a change in their lives (0–100) was (Glickman et al., 2014). Data analyses were computed using IBM 58.72 (SD = 37.52), and a notable proportion of them (n = 48, SPSS v26.0 statistical software. 34.8%) also reported an impact of 80 or more. These changes could be related to meaning of life (n = 79, 57.2%), social relationships (n = 69, 50%), emotion regulation (n = 68, 49.3%), and spirituality (n = 57, 41.3%). Among those who had been RESULTS through a peak experience, some mentioned feeling complete attention to the present moment (n = 72, 52.2%), intense positive Participants’ Sociodemographic affect (n = 95, 68.8%), admiration and humility (n = 68, 49.3%), Characteristics self-transcendence (n = 56, 40.6%), disorientation (n = 54, A total of 237 individuals participated in the present study. 39.1%), and a complete loss of fear (n = 74, 53.6%). The most Most of them were females (n = 178, 75.1%) and Spanish predominant of these feelings was positive affect, as reported by (n = 199, 84%), with a mean age of 44.30 years (SD = 13.00). 41 of these participants (29.7%). Approximately half of the participants were married or in a Only 32 individuals (23.2% of the subsample of participants stable relationship (n = 131, 55.3%), most had finished university with peak experiences) reported being able to self-induce one of studies (n = 184, 77.9%), and were in employment (n = 174, these experiences. Some of them (n = 11) described meditation 73.4%). Table 1 provides the participants’ sociodemographic or other contemplative techniques as potential inducers of peak characteristics in detail. experiences, while a few referred to nature, music, and drugs. The proportion of individuals who were able to self-induce peak Meditation Experience experiences was not significantly different in the two subgroups According to the self-reported answers given by the study (χ2 = 2.15, p = 0.142). participants, 113 (47.7%) of them had experience in practicing Peak experiences were more common among meditators: 79 of meditation, while the remaining 124 did not. With regard to these individuals (71.8%) reported having undergone at least one Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 4 April 2022 | Volume 13 | Article 858745 Garcia-Campayo et al. Meditation, Peak Experiences, and Lucid Dreams TABLE 1 | Baseline characteristics of patients by treatment group. Meditators (n = 110) Non-meditators (n = 127) Total (n = 237) p Age, mean (SD) 44.78 (11.64) 43.89 (14.11) 44.30 (13.00) 0.873 Gender, n of females (%) 90 (81.80%) 88 (69.3%) 178 (75.1%) 0.026 Marital status, n (%) Single 35 (31.8%) 43 (33.9%) 78 (32.9%) 0.333 Married/relationship 59 (53.6%) 72 (56.7%) 131 (55.3%) Separated/divorced 15 (13.6%) 9 (7.1%) 24 (10.1%) Widowed 1 (0.9%) 3 (2.4%) 4 (1.7%) Nationality, n (%) Spanish 89 (80.9%) 110 (86.6%) 199 (84%) 0.242 Others (Latin-American) 17 (15.5%) 16 (12.6%) 33 (13.9%) Others (European) 4 (3.6%) 1 (0.8%) 5 (2.1%) Education, n (%) No studies 0 (0%) 1 (0.8%) 1 (0.4%) 0.040 Primary studies 2 (1.8%) 8 (6.3%) 10 (4.2%) Secondary studies 13 (11.9%) 28 (22%) 41 (17.4%) University 94 (86.2%) 90 (70.9%) 184 (77.9%) Employment, n (%) Employed 83 (75.5%) 91 (71.7%) 174 (73.4%) 0.136 Unemployed 11 (10%) 7 (5.5%) 18 (7.5%) Home duties 3 (2.7%) 1 (0.8%) 4 (1.7%) Student 3 (2.7%) 10 (7.9%) 13 (5.5%) Sick leave 5 (4.5%) 4 (3.2%) 9 (3.8%) Retired 5 (4.5%) 14 (11%) 19 (8%) In bold, statistically significant results. peak experience, compared with non-meditators (n = 46, 46.8%; with awareness” (t = 1.69, p = 0.093). NETI and TAS also χ2 = 15.11, p < 0.001). Nonetheless, there were no differences presented significant differences, always reflecting higher scores regarding the number (t = 0.81, p = 0.421) nor the intensity for the meditators. With regard to LUCID, differences were (t = 0.30, p = 0.763) of peak experiences between meditators observed in the “thought” and “dissociation” subscales, but these and non-meditators. resulted only tendencies close to significance after applying the Besides practicing meditation, a number of other significant Benjamini-Hochberg correction. differences were found when comparing those who had at least The bivariate correlations between the study variables are one self-reported peak experience with those who did not: reported as Supplementary Material. As expected, significant the only sociodemographic variable that presented a significant positive correlations were found between the FFMQ total score difference was the employment status (χ2 = 22.69, p = 0.004), (and most of its subscales), the NETI and the TAS. These two in which higher proportions of individuals on sick leave and latter scales also correlated positively and significantly with the unemployed, and lower proportions of students and retired LUCID total score, while only some significant associations were participants were found among those with at least one self- found with the LUCID subscales. reported peak experience. A number of scales and subscales presented significantly higher scores in this subgroup: NETI (t = −3.98, p < 0.001), TAS (t = −4.99, p < 0.001), FFMQ Predictive Role of the Study Variables in total score (t = −2.54, p = 0.012) and its subscales “observing” Self-Reported Peak Experiences, Levels (t = −4.05, p < 0.001) and “describing” (t = −2.37, p = 0.019), of Mindfulness, Non-dual and LUCID total score (t = −2.50, p = 0.013) and its subscales Transcendence, Absorption, and Lucidity “thought” (t = −2.59, p = 0.010), “realism” (t = −2.55, p = 0.011), and “positive emotions” (t = −2.47, p = 0.014). in Dreams A binary logistic regression was computed considering having undergone a peak experience as the outcome. A significant model Between-Group Differences in the Study (χ2 = 36.14, R2 = 0.19, p < 0.001) showed that peak experiences Variables (Meditators vs. were predicted by higher scores in the TAS (B = 0.08, p < 0.001) Non-meditators) and in the LUCID-Realism subscale (B = 0.24, p > 0.036), and by Table 2 presents the between-group differences in the study being a meditator (B = 0.85, p = 0.004). variables. Significantly higher scores were observed in FFMQ In the case of non-dual transcendence (i.e., NETI score), the total score and its subscales for meditators, except for “acting linear regression model (F = 43.86, R2 = 0.49, p < 0.001) showed Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 5 April 2022 | Volume 13 | Article 858745 Garcia-Campayo et al. Meditation, Peak Experiences, and Lucid Dreams TABLE 2 | Between-group differences (i.e., meditators vs. non-meditators) in the positively predicted by TAS score (B = 0.04, t = 5.54, p < 0.001) study variables. and negatively predicted by age (B = −0.01, t = −2.97, p = 0.003) Meditators Non- p and education level (B = −0.20, t = −2.35, p = 0.019). (n = 110) meditators (n = 127) *FFMQ total, mean (SD) 84.75 77.39 <0.001 DISCUSSION (12.21) (11.34) *Observing 15.53 13.83 <0.001 This study explored the associations between practicing (2.64) (2.97) meditation and having the transcendent experiences of peak *Describing 18.82 17.10 0.001 experiences and lucid dreaming, while studying the possible (3.91) (3.79) predictive role of the key variables of non-dual awareness, *Acting with awareness 16.42 15.60 0.093 mindfulness facets, and absorption on the study outcomes. (3.56) (3.87) Participants were divided according to their self-reported *Non-judging 17.29 15.69 0.003 experience and frequency of practicing meditation into two (4.11) (4.15) groups (meditators and non-meditators). Two statistically *Non-reacting 16.70 15.17 <0.001 (3.37) (2.93) significant differences were found between the two groups: *NETI, mean (SD) 64.08 59.93 <0.001 there was a higher proportion of females and individuals with (8.42) (7.59) university education among meditators. Despite being minor, *TAS, mean (SD) 22.09 18.42 <0.001 these differences can be important since it has been described that (6.72) (6.82) transcendent experiences can be more frequent among females *LUCID total, mean (SD) 1.96 (0.90) 1.86 (0.84) 0.352 and people with higher education (Hay and Morisy, 1978). In our Insight 1.64 (1.26) 1.72 (1.15) 0.582 study, close to 60% of the total sample reported having undergone *Control 1.55 (1.36) 1.38 (1.19) 0.315 at least one peak experience in their life, which represents *Thought 2.36 (1.47) 1.95 (1.43) 0.029 a notably higher proportion than those reported in previous *Realism 2.95 (1.29) 2.84 (1.31) 0.532 studies conducted some decades ago in the United Kingdom *Memory 1.73 (1.33) 1.64 (1.20) 0.576 and the United States (Glock and Stark, 1965; Greeley, 1975; *Dissociation 1.53 (1.33) 1.16 (1.24) 0.027 Hay and Morisy, 1978). A more recent study (Hoffman et al., *Negative emotion 1.78 (1.49) 1.99 (1.49) 0.280 2012a) asked 153 Americans aged 40–65 to describe a recent *Positive emotion 2.15 (1.66) 2.16 (1.55) 0.956 peak experience, in this case simply defined as a recent joyful In bold, statistically significant results, even after applying the Benjamini-Hochberg experience; while most referred to an interpersonal experience correction. The differences in “Realism” and “Dissociation” (LUCID) were not (e.g., becoming a father), only six people (3.9%) reported a statistically significant after applying the correction (i.e., p > 0.050). religious or philosophical experience, which would be closer to the concept of peak experience that has been used in the present as significant predictors the following variables, all of them with study. More studies have focused on exploring peak experiences a positive influence: FFMQ-Non-reacting (B = 1.11, t = 8.00, during childhood and youth, finding that this phenomenon p < 0.001), FFMQ-Non-judging (B = 0.49, t = 4.81, p < 0.001), is common and transcultural (Hoffman and Muramoto, 2007; TAS (B = 0.28, t = 4.81, p < 0.001), the LUCID-Positive emotion Hoffman et al., 2010, 2012b). subscale (B = 0.52, t = 2.13, p = 0.034) and the employment status Our study adds information regarding the characteristics of (B = 0.51, t = 2.05, p = 0.041). the peak experiences that previous studies had not reported: A significant linear regression model (F = 30.28, R2 = 0.44, the mean number of peak experiences was 13.68 and the mean p < 0.001) indicated that the levels of mindfulness (i.e., FFMQ intensity (0–100) was 68.81, while the mean impact on the total score) were positively predicted by NETI (B = 0.76, t = 9.29, individual’s life (0–100) was 58.72. This impact was mainly p < 0.001), TAS score (B = 0.23, t = 2.36, p = 0.019), the LUCID observed in terms of meaning of life, and intense positive subscale “realism” (B = 1.50, t = 2.99, p = 0.003) and being a affect was commonly felt during peak experience. These results meditator (B = 2.87, t = 2.33, p = 0.026), and negatively predicted are in line with the classic characterization of transcendent by the LUCID subscales of “negative emotions” (B = −1.53, experiences, defined by fulfillment (i.e., generation of positive t = −3.68, p = 0.001) and “positive emotions” score (B = −1.46, emotions and the intrinsic rewarding nature of the experience), t = −3.51, p = 0.001). significance (i.e., increased personal understanding derived from Absorption levels (i.e., TAS scores) were significantly the experience) and spirituality (i.e., the feeling of being one with predicted (F = 47.94, R2 = 0.44, p < 0.001) by the following the world) (Privette, 2001). variables: FFMQ-Observing (B = 1.22, t = 10.04, p < 0.001), As hypothesized, the proportion of individuals who reported NETI (B = 0.21, t = 4.38, p < 0.001), and LUCID (B = 1.54, having at least one peak experience was significantly higher t = 3.77, p < 0.001) had a positive influence in the predictive among participants who practiced meditation: 71.8% compared model, while FFMQ-Non-judging (B = −0.31, t = −3.38, with 46.8% of non-meditators. This significant difference p = 0.001) had a negative one. supports the idea that practicing meditation can promote A significant linear regression model (F = 13.63, R2 = 0.15, transcendent experiences, which was the original aim of p < 0.001) showed that the increase in LUCID scores was many meditation traditions (Rubia, 2009). The practice of Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 6 April 2022 | Volume 13 | Article 858745 Garcia-Campayo et al. Meditation, Peak Experiences, and Lucid Dreams contemplative techniques, such as mindfulness, can help were found between these two subscales both in our study and individuals to develop non-dual awareness, which is a key in Garcia-Campayo et al. (2021). While previous studies have element of transcendent experiences since these imply a state of indicated that practicing meditation may have a notable influence consciousness characterized by altered or expanded awareness on lucid dreaming (Baird et al., 2019; Garcia-Campayo, 2022), the (Levin and Steele, 2005). This was observed in our study when lack of significant differences in most of the LUCID subscales in the subgroup of meditators presented significantly higher NETI our study leaves this question open. scores than non-meditators. Moreover, and again as expected, Finally, the interconnection between the study variables was individuals who practiced meditation showed significantly higher clear, as were the significant correlations that were observed levels of mindfulness, including all the mindfulness facets, except between most of them and the significant predictive role that “acting with awareness,” which only presented a tendency close to many played at least in one of the study outcomes. Two significance. Likewise, absorption levels measured by TAS were variables were particularly significant in terms of predicting significantly higher among those who practiced meditation. outcomes in our study: on one hand, being a meditator was Nonetheless, significant differences between meditators and a significant predictor of higher levels of mindfulness and of non-meditators were not found for some of the assessed variables having undergone at least one peak experience, which goes related to peak experiences. That was the case of the number in line with the study hypothesis and what previous studies of peak experiences in a lifetime, and their mean intensity. had reported (Falkenström, 2010; Martin et al., 2021). On the This could suggest that these variables may not be directly other hand, also as expected, absorption was a very relevant associated with the practice of meditation but with some other variable since it was observed to play a significant predictive characteristics. In this regard, our study showed significantly role in many outcomes: having a peak experience, non-dual higher scores for non-dual awareness, absorption, and the embodiment levels, mindfulness levels, and dream lucidity. mindfulness facets of observing and describing, together with a Previous studies had already observed significant associations number of LUCID subscales, being achieved by individuals who of absorption with transcendent or peak experiences (Glicksohn had at least one peak experience compared to those who had and Barrett, 2003; Bresnick and Levin, 2006; Studerus et al., 2012), never had one. Some of these variables seem to be particularly meditation (Holzel and Ott, 2006; Bowden et al., 2012; Grant related to the experience of transcendent states (Owens et al., et al., 2013; Berkovich-Ohana and Glicksohn, 2017), and lucid 1999; Hanley et al., 2018; Martin et al., 2021). However, while dreams (Glicksohn and Barrett, 2003; Hunt, 2007; Terhune, 2009; the practice of meditation is associated with increases in these Rosen et al., 2017; Glicksohn, 2019), and therefore our results outcomes, some individuals may already present high levels in add to the existing evidence regarding the significant associations these areas without the need to practice mindfulness or other between these variables. contemplative techniques, possibly allowing them to achieve the same number and intensity of peak experiences. Another variable that did not show significant differences Limitations between meditators and non-meditators was the proportion The results of this study need to be interpreted in light of of individuals who reported being able to self-induce a peak several limitations. First, the nature of the relations reported experience. In total, 32 individuals said that they could induce here cannot be attributed to causality. The results are based one of these experiences via different means (e.g., meditation, on self-reported measures, and some bias is expected. The contact with nature, music, drugs). Interestingly, Maslow (1964) questionnaires used are validated measures that have been considered that peak experiences could not be self-induced, consistently utilized in previous studies, and the Spanish which could indicate that these participants may not have shared adaptation was used in all cases except for the NETI, whose his understanding of the term “peak experience” in the same way, Spanish version has not been validated yet. On the other although he did acknowledge that some forms of art could be hand, constructs such as “peak experience” are still hard triggers for transcendent experiences. to measure and, therefore, ad hoc questions needed to be As far as dream lucidity is concerned, two tendencies close included to complement the information assessed by the to significance were observed in the two LUCID subscales validated scales, and some of these questions may not have of “thought” and “dissociation,” reflecting higher scores for been explicit enough (e.g., “intensity” of the peak experience). meditators. The first refers to logical thought about other dream Furthermore, it should be pointed out that the LUCID characters (e.g., “while dreaming, I often thought about my scale does not assess the frequency of lucid dreams but the own actions”), while “dissociation” refers to experiencing the characteristics of one recent dream, which did not allow dream from a third person’s perspective (e.g., “I watched the this study to draw conclusions on how much more likely dream from the outside, as if on a screen”) (Voss et al., 2013). meditators were to have lucid dreams compared with non- In a similar line, a previous study (García-Campayo et al., meditators. Future studies should consider the inclusion of ad hoc 2021) observed that the meditators scored more highly for the questions in this regard. “insight” and “dissociation” factors and reported that length of On the other hand, the study used a convenience sample meditation experience was significantly associated with “control” of the general Spanish population that cannot be considered and “dissociation” (i.e., higher scores for more meditation representative of the general population. Further studies should experience). “Dissociation” seems to be clearly related to the replicate our findings using more heterogeneous samples. mindfulness facet of “observing,” and significant associations Moreover, the classification of the participants as “meditators” Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 7 April 2022 | Volume 13 | Article 858745 Garcia-Campayo et al. Meditation, Peak Experiences, and Lucid Dreams not only included frequent meditators but also those who ETHICS STATEMENT practiced “at least once a month.” It is likely that this subgroup was too heterogeneous and not representative of The studies involving human participants were reviewed and actual meditators, in which case further studies should consider approved by Comité de Ética de la Investigación de la Comunidad using a stricter criterion to define meditators. Finally, the de Aragón (CEICA). The patients/participants provided their exploratory nature of this study implies that our results need to written informed consent to participate in this study. be interpreted with caution; the potential predictive role of the variables included here should be tested in future studies with adequate approaches. AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS JG-C: conceptualization, methodology, resources, writing— review and editing, supervision, and project administration. CONCLUSION RH-A: writing—review and editing. AB-S: formal analysis, investigation, data curation, writing—review and editing. SF-M: Our results suggest that having undergone a peak experience conceptualization and investigation. RA: conceptualization, is more common among people who practice meditation, even writing—review and editing. AP-A: methodology, formal if the frequency of practice is low, compared with those who analysis, writing—original draft. All authors contributed to the have never meditated. The number of peak experiences and article and approved the submitted version. their intensity, and the ability to self-induce them does not seem to be affected by the practice of meditation; however, some key variables such as non-dual awareness, mindfulness FUNDING facets, and absorption were significantly higher in meditators. Dream lucidity, on the other hand, was not clearly higher in The project has received funding from DGA group (B17_20R) individuals who practiced meditation as only two subscales and the Network for Prevention and Health Promotion in (“thought” and “dissociation”) presented significant differences. Primary Care (RD16/0007/0005) grant from the Instituto de The interconnection between the study variables was clear, as Salud Carlos III of the Spanish Ministry of Economy and were the significant correlations that were observed between Competitiveness, co-financed with European Union ERDF funds. most of them and the predictive role that many played in at AP-A was the holder of a “Sara Borrell” research contract from least one study outcome. These exploratory results support the the Instituto de Salud Carlos III (CD20/00181). This study was potential of meditation to facilitate transcendent experiences and supported by Chair of Contemplative Sciences and Master of the wellbeing associated with them, while its effect on dream Mindfulness of the University of Zaragoza, Spain. The funders lucidity remains unclear. did not have any influence on the results. SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT The Supplementary Material for this article can be found The data that support the findings of this study are available from online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg. the corresponding author upon reasonable request. 2022.858745/full#supplementary-material REFERENCES Bohlmeijer, E., Klooster, P. M., Fledderus, M., Veehof, M., and Baer, R. (2011). Psychometric properties of the five facet mindfulness questionnaire in Asensio-Martínez, Á, Masluk, B., Montero-Marin, J., Olivan-Blázquez, B., depressed adults and development of a short form. Assessment 18, 308–320. Navarro-Gil, M. 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