TYPE Systematic Review PUBLISHED 03 November 2022 DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.971617 A systematic review on lecturing OPEN ACCESS in contemporary university EDITED BY Salvador Chacón-Moscoso, Seville University, Spain teaching REVIEWED BY Iwan Wopereis, Héctor Tronchoni1,2*, Conrad Izquierdo3 and Open University of the Netherlands, Netherlands M. Teresa Anguera4 Roman Freunberger, 1 Faculty of Teacher Training, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain, 2 Faculty of Education, Florida Institut des Bundes für Universitària, Valencia, Spain, 3 Faculty of Psychology, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Qualitätssicherung im österreichischen Barcelona, Spain, 4 Faculty of Psychology, Institute of Neurosciences, University of Barcelona, Schulwesen, Austria Barcelona, Spain *CORRESPONDENCE Héctor Tronchoni hector.tronchoni@gmail.com SPECIALTY SECTION Introduction: Articles published in scientific journals, concerning the present This article was submitted to Quantitative Psychology and future of the lecture format in university education in the twenty- and Measurement, first century are framed within organizational settings that drive teaching a section of the journal Frontiers in Psychology methodologies in line with educational policies. The following two research RECEIVED 17June 2022 questions have arisen from articles in which debate the continuity of this ACCEPTED 21 September 2022 teaching modality and propose improvements of a different nature: (1) Is PUBLISHED 03 November 2022 there an interest in renovating the lecture format among the international CITATION research community whose remit is university teaching methods? and (2) Tronchoni H, Izquierdo C and Anguera MT (2022) A systematic What improvements to the lecture format do the reviewed articles suggest, review on lecturing in contemporary within the framework of the communicative matrix of interactive learning? university teaching. Front. Psychol. 13:971617. Method: We have carried out a systematic review guided by the doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.971617 PRISMA approach, emphasizing the interest in methodological conceptual COPYRIGHT © 2022 Tronchoni, Izquierdo and commitment, paying attention to documents published in journals with an Anguera. This is an open-access article impact factor. The search strategy was applied homogeneously in three distributed under the terms of the databases: ERIC, PsycInfo, and Web of Science, following the systematic Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or process of inclusion/exclusion. reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original Results: Forty-five articles were selected with a range of 0–78 quotations, author(s) and the copyright owner(s) from different fields of knowledge and five continents; 12 articles are from are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in journals with a JCR impact factor. The journal articles cover communicative accordance with accepted academic (21), cognitive (13) and active-practical perspectives (11); the predominant practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does governing aim of the analyzed improvements is connected with the attendees’ not comply with these terms. academic performance results (24); the reviewed studies belong mainly to the quantitative paradigm (42). The considerations derived from the results (45) cover formative, technical and/or critical aspects. Discussion and conclusions: Whilst positively valuing all these efforts promoted by the European Higher Education Area, we have also verified the lack of contributions in line with our concerns that embrace the need to Frontiers in Psychology 01 frontiersin.org Tronchoni et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.971617 develop an in-depth conceptualization, supported by a methodology that is sensitive to the complexity of the oral communication format between an expert actor and non-specialized actors who wish to connect and collaborate with the expert in the production of knowledge. KEYWORDS systematic review, lecture, PRISMA, higher education, university teaching Introduction the interpersonal communication skills that may mobilize the participants (Darling-Hammond et al., 2017; Mallin, 2017; Within the context of the new vision of higher education Hayden and Chory, 2018; Stockard et al., 2018; Thwin and Lwin, (UNESCO Declaration, 1998; The Bologna Declaration, 1999) 2018). Whilst it is assumed that the lecture is a face-to-face we propose to contribute to the renovation of teaching format, the incorporation of the Internet into formal teaching methodology by systematically reviewing the case of the has led to the lecture format being increasingly present in university lecture format (Tronchoni et al., 2018, 2021; different online educational modalities or synchronous hybrid Tronchoni, 2019). We agree with the view that the expository- contexts (Raes et al., 2020), with studies appearing concerning lecture format based on the programming of subject lessons the use of interactive webinars (Gegenfurtner and Ebner, 2019) should be reassessed both from a communicative standpoint and and pre-recorded lecture classes (O’Callaghan et al., 2017). from the angle of the shared production of academic knowledge Furthermore, over the last 2 years its synchronous virtual during university lessons. and online use has been propelled by the COVID pandemic The lecture is effectively one of the most used teaching (Younis and Elbanna, 2022). methods in universities (Fortanet-Gómez and Ruíz-Madrid, This tendency has led to the publication of studies 2014), and at first glance there does not appear to be committed to the transformation of the lecture into an issue between the use of this teaching format and the what could be called the new expert lecture, a subject institutional commitment to the development of democratic currently under debate within international higher values and the promotion of social welfare. In fact, the education forums (French and Kennedy, 2017; Buzzanell, study of the lecture as an improved expository format in 2017; Darling, 2017; Meyer and Hunt, 2017; Sciullo, higher education has its own place within the area of 2017; Stearns, 2017; Waldeck and Weimer, 2017; Instructional Communication within the field of interpersonal Samarasekera et al., 2018). communication (Mazer and Hess, 2017). The synthetic review narrative that precedes the current In the last two decades there has been a proliferation of situation of the lecture in higher education has led us publications that deal with the lecture-type expository format to pose the central exploratory questions of this synthetic (Pérez-Llantada and Ferguson, 2006; Deroey and Taverniers, systematic review, reducing the PICO strategy to three 2011; O’Callaghan et al., 2017), noting the multiple functions elements: population (P), intervention (I), and result (O). and wide diversity of knowledge areas to which it is applied Firstly, we seek answers to the following questions: (Research (Steinert and Snell, 1999; Dolnicar et al., 2009; Stacy, 2009; Question 1) Is there an interest in renovating the lecture Tanahoung et al., 2009; Özcan, 2013), whilst highlighting the format among the international research community whose positive opinion that students have of this teaching format remit is university teaching methods? And secondly (Research (Bates et al., 2017; Buchanan and Palmer, 2017). Question 2), what improvements to the lecture format do Approval (or disapproval) of this teaching method ranges the reviewed articles suggest, within the framework of the from emphasizing or questioning its effectiveness in small communicative matrix of interactive learning (Ruesch and and large groups (Steinert and Snell, 1999; Kramer, 2017), to Bateson, 1951)? appraising the development of students’ listening and note- taking skills (Meyer and Hunt, 2017). With the incorporation of active pedagogies in university Method teaching, different studies have shown a concern for the role played by the lecture in the students’ learning process (Barr This work follows the updated protocol of The and Tagg, 1995; Dannels, 2016; Darling, 2017; Tronchoni et al., Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and 2021). This is giving rise to a change of direction in terms of Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) for the transparent, complete understanding how active listening can benefit from other self- and precise presentation of systematic review reports directed cognitive and emotional processes, whilst not forgetting (Page et al., 2021). Frontiers in Psychology 02 frontiersin.org Tronchoni et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.971617 Search strategy Selection process The search was carried out across three databases: The selection process involved firstly a review of the titles PsycInfo, Web of Science, and ERIC, and the search strategy and articles, and secondly a detailed review of the complete texts for identifying material was homogeneously applied: title of the remaining articles taking into consideration the eligibility containing the term lecture, AND teaching methods OR lecture criteria (see Figure 1). method among the key words. This search tool was completed with the filters: articles in journals, university level education, peer review, complete text available, English language and time Sample obtained range from 2012 to 2021. Table 1 includes all the selected articles (n = 45) in chronological order, with the year of publication, the Eligibility criteria name of the journal and the title of each article appearing from left to right. The eligibility criteria applied were: articles of an empirical nature applied to university level education, with a conventional summary and methodological structure (introduction, method, Analytical framework results, and discussion). The aim was to give priority to studies that deal with specific experiences of changes in the The constructed analytical framework consists of two lecture, with a defined organization. Reviews of any kind dataframes: (narrative, bibliographical or meta-analysis) were discarded (I) Firstly, the scientific visibility and institutional backing on the assumption that the established period of analysis of the selected research was coded (see Figure 2). The was insufficient to allow for the production of additional geographical origin indicator was taken into consideration since elaborative material. it provides information about the existing educational policies FIGURE 1 Flow diagram (PRISMA 2020) with selection process. Frontiers in Psychology 03 frontiersin.org Tronchoni et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.971617 TABLE 1 Selected articles in chronological order. Year Journal Title 2012 Journal of Pragmatics The interdependence of repetition and relevance in university lectures 2012 The Behavior Analyst Today The relative effects of traditional lectures and guided notes lectures on university student test scores 2012 The Behavior Analyst Today The Relation between GPA and Exam Performance during Interteaching and Lecture 2012 Interactive Learning Environments Explaining students’ appraisal of lectures and student-activating teaching: Perceived context and student characteristics 2012 Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Education Learning transferable skills in large lecture halls: Implementing a POGIL approach in biochemistry 2013 International Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Finding the Right Fit: Assessing the Impact of Traditional v. Large Learning Lecture/Small Lab Course Formats on a General Education Course 2013 Advances in Language and Literary Studies Developing a Specialized Vocabulary Word List in a Composition Culinary Course through Lecture Notes 2013 International Journal of Higher Education Features of Application of Classroom Response System at the Lectures in Russia and Israel 2013 Novitas-ROYAL (Research on Youth and Language) A Study on Perception of Lecturer-Student Interaction in English Medium Science Lectures 2013 Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education A Comparison of Internet-Based Learning and Traditional Classroom Lecture to Learn CPR for Continuing Medical Education 2013 British Journal of Educational Technology An augmented lecture feedback system to support learner and teacher communication 2014 Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning Teacher Immediacy and Student Learning: An Examination of Lecture/Laboratory and Self-Contained Course Sections 2014 Teaching of Psychology If you record it, some won’t come: Using lecture capture in introductory psychology 2015 Online Learning Using Instructor-Generated Video Lectures in Online Mathematics Courses Improves Student Learning 2015 Informatics in Education Using Short Video Lectures to Enhance Mathematics Learning–Experiences on Differential and Integral Calculus Course for Engineering Students 2015 Journal of Evolution of Medical and Dental Sciences-JEMDS Comparison of the traditional chalk and board lecture system versus power point presentation as a teaching technique for teaching gross anatomy to the first professional medical students 2015 Journal of Interactive Media in Education Digital Voting Systems and Communication in Classroom Lectures–An Empirical Study Based around Physics Teaching at Bachelor Level at Two Danish Universities 2015 Canadian Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning Sustainability: Teaching an Interdisciplinary Threshold Concept through Traditional Lecture and Active Learning 2015 Journal of Evolution of Medical and Dental Sciences-JEMDS Comparison of Problem Based Learning with Traditional Lectures among First Year Medical Students in Philosophy 2015 The Mathematics Educator Research on Group Learning and Cognitive Science: A Study of Motivation, Knowledge, and Self-Regulation in a Large Lecture College Algebra Class 2016 International Journal of Higher Education Integration of Histology Lectures and Practical Teaching in China 2016 Turkish Journal of Emergency Medicine The comparison of the efficiency of traditional lectures to video-supported lectures within the training of the Emergency Medicine residents 2016 Journal of College Teaching & Learning Preparing Students for Class: A Clinical Trial Testing the Efficacy between Multimedia Pre-Lectures and Textbooks in an Economics Course 2016 Journal of Curriculum and Teaching The Use of Pre-Recorded Lectures on Student Performance in Physiology 2017 International Journal of Evaluation and Research in Education Students’ Critical Thinking Improvement through “PDEODE” and “STAD” Combination in the Nutrition and Health Lecture 2017 Bali Medical Journal Effectiveness of teaching: Jigsaw technique vs. lecture for medical students’ Physics course 2017 Advances in Engineering Education Large Lecture Transformation: Improving Student Engagement and Performance through In-Class Practice in an Electrical Circuits Course 2017 GIST-Education and Learning Research Journal Questions in English as a Medium of Instruction versus Non-English as a Medium of Instruction Lectures (Continued) Frontiers in Psychology 04 frontiersin.org Tronchoni et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.971617 TABLE 1 (Continued) Year Journal Title 2017 Journal of Education and Practice The Effect of Instructional Methods (Lecture-Discussion versus Group Discussion) and Teaching Talent on Teacher Trainees Student Learning Outcomes 2018 Journal of Learning in Higher Education Building a Case for Active Learning: The Use of Lecture vs. Other Classroom Activities at LMBC 2018 Computers & Education Impact of slide-based lectures on undergraduate students’ learning: Mixed effects of accessibility to slides, differences in note-taking, and memory term 2018 Journal of Chiropractic Education Comparison of student performance and perceptions of a traditional lecture course versus an inverted classroom format for clinical microbiology 2018 International Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Role-Play in Literature Lectures: The Students’ Assessment of Their Learning Learning 2018 International Journal of Higher Education Use of a Scaffolded Case Study Assignment to Enhance Students’ Scientific Literacy Skills in Undergraduate Nutritional Science Education: Comparison between Traditional Lecture and Distance Education Course Formats 2019 Journal of Learning Analytics Diversity of Online Behaviours Associated with Physical Attendance in Lectures 2019 Anatomical Sciences Education Interactive Lecture in the Dissection Hall: Transforming passive lecture into a dynamic learning experience 2019 English Language Teaching Micro-Lecture Teaching for Improving the Learning Effect of Non-English Majors at North China Electric Power University 2019 European Journal of Contemporary Education Three Scientific Facts about Ukrainian and Polish Law-Students: Verification of Statistical Hypotheses about their Preferences of Learning at Lectures 2019 International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Diversity in Video Lectures: Aid or Hindrance? Learning 2020 Research in Learning Technology The Effect of Adding Same-Language Subtitles to Recorded Lectures for Non-Native, English Speakers in E-Learning Environments 2020 International Journal of Higher Education A UTAUT Evaluation of WhatsApp as a Tool for Lecture Delivery during the COVID-19 Lockdown at a Zimbabwean University 2020 Sage Open Nursing Comparison of the Conceptual Map and Traditional Lecture Methods on Students’ Learning Based on the VARK Learning Style Model: A Randomized Controlled Trial 2020 Advances in Medical Education and Practice Comparison Between Problem-Based Learning and Lecture-Based Learning: Effect on Nursing Students’ Immediate Knowledge Retention 2020 Bulletin of the University of Karaganda-Chemistry Presenting lecture materials in English using CLIL technologies 2020 Journal of E-Learning and Knowledge Society Does the sequence of flipped and lecture-based classes affect the academic achievement and satisfaction of medical students? and quality demands in higher education in the universities produced and disseminated: we are referring to the number of of the countries of reference. Along with the country of quotations taken from the article, and the scientific evaluation reference, the knowledge area or discipline of the academic received by the journal responsible for the publication from subject matter is indicated in those which generated some type some of the most respected platforms concerning the assessment of renewal proposal of the lecture format based on empirical and analysis of performance and scientific research quality. evidence. The codes of the knowledge areas/disciplines are: The number of quotations is an indicator of the professional sciences (CEX); biological sciences (BIO), medicine and health repercussion that the article has had, both in the area of sciences (MED), social sciences (SOC), economic and business university education and in the pedagogic and didactic research administration sciences (EAD), humanities (HUM) and diverse of teaching methods—this was obtained via Google Scholar or indeterminate (DIV). and identified until the end of 2021; the positioning of the A distinction can be made between countries and journal includes the impact factor (JCR-WoS) and the quartile continents, –and, ultimately, between universities and (Q) to which it belongs according to the year the selected institutions that recognize the relevance of, or have financed, article was published. research in this field. This generates an ordered record of (II) The second dataframe refers to the multidimensional institutional recognition of the origin of said research. This classification of the structural components that produce data is completed by two relevance indicators of the knowledge significant differences in the way of conceiving and structuring Frontiers in Psychology 05 frontiersin.org Tronchoni et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.971617 Table 2 contains the symbols assigned to the categories used in the content analysis of the sample obtained via the PRISMA procedure. Results Table 3 shows the analysis of the scientific production relevance indicators (Quotations and IF JCR) and the supported relevance in origin (country, university, disciplinary knowledge) of the reviewed empirical articles: FIGURE 2 Criteria for the analysis of institutional backing and the visibility achieved with the publication of an empirical study aimed at improving the functioning of the university lecture. Scientific visibility and institutional backing Number of quotations: presence/absence of the research object. As all the studies that make up the dataframe links criterion refer to how to relate and drive teaching and learning in the The number of quotations ranges from 0, a study by Shabani renovated use of the university lecture, we would like to point et al. (2020), to 78 (see Figure 3), an article by Bailey et al. out that the practical and technical proposals do not always (2012) that deals with the transformation of the expository entail a theoretical justification identifiable as belonging to lecture in a large group, within a teaching format focused on a recognized and named learning paradigm. Rather what is the student. As the number of quotations rises, the number of produced is a free use of concepts and techniques that can articles diminishes, and therefore the most recently published respond to different theoretical focuses (Entwistle, 2018). articles show a lower number of quotations than the articles Taking this into account, the distinctive features considered published in the first years of the time span used in this were: conceptual perspective, guiding aim, type of study study (2012–2021). The number of accumulated quotations and applied result. from all the articles as a whole was 759. It is worth assessing the presence of links among researchers concerned about the a) We identified three perspectives of a technical nature same issues rather than the quantity received, given that the applied to the improvement of the lecture format: materialization of synergies is more sensitive to the conditions the communicative perspective (COM), the cognitive in which the quotations are produced rather than the quantity perspective (COG), and the participative-practical of quotations received. perspective (ACT). b) The consolidated guiding aim that routed the selected Impact factor: scientific reliability criterion research was conceived in terms of aptitude-treatment Of the 45 articles selected, 12 (27%) belong to journals interaction (Cronbach and Snow, 1977) and the criteria with an impact factor: 5 of Q1, 3 of Q2, 3 of Q3, and 1 of derived to characterize the dominant concern were: Q4 (see Figure 4). The greatest impact factor is 5.627 and student potential or aptitude (DIS), the strategies and corresponds to an article published in the Q1 journal, Computers conditions of the teaching to be carried out (INS), & Education, about the effects of access to projected slides performance (REN) and the combination (COB) of criteria during lectures using Powerpoint (Kim, 2018). The recognition (INS-REN, INS-DIS, DIS-REN). that research groups and communities give to the need for an c) The methodological option that structures the research external assessment of their material before publishing, and the object on epistemological, ontological, and procedural aspiration of being assessed by highly qualified journals, are levels can be specified with the widely argued and accepted two points that reflect the concern for obtaining applied results proposal of quantitative (QUAN) and qualitative (QUAL) and a good path to achieving tangible applied results based on paradigms, and mixed-method (MM). rigorous studies. d) Finally, the applied results or conclusive recommendations can be understood as being aimed at assessing the Geographical-academic distribution: education fostered by the lecture (FOR), technology for institutional backing criterion learning and knowledge (TEC), and the need to compare The geographical distribution (see Figure 5) of the selected the use of the lecture with other teaching methods (CRI). articles is presented, from highest to lowest incidence, as follows: These criteria can be presented combined in the same USA (14), Iran (4), India (3), Spain (3), South Korea (2), article (MIX). China (2), Indonesia (2), and the rest of the 15 countries Frontiers in Psychology 06 frontiersin.org Frontiers in Psychology Tronchoni et al. TABLE 2 Dimensions of the analytical framework with components, symbols, categories, and examples for the analysis of the obtained data. Dimensions of the analytical framework I. Scientific visibility and institutional backing II. Multidimensional classification of the structural components of the analyzed research Component Symbol Category Component Symbol Category Example: Author, year/Fragment of article No of quotations (Google Academic) Perspective COM Communication Giménez-Moreno, 2012 Examine (.) the interdependence between relevance and repetition in current lecturing by firstly reviewing the main communicative strategies. Impact factor JCR (sanctioning index of the relative relevance of the scientific COG Cognition Monk and Newton, 2018 Is the change in students SL skills journal depending on the quotations received) related to their learning approach (i.e., deep versus surface learning approaches)? Country (university) of reference relevance sanction ACT Active Bailey et al., 2012 Keywords: active learning, cooperative/collaborative education Field of MED Medicine and Health Aim REN Performance Kinnari-Korpela, 2014 Students’ learning is assessed 07 knowledge/Studies Sciences SOC Social Sciences: DIS Dispositional Starichenko et al., 2013 Reveal students’ attitude to CRS Education, Psychology abilities CEX Exact Sciences INS Instructional Werner et al., 2018 Study about teachers BIO Biological Sciences COB Combination Chimmalgi, 2019 Students’ satisfaction and performance are assessed HUM Humanities Methodology QUAN Quantitative Vázquez and Chiang, Controlled clinical experiment 2016 EAD Economic and Business QUAL Qualitative Ní Riain et al., 2018 Qualitative research on the use of Administration Sciences role-play DIV Diverse or unidentified MM Mixed-Method Navaz, 2013 Mixed-method perspective Continent AME America Result FOR Formative Nordin et al., 2013 Title: Developing a Specialized Vocabulary Word List in a Composition Culinary Course 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.971617 through Lecture Notes EUR Europe TEC Technological Mathiasen, 2015 Title: Digital Voting Systems and Communication in Classroom Lectures frontiersin.org (Continued) Tronchoni et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.971617 performance and perceptions of a an inverted classroom format for traditional lecture course versus Example: Author, year/Fragment of article Title: Comparison of student Title: If You Record It, Some Won’t Come: Using Lecture Capture in Introductory clinical microbiology II. Multidimensional classification of the structural components of the analyzed research Psychology Burnham and Mascenik, Drouin, 2014 2018 Category Critical Mixed FIGURE 3 Relationship between number of quotations and number of articles. Dimensions of the analytical framework (1). The geographical distribution covers the continents: Asia (18), North America (15), Europe (8), Africa (3), and Symbol Oceania (1), and highlights the absence of articles from MIX Central and South America. The diversity of countries and CRI continents reflects the diversity of educational policies and proposals for the improvement of university education in Component the twenty-first century. However, the seminal ideas of a teaching founded on the attention to differences and on the proposal of active teaching methods with a vision tinged by constructivism and support for a spirit of collaboration, appear to emerge in the discourse of the international communities and groups dedicated to educational research within higher education. Since the UNESCO Declaration (1998) and the The Bologna Declaration (1999) on innovative I. Scientific visibility and institutional backing educational methods, the lines of improvement converge on Category an intercontinental level in pedagogic and didactic terms. Oceania Africa Asia Another matter entirely is the availability of means (economic, equipment, teacher training, etc.) and the cultural codes involved in the regulation of the complex factors present in situations of interactive learning induced by expository Symbol ACE AFR and highly specialized formats of teaching, as is the case of ASI postgraduate and doctoral lectures. Field of knowledge: plasticity of innovative TABLE 2 (Continued) teaching methods criterion In the group of selected articles, the studies deal with Component different areas of knowledge (see Table 4): MED (11), SOC (11), CEX (9), HUM (5), EAD (4), DIV (4), and BIO (1). Whilst all the curricular disciplines are involved in creating a renovation in the field of cognitive strategy communication, teamwork, or Frontiers in Psychology 08 frontiersin.org Tronchoni et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.971617 TABLE 3 Analytical framework of the sample of reviewed empirical articles. No. of Frame of the scientific visibility and institutional Multidimensional classification of structural article backing components No. of Impact Country Field of Perspective Guiding Type of Results quotations factor knowledge aim study 1 78 0.70/Q4 USA CEX ACT DIS QUAN FOR 2 77 – USA CEX COG REN QUAN TEC 3 73 1.394/Q1 Spain SOC COM DIS QUAN TEC 4 53 – USA SOC COG INS REN QUAN FOR 5 52 – Finland CEX COM REN MM TEC 6 48 0.667/Q3 USA SOC COM DIS REN QUAN TEC CRI 7 34 – USA SOC COM REN QUAN FOR 8 26 – USA SOC COM REN QUAN FOR 9 23 1.302/Q1 Belgium SOC ACT DIS QUAN FOR 10 20 – Sri Lanka DIV COM INS DIS MM FOR 11 20 – Iran CEX COM REN QUAN FOR TEC 12 19 – Turkey MED COG REN QUAN FOR TEC 13 19 – India MED ACT REN QUAN FOR TEC 14 18 5.627/Q1 South Korea SOC COG REN QUAN FOR TEC 15 16 – Indonesia BIO ACT REN QUAN FOR 16 15 – Denmark CEX COM REN QUAN TEC 17 15 – USA SOC ACT DIS QUAN FOR 18 12 – USA EAD COG REN QUAN FOR TEC 19 11 – USA MED COM DIS REN QUAN CRI 20 11 – Russia/Israel DIV COM DIS QUAN TEC 21 10 – China MED COM REN QUAN FOR 22 10 – Australia DIV COM DIS QUAN FOR TEC 23 9 – Iran CEX COM REN QUAN CRI 24 9 Q2 South Africa HUM COG REN QUAN FOR TEC 25 9 – Zimbabwe DIV COM DIS QUAN TEC 26 8 3.759/Q1 India MED COG DIS REN QUAN FOR 27 8 – Malaysia HUM COM INS QUAN FOR 28 7 2.297/Q1 South Korea HUM COG REN QUAN FOR TEC 29 7 – USA CEX ACT DIS REN QUAN CRI 30 6 – USA SOC COG REN QUAN FOR 31 5 – Poland/ SOC COM DIS REN QUAN FOR TEC Ukraine 32 4 Q3 Iran MED COG REN QUAN CRI 33 4 – USA CEX COG REN QUAN FOR 34 4 – USA EAD ACT INS QUAN FOR 35 3 0.7/Q2 Spain EAD COM INS QUAN FOR 36 3 – China HUM COM REN QUAN FOR TEC 37 3 – Spain EAD COM INS QUAN FOR 38 2 – USA MED ACT REN QUAN FOR TEC 39 2 – Indonesia SOC COM REN QUAN CRI 40 2 – Canada MED COG DIS REN QUAN FOR 41 1 Q2 Ethiopia MED COG DIS REN QUAN FOR 42 1 – Kazakhstan CEX COM REN QUAN FOR 43 1 – India MED ACT REN QUAN CRI 44 1 – Ireland HUM ACT REN QUAL FOR 45 0 Q3 Iran MED ACT DIS REN QUAN CRI Frontiers in Psychology 09 frontiersin.org Tronchoni et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.971617 The guiding-aim of the selected studies correspond to: INS (4), DIS (7) and REN (24) and in 10 articles two of these aims are combined: INS + REN (1), INS + DIS (1), and DIS + REN (8). One sign of lecture maintenance is precisely that responses are designed to the problems of performance, and to those arising from teacher conduct as being responsible for the teaching action involved in all the facilitating modes of interactive learning. The methodologies used in the generation and analysis of data focus on the QUAN perspective (42), while the other two options are only present in three articles (QUAL, 1 and MM, 2). It is important to underline that the journals with a higher impact factor located in the quartiles Q1 and Q2 do not propose any methodological FIGURE 4 restrictions, whilst some of them even advocate openly for Placement of articles in journals with impact factor (JCR-WoS) the inclusion of research that responds to the quantitative, and quartile (Q). qualitative and mixed-method approaches. These journals are: Anatomical Sciences Education, British Journal of Educational Technology, Interactive Learning Environments, in the way of assessing results, the concern about improving the Computers & Education, International Review of Research lecture format remains a didactic setting that can be adapted to in Open and Distributed Learning, Research in Learning interactive and collaborative learning conditions. Technology, Journal of Pragmatics, Advances in Medical Education and Practice. The applied results and/or recommendations from the Multidimensional classification of studies influence the following aspects: FOR (20), CRI (7), structural components TEC (6), and in 12 articles two of these are combined: FOR + TEC (11) and TEC + CRI (1). What stands out The articles cover three perspectives: COM (21), COG (13), is the teaching value of the lecture and the incorporation and ACT (11). The plasticity of the didactic methods shown of telematic computerized resources. It also provides a above facilitates a complex approach to the research object. The reflection about the role of technical aspects in pedagogic and limits are imposed by the research object as defined by the didactic improvements. researcher, although the frequency of the studies assigned to one The intersection of the conceptual perspective dimension category or another is not the most important thing. What we with the methodological affiliation provides us with a new wish to highlight is that the three orientations are present in the picture of the data when the nine resulting regroupings are analyzed sample. considered (see Table 5). FIGURE 5 Geographical provenance ordered by number of articles. Frontiers in Psychology 10 frontiersin.org Tronchoni et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.971617 TABLE 4 Fields of knowledge of the analyzed studies. M 12 X I 5 5 2 0 0 Field of knowledge Number of articles C R Result 7 I 3 1 3 0 0 MED 11 C T E 6 4 1 0 0 1 SOC 11 CEX 9 20 O R F 7 6 5 1 1 HUM 5 EAD 4 10 O C B 3 4 2 0 1 DIV 4 N S 4 I 3 0 1 0 0 BIO 1 Aim Total 45 D S 7 I 4 0 3 0 0 24 N R E 9 9 4 1 1 TABLE 5 Conceptual-methodological commitment (perspectives and methodologies). O C E 1 1 0 0 0 0 Perspective COM COG ACT Total conceptual/ A R F 3 1 2 0 0 0 Continent Methodology U R E 8 5 0 1 1 1 QUAN 3, 6, 7, 8, 11, 2, 4, 12, 14, 1, 9, 13, 15, 42 16, 19, 20, 21, 18, 24, 26, 28, 17, 29, 34, 38, 18 A S I 8 5 4 0 1 22, 23, 25, 27, 30, 32, 33, 40, 43, 45 31, 35, 36, 37, 41 M 15 A E 4 6 5 0 0 39, 42 QUAL 44 1 D V 4 I 3 0 0 0 1 MM 5, 10 2 Total 21 13 11 45 O B 1 I 0 0 0 0 1 Field of knowledge D A E 4 2 1 1 0 0 An analytical view of the methodological commitment M H U 5 2 2 0 1 0 in each regrouping is presented as a whole in Table 6, M characterized by: 11 D E 2 5 4 0 0 X C E 9 4 2 2 0 1 Methodological commitment QUAN-COM, 11 O C S 6 3 2 0 0 QUAN-COG, and QUAN-ACT There are 19 QUAN-COM articles (42.2%) and they include TABLE 6 Analytical view of the methodological commitment in each regrouping. 32 16 F S I 7 6 1 2 301 quotations (39.7%). Three articles have an impact factor Impact factor Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 1 0 0 1 0 0 (Q1, Q2 and Q3), and are from diverse fields of knowledge: SOC (6), CEX (4), DIV (3), EAD (2), MED (2); are from different 3 1 1 1 0 0 continents: AME (4), ASI (8), EUR (5), AFR (1), and OCE (1). The aims are of type REN (9), DIS (4), INS (3) and DIS-REN (3), 3 1 2 0 0 0 and the results of type FOR (7), TEC (4), CRI (3), TEC-CRI (1) 6 1 3 2 0 0 and FOR-TEC (4). There are 13 QUAN-COG articles (29%) and they include quotations 301 (39.7%) 165 (21.7%) 759 (100%) 220 (29%) 72 (9.5%) 1 (0.1%) No of 220 quotations (29%). Six articles have an impact factor (Q1, Q2, and Q3), and are from diverse fields: MED (5), SOC (3), CEX (2), HUM (2), and EAD (1); and are from different continents: AME (6), ASI (5), and AFR (2). The aims are of type REN (9), DIS- 19 (42.2%) REN (3), and INS-REN (1), and the results are of type FOR (6), 45 (100%) articles 13 (29%) 10 (22%) 1 (2.3%) 2 (4.5%) No of FOR-TEC (5), TEC (1), and CRI (1). There are 10 QUAN-ACT articles (22%) and they include 165 quotations (21.7%). Four have an impact factor (Q1, Q3, and Methodological Q4), are from diverse fields of knowledge: MED (4), CEX (2), commitment SOC (2), and EAD (1), and are from three continents: AME (5), QUAN-COM QUAN-COG QUAN-ACT QUAL-ACT ASI (4) and EUR (1). The aims are of type REN (4), DIS (4), DIS- MM-COM REN (2), and INS (1), and the results are of type FOR (5), CRI Total (3), and FOR-TEC (2). Frontiers in Psychology 11 frontiersin.org Tronchoni et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.971617 To summarize, the presence of the quantitative conceptual- Understanding the evolution of the relationships between methodological commitment in all the other structural the various components of the teaching system is vital if aspects considered, and its prevalence in the most accredited universities are to offer effective and efficient teaching. Given scientific media, leads us to the conclusion that the web that we have found no other systematic reviews of the proposed of quotations could provide interesting results for the key terms, it is not possible either to verify whether the subjects they cover. description carried out and the conclusions we propose are in line with other reviews, nor to indicate in which aspects our Methodological commitment QUAL-ACT findings differ from those provided by other systematic reviews One QUAL-ACT article was identified, with one quotation of the lecture format. and no impact factor. It is from Ireland, and the field Before entering into the argumentation thread that sustains of knowledge is HUM. The aim is of type REN and the inferential and proactive path of this section, it is worth the result is FOR. pointing out that our empirical conceptual-methodological In light of this datum and taking into account the comment approach connected with educational assessment (Tronchoni about the methodological aperture of the journals with a JCR et al., 2021) has a point of contact—differences aside— impact factor, it is worth underlining the numerous possibilities with the Direct Instruction movement (Engelmann and offered by qualitative methodology (Wertz et al., 2011). Colvin, 2006). When it comes to discussing the coarse matter of the frequency distribution of the different criteria Methodological commitment MM-COM and the subtle silence of the vacuums that the analyzed There are 2 MM-COM articles; they include 72 quotations results produce, we include as a contrast the idea of (9.6%) and have no impact factor. The fields of knowledge are systematizing the way the acquisition of new knowledge is CEX and BIO, and they are from Europe and Asia. The aims accessed in terms of direct instruction proposals, i.e., the are REN in one article and INS-DIS in the other, and the results teaching system of the lecture in our case. We believe are TEC and FOR. that the vacuums or lowest scores can provide a certain Given that we believe the mixed-method conceptual- generalization of interest about the need to construct a common methodological commitment is suitable for the study of the base open to a plurality of viewpoints, but with a clear innovative renovations of the lecture format (Tronchoni et al., message about the need to systematize the lecture format 2021), and the scientific works with methods considered as without renouncing flexibility, plasticity, web connectivity, or inherent integrators of qualitative and quantitative data analysis sustainable effectiveness. (Anguera and Izquierdo, 2006; Bazeley, 2018; Izquierdo and Anguera, 2021), we can only hope that the MM commitment Research Question 1. Is there an interest in renovating the will be present in more studies. On the other hand, the products lecture format among the international research community achieved with this conceptual-methodological commitment are whose remit is university teaching methods? appreciated, valued and recommended for publication in the best placed journals that cover the subjects of teaching and Conclusion 1. The geographical channeling of institutional learning in higher education. backing and the evaluation of the visibility and scientific reliability of the web of quotations is proof positive for tackling the internationalized challenge of the renovation of the Discussion and conclusions lecture format. Unfortunately, the methodological commitment remains incomplete in not providing qualitative and mixed- A descriptive analysis of the results obtained via the method studies, and the databases consulted are not sensitive coding of the criteria dimensions in order to capture the to the research carried out in South American countries. differences produced by the systematically selected sample, This conclusion is based on the following evidence found in produces two conclusions that provide answers to the our research: two research questions posed in the introduction: the first conclusion responds to the question about the current a) In the group of selected articles, the lecture is present in scientific situation of the renovated lecture format subjected a wide diversity of journals. Some of them show a JCR to empirical study. The second conclusive response places impact factor, elaborated on the Web of Science platform value on the identified processes and results, whilst at the (WoS). The visibility of this subject in the scientific- same time demonstrating the need to articulate a proposal academic community interested in the renovation that incorporates an open and dialogued vision of the and innovation of teaching methods in general and teaching system, whose continued renovation should be the lecture in particular, is guaranteed in the period founded on empirical research in as far as this is possible consulted. The five journals with the highest impact factor and necessary. according to year of publication, in ascending order are: Frontiers in Psychology 12 frontiersin.org Tronchoni et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.971617 Interactive Learning Environments (2012), British Journal However, the internationalized agenda of the subjects covered of Educational Technology (2013), International Review is sufficiently pertinent to give rise to partial improvements in of Research in Open and Distributed Learning (2019), the exploitation of technological opportunities (ICT) applied Anatomical Sciences Education (2019), and Computers to the transmission of knowledge, the use of strategies & Education (2018). The conceptual-methodological and the inclusion of participative tasks and techniques. commitments QUAN-COM (3), QUAN-COG (6), and Unfortunately, the analyzed sample does not reflect the concept QUAN-ACT (3) were present in the articles with an of a communicative matrix within the organizational and impact factor. The articles conceived as QUAL-ACT (1) institutional context of the intervened lectures; whilst all the and MM-COM (2), were published in journals indexed on articles are in line with the ideal of promoting interactive other platforms. learning, the consideration as to how teaching should be b) The expository lecture, with a greater or lesser scientific adjusted does not appear. visibility, is a subject that raises interest among researchers The reflection of the obtained data on the improvements in different countries on all continents. The geographical achieved by the interventions carried out in lectures covers the prevalence of the selected articles belongs to the scientific following subjects: production of researchers in Asia (mainly Iran, India, South Korea, China and Indonesia) and the USA. a) Information processing and performance. A total of 17.7% Our database search did not produce selected articles of the higher education sample analyzed describes teaching from South America. On the other hand, Asia and based on improvements in lecture design, beginning North America cover the methodological commitments with the problems raised by providing information to QUAN-COM (12), QUAN-COG (11), and QUAN-ACT be effectively remembered (DIS-REN, 8). The subject of (9); Europe shows an interest in the methodological attention and memory functions in interactive learning commitment QUAN-COM (5) and Africa in QUAN- is linked to good performance and an increase in COG (2) and QUAN-COM (1). Once again, the options learning potential in lectures (French and Kennedy, that structure the research object with a methodological 2017). Another aspect to bear in mind when considering commitment QUAL or MM were silenced. the effects of the informative approach proposed to c) The appearance of quotations in the scientific production the students is whether to promote learning based on of articles is an indicator of the appreciation and value investigative competencies or on repetitive production given to the subject, and of its subsequent incorporation activities (Lundvall and Johnson, 2016). Since both forms into new articles that promote the applied proposals of learning are complementary, there is room for the in real situations within the field of the acquisition of design of mixed trajectories. The shadow of unmonitored curricular, declarative and procedural knowledge, and (by the teacher) repetitive learning grows longer when of that pertaining to the area of values, attitudes, we consider that 53% of our sample places emphasis on and emotions. Quotations generate networks of interest performance (REN, 24). We do not know the diversified through the mobilization of said advances, creating cultures of the universities that use the lecture method, tendencies within studies. This suggests that networks nor do we know the relationship between this format and of influence are being formed. The expository lecture is other methods applied in class sessions, but the emphatic defined by a directly visible web potential that has set in concern about performance might be indicative of a more motion 759 connections in the total of the 45 articles in conventional (the exclusive performance of declarative our sample. Only one recently published article did not content) rather than innovative feature of the researched register any quotations. The web is structured into lesser teaching practice. groupings depending on the methodological commitments b) Prevalent thematic resonance. Two articles with greater found from the QUAN commitment and these are thus resonance show the polarities of the professional and distributed from greater to lesser number of quotations: research interests of the studies carried out. QUAN-COM (301), QUAN-COG (220), and QUAN-ACT On the one hand, the article by Bailey et al. (2012) (165). with IF (JCR) 0.70 (Q4) has 78 quotations (29% of the Research Question 2. What improvements to the lecture group of articles with an impact factor). This article format do the reviewed articles suggest, within the was published in the journal The International Union of framework of the communicative matrix of interactive Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, by three professors learning? from the Biochemistry Department of the University of Nebraska and the Chemistry Department of Seattle Conclusion 2. It is very difficult to know the characteristics University (USA). The article deals with how to transform of the lectures that have been subject to intervention and an expository lecture into a format centered on the their relationship with other teaching and learning methods. students’ learning. The professional nature of the proposal Frontiers in Psychology 13 frontiersin.org Tronchoni et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.971617 connects with the pedagogical revolution of renovating not respond to a holistic and dialogic approach, and that the lecture by incorporating opportunities for participation the concern about individual student aptitude is centered (ACT), and developing skills (DIS) that are necessary for on the satisfaction that preferably cognitive experiences the learning of content that can be transmitted with an generate in being able to drive learning itself, with the expository format (FOR). aid of the teacher’s exposition and the development of On the other hand, the article by Hegeman (2015), necessary strategies and abilities. of Missouri Western State University (USA), has 77 d) The geographical and institutional extent of attempts quotations (16% of the group of articles with no impact to improve the lecture format does not provide the factor) and was published in the journal Online Learning. necessary contextualization of those innovations. The The article analyzes the results of learning facilitated by the internationalization of the aim of improving the lecture use of multimedia material and note-taking. The students format, understood as an expert teaching format, is are given cards designed by the teacher in order to guide undoubtedly benefiting from the possibilities offered by the study of pre-recorded expository algebra sessions. The ICT, multimedia options and the combined use of face- article, conceived from a cognitive perspective (COG), to-face and synchronous virtual sessions (O’Callaghan promotes the implication of the teaching staff in the et al., 2017; Gegenfurtner and Ebner, 2019; Raes et al., technical handling (TEC) of telematic opportunities and 2020). These new possibilities, sensitive to the educational the construction of tutorial material, with the aim of and economic conditions of each university and country, facilitating a greater performance (REN) from the students. present the need to develop specific designs in terms of c) Communicative matrix of the educational system. It is how to implement and drive instructional participative striking that just 13% of the sample gives a description interaction that mobilizes reasons to cooperate, together of teaching that places the focus on the teaching with the strategic use of collaborative cognitive-emotional format in relation to performance or student aptitude abilities implied in the process of acquiring academic (INS-REN, 1; INS-DIS, 1), and on the appropriateness knowledge. of the lecture for carrying out certain learning (INS 4). One silenced aspect derived from this fact is the concern about the influence of teacher-student learning The reviewed articles propose changes (COM, COG, ACT) relationships (Entwistle, 2018). The good design and good but do not give contextual keys to understanding how to application of an educational system—which may be the go about it and to conceptualize what is proposed as an improved lecture—should incorporate the complex loop of intellectual and experiential result above and beyond a mere communicative interactions between the four identifiable recuperation of information. levels of exchange in the educational system: (i) the To summarize, from standpoint regarding the political-economic and cultural-educational conditions conceptualization of the innovation of the lecture format both inside and outside the classroom, (ii) the academic and the conceptual-methodological commitment adopted and professional side of the disciplines, (iii) the physical in the empirical research of this subject (Tronchoni et al., and virtual meeting spaces, and (iv) the personalities of 2021), we believe that the review carried out alerts us to the students and teachers. This reading of the renovated the lack of studies that provide an integrated response to lecture reinforces the ritual of roles (Goffman, 1967) that the conditions and roles of interactive learning, together can promote dialogic interaction within the juncture of with tackling the production of emotional-intellectual teaching with interactive learning. There are those who experiences that reinforce the dialogic and collaborative search for this juncture in valuing the role played in the links of all the participants. Whilst all the methodological design and execution of the lecture by the active, attentive options might be appropriate for structuring empirical student who is a synthesizer of retrievable and revisable studies about the improvements sought by good interactive information. Another line of juncture seeks to potentiate design and a good execution of the renovated lecture, we oral participation. In this context of considerations, would like to underline that the mixed-method approach 71% of the reviewed studies direct their concern about of systematic observation (Anguera et al., 2017) fits well communication toward academic performance, with some with the idea of being able to finalize reliable formative mentions of student aptitude or the expository teaching assessments contingent upon the diversity of people, the of the content covered (COM-REN, 10; COM-COB, 4). If disciplines involved, space-time conditions, own and imported we take into account that 47% of the articles incorporate educational cultures, and the most distal influences. The the COM perspective, then it would be important for focus of the observation centers on participative interaction, a the subject of academic performance to predominate in mechanism responsible for the organization of exchanges order to vouch for the virtues of the renovated lecture and for controlling the means of producing academic format. We suspect that the communicative focus does knowledge, and for the emotional-intellectual experience. Frontiers in Psychology 14 frontiersin.org Tronchoni et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.971617 Above and beyond the satisfaction produced by academic Acknowledgments results, the emotional-intellectual experience that emerges from the social implication in the construction of knowledge can We gratefully acknowledge the support of a Spanish be considered a powerful resource for personal growth and Government subproject Integration ways between qualitative collective wellbeing (Claxton, 1984). and quantitative data, multiple case development, and synthesis Every systematic review has inherent limitations to its review as main axis for an innovative future in physical activity own profile—such as the proposal of selection criteria for and sports research (PGC2018-098742-B-C31) (2019–2021) primary documents—that inevitably have an influence on (Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y Universidades, Programa the results, both on those obtained, and on the vacuums Estatal de Generación de Conocimiento y Fortalecimiento detected. An example of this is the culture of research Científico y Tecnológico del Sistema I+D+i), that is part of the itself which may exist in relation to the expository lecture coordinated project New approach of research in physical activity in Latin American countries, made invisible by opting and sport from mixed methods perspective (NARPAS_MM) for selection criteria that we feel to be suitable (such as (SPGC201800X098742CV0). the English language). Furthermore, another limit could be that the filter with the term lecture may hide diverse understandings of the lecture format within the specification of Conflict of interest each study. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships Data availability statement that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. 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