Journal of Business Ethics (2023) 182:7–32 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-021-04946-6 ORIGINAL PAPER Counter‑reporting sustainability from the bottom up: the case of the construction company WeBuild and dam‑related conflicts Antonio Bontempi1 · Daniela Del Bene2 · Louisa Jane Di Felice2 Received: 25 December 2020 / Accepted: 6 September 2021 / Published online: 3 December 2021 © The Author(s) 2021, corrected publication 2022 Abstract Controversies around large-scale development projects offer many cases and insights which may be analyzed through the lenses of corporate social (ir)responsibility (CSIR) and business ethics studies. In this paper, we confront the CSR narratives and strategies of WeBuild (formerly known as Salini Impregilo), an Italian transnational construction company. Starting from the Global Atlas of Environmental Justice (EJAtlas), we collect evidence from NGOs, environmental justice organizations, journalists, scholars, and community leaders on socio-environmental injustices and controversies surrounding 38 large hydropower schemes built by the corporation throughout the last century. As a counter-reporting exercise, we code (un) sustainability discourses from a plurality of sources, looking at their discrepancy under the critical lenses of post-normal science and political ecology, with environmental justice as a normative framework. Our results show how the mismatch of narratives can be interpreted by considering the voluntary, self-reporting, non-binding nature of CSR accounting performed by a corporation wishing to grow in a global competitive market. Contributing to critical perspectives on political CS(I)R, we question the reliability of current CSR mechanisms and instruments, calling for the inclusion of complexity dimensions in and a re-politicization of CS(I)R accounting and ethics. We argue that the fields of post-normal science and political ecology can contribute to these goals. Keywords Corporate social irresponsibility · Large dams · Hydropower schemes · Salini Impregilo · WeBuild · Counter- reporting · Post-normal science · Political ecology · Environmental justice · EJAtlas Introduction With these words, the CEO of the multinational construc- tion company WeBuild, Pietro Salini, replied to an Ital- ian journalist, addressing concerns raised by civil society Everyone can say foolish things. You know what? organizations over the controversial impacts of the Gibe III There are five million people who believe that the hydropower scheme in Ethiopia (EJAtlas, 2020a). Accord- Earth is flat. And they even vote – Pietro Salini, CEO ing to several scholars, media and environmental justice of WeBuild.1 organizations, the dam has deprived hundreds of thousands of indigenous people living downstream of their livelihoods * Antonio Bontempi (ARWG, 2009; Carr, 2017; Franchi & Manes, 2016; Hodbod antoniobontempi88@gmail.com et al., 2019; Human Rights Watch, 2014a; OECD Watch, Daniela Del Bene 2017; Survival International, 2021; The Oakland Institute, d.delbene@gmail.com 2019). The Italian corporation, however, states in their 2016 Louisa Jane Di Felice Sustainability Report that “Gibe III has been designed and louisajane.df@gmail.com built with great care in terms of the effects on local com- 1 Geography Department, Autonomous University munities, in order to mitigate its impacts and enhance its of Barcelona, Building B, Campus UAB, Bellaterra benefits” (Salini Impregilo, 2016b, p. 37). (Cerdanyola del Vallès), 08193 Barcelona, Spain Reality and truth are not the same for everyone, as philos- 2 Institute for Environmental Science and Technology, opher of science Ravetz argues: “[…] any image of reality, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Building ICTA‑ICP being constructed within a particular system, simultaneously (Z), Campus UAB, Bellaterra (Cerdanyola del Vallès), 1 08193 Barcelona, Spain Turano (2011). 13 Vol.:(0123456789) 8 A. Bontempi et al. reveals, distorts and conceals” (Ravetz, 2006, p. 280). This disclosures with alternative sources reporting from the is especially relevant in complex situations, when diverg- ground. In doing so, we highlight high-level controversies ing beliefs and values are at play and forged by (strongly tied to 38 large hydropower schemes linked with WeBuild. unequal) power relations. Under these circumstances, what Our point of departure for the comparative analysis is the claims, or grievances count as legitimate? What values bulk of data on socio-environmental conflicts related to the reveal, distort, and conceal interests behind a particular Italian corporation retrieved from the Global Atlas of Envi- system? ronmental Justice—the EJAtlas (EJAtlas, 2021; Martinez- Controversies surrounding corporate social responsi- Alier, 2021; Temper et al., 2015, 2018). This is then further bility (CSR) disclosures are a case in point. CSR became expanded through an exploration of the available sources of popular both in the academy and in policymaking in the global evidence around the 38 contentious cases. 1950s as an analytical tool to hold transnational corpora- Empirically building on the scholarships of post-normal tions (TNCs) accountable for the ethics of their behavior science, political ecology, and environmental justice, we aim (Carroll, 1999; Garriga & Melé, 2004; Taneja et al., 2011). to enrich critical thinking in the business ethics literature by Recently, engaged scholars have criticized CSR frameworks problematizing the debate on CSR ethics, and by proposing and indicators both theoretically and empirically for their the EJAtlas as a novel methodological tool for discussing weakness in including sustainability dimensions,2 or on the CSR. While counter reports are recognized as powerful tools grounds that they may be used to hide irresponsible behav- for the politicization of CSR (Gallhofer et al., 2006), they are ior (Cho & Patten, 2013; Kotchen & Moon, 2011; Lewis, rarely adopted from academia as they are considered costly 2016; Maher, 2019). The inconsistencies between CSR dis- (Macellari et al., 2021), or are relegated to campaigners closures and from-the-ground facts or partial information and activists (Gallhofer et al., 2006). Adopting an activist- about corporate behavior have been referred to as corporate scholar spirit, we use our stance to amplify the voices and hypocrisy (Antonetti et al., 2020; Delmas & Burbano, 2011). experiences that are left untold in the standard CSR framing, By unveiling corporate hypocrisy, viewed by many as an through the case study of a TNC operating in the global dam ethically unacceptable practice, the moral legitimacy behind building market. Throughout our analysis, we ask: To what the ‘social license to operate’ of TNCs can be questioned degree do CS(I)R reports account for environmental justice (Ehrnström-Fuentes, 2016; Ehrnström-Fuentes & Kröger, dimensions? Can the complexities of such dimensions be 2017; Gehman et al., 2017). included in these forms of accounting? Building on this critical view, engaged academics intro- Environmental justice struggles around large hydropower duced the concept of corporate social irresponsibility schemes provide many cases and insights which may be ana- (CSIR), arguing that CSR narrowly points to practices, poli- lyzed through the lenses of political CSR and business eth- cies, controls, and procedures that are self-reported by cor- ics. Supporters of such projects promise environmental and porations themselves (Maher, 2019; Riera & Iborra, 2017). social benefits. However, evidence shows how the same pro- From a political and post-colonial perspective, Banerjee jects disrupt local environments and displace populations. (2003, 2008a, 2008b, 2010, 2011) has claimed that the very Despite extensive literature on the subject (Ansar et al., concept of CSR should be politicized, problematized, and 2014; Bompan et al., 2017; Del Bene et al., 2018; Kirch- deconstructed for the benefit of marginalized communities, herr & Charles, 2016; McCully, 2001), a growing number by asking: “How can we create alternative structures of of dams is being planned and constructed as a strategy to decision-making, conflict resolution and accountability?” cut down carbon emissions (Zarfl et al., 2014). As of 2018, (Banerjee, 2008a, p. 75). approximately 70% of global renewable electricity supply In this paper, we address Banerjee’s call through a coun- was provided by hydropower (IEA, 2020). The sector has ter-reporting exercise,3 focusing on over six decades of grown rapidly since the mid-2000s, due to the increased civil works by WeBuild. We contrast the company’s CSR energy demand brought by the industrial sector, growth in urban consumption, and new funding and favorable policies for carbon–neutral energy sources (Steller, 2013). Private 2 actors play an increasingly important role in this trend, as While we acknowledge the three ‘classical’ dimensions of sustain- public–private partnerships are on the rise and new financ- ability, that are most used in business reporting (economic, environ- mental, social), we also understand them as inter-linkable and over- ing schemes with an important component of private capital lapping (Lonzano and Huisingh, 2011). are emerging (Braeckman et al., 2020). In this context, it 3 We acknowledge that the two terms ‘accounting’ and ‘reporting’ becomes urgent to unpack the CSR discourses of dam build- have been sometimes used interchangeably although the former is ing companies and to problematize their premises. probably more commonly in use in Accounting research. However, The article is structured as follows: after a theoretical and we chose in the article to use 'reporting' in order to stress the fact that our practice deals with matters that are by no means commensurable, context background, we explain the methodology for data or countable. collection and analysis. We then present the results. Here, 13 Counter‑reporting sustainability from the bottom up 9 the dimensions of socio-environmental injustice that emerge be thought of as a new way of doing science, addressing from the review are codified into recurring categories and issues where “facts are uncertain, values in dispute, stakes confronted with the CSR rhetoric of WeBuild’s sustain- high and decisions urgent” (Ravetz, 1986, p. 422)—as in ability reports. We provide first a general overview of the most, if not all, sustainability problems. Among the various environmental injustices tied to 38 hydro-dams, and then directions that post-normal science research took (Turn- focus more specifically on the unsustainability claims tied penny et al., 2011), the intention of providing a theoretical to emblematic cases. Finally, we discuss the results in the framework to improve the quality of the scientific process is context of post-normal science, political ecology, environ- particularly relevant for our scope. The idea is that science mental justice, and business ethics. cannot hold “the truth” or be “true”, but it can have lower or higher quality depending on who was involved throughout the process, on the motivations behind it and on the frames Theoretical Framework used to describe a complex issue. For example, Ravetz cri- tiqued Kuhn’s notion of scientific revolutions, arguing that Political CSR and Business Ethics science from the 1970s was increasingly corrupted as driven by military and industrial interests (Turnpenny et al., 2011). The politicization of CSR discourses and practices is a grow- He called back then for the development of a critical science ing cue for discussion in business ethics and management, that would embrace a plurality of perspectives, singularities as well as organization studies (Scherer & Palazzo, 2011). and unpredictabilities, generated outside of the military- Political CSR has been conceptualized with the aim of shift- industrial complex. Ravetz’s call is theoretically grounded ing from an instrumental view of CSR to a political one, that in complexity science, where it is recognized that the same is morally informed and democratically driven (Palazzo & issue or situation may be viewed and described differently Scherer, 2006; Scherer & Palazzo, 2007, 2011). This per- by different actors, and that these views are non-reducible spective enables debates around governance, responsibility, to one another (Ahl et al., 1996; Mayumi & Giampietro, democracy, and the legitimacy of CSR (Scherer & Palazzo, 2006; Rosen, 1991; Simon, 1991). This calls for approaches 2011). However, Scherer and Palazzo (2011) recognize the that embrace a plurality of voices (Mitchell, 2009). Embrac- challenge for the business ethics literature in dealing with ing plurality does not mean that “anything goes” (Stirling, the complexities behind the post-national and post-modern 2010), nor does it imply falling into epistemological anar- constellation of actors and the related growing pluralism of chism (Feyerabend, 1993). Rather, plurality is intended here values and norms: “the question remains of how the legiti- as a means to avoid the hegemonization of narratives, with macy of corporate activities can be normatively accessed the storylines constructed by powerful actors being the ones when no universal criteria of ethical behavior are avail- determining whether a process is sustainable or not. Thus, able” (ibid., p. 906). If the goal is to open the governance dominant narratives produced by those in power need to be on CSR democratically to a highly diverse arena of actors, confronted with alternative narratives built in decentralized the dilemma can be solved by starting to give more weight ways outside of centers of power (Longhurst & Chilvers, to the voices that are left untold in standard CSR framing. 2019). In this context, traditional experts need to work with Banerjee (2008a), Ehrnström-Fuentes (2016) and Hussain an extended peer community of those “affected by or with and Moriarty (2018) agree that there is a danger that mar- special knowledge of the issue” (Turnpenny et al., 2011, ginalized or excluded stakeholders (who often coincide with p. 292). The involvement of an extended peer community the supposedly beneficiaries of corporate actions) may lack becomes a quality assurance measure, rather than an instru- the organizational power needed to make their voices heard. ment to extend democracy (Yearley, 2000). Still, the question of how to involve non-corporate actors in the CSR deliberative process, and of who is included, needs Political Ecology & Environmental Justice further research (Banerjee et al., 2021; Hussain & Moriarty, 2018). While it addresses the broad themes of complexity and qual- ity, post-normal science does not unpack the power relations Post‑Normal Science determining who gets to be involved in these extended peer communities and at what cost. Also, post-normal science Post-normal science helps us tackle the irreducibility of per- scholars tend to be positioned within European academia and spectives and values in sustainability and CSR issues from have seldom engaged with topics of environmental justice the academia. Rooted in complexity science, post-normal (for an exception of an analysis which combines post-normal science was conceived in the 1990s by Silvio Funtowicz science with environmental justice, see Porto (2012)). Politi- and Jerome Ravetz in opposition to Thomas Kuhn’s “normal cal ecology provides a complementary framing to discuss science” (Turnpenny et al., 2011). Post-normal science can the conflicts that emerge around environmental issues and 13 10 A. Bontempi et al. Table 1  Main events that marked the history and development of today’s WeBuild SpA (Salini Impregilo, 2016a) Year Event 1906 Vincenzo Lodigiani and Umberto Girola decided to enter the construction market with their respective companies 1929 The main Italian automotive firm FIAT enters the construction sector, under the name of Impresit 1936 Pietro Salini (grandfather of the current CEO) starts his own construction company 1956 Impresit, Girola and Lodigiani start a joint venture (Impre.Gi.Lo) for the construction of the Kariba dam (Zambia-Zimbabwe) 1956 The re-established Salini Costruttori starts the construction of the Legadadi dam in Ethiopia 1959 Cogefar Costruzioni Generali is established 1960 Impregilo SpA is created from the merge of Impresit, Girola and Lodigiani 1984 The US company S.A. Healy is bought by the group 1989 Cogefar and Impresit merge into Cogefar-Impresit SpA 1994 Cogefar-Impresit, Girola, Lodigiani and Impresit-Girola-Lodigiani merge and become Impregilo SpA 2009 Salini Costruttori purchases Todini SpA 2014 Salini Impregilo SpA Group is born from the merge between Salini and Impregilo 2016 Salini Impregilo acquire 100% of the US company Lane Industries 2020 The group is renamed as WeBuild after the acquisition of Astaldi SpA the different power relations at play, with particular atten- with it (Macellari et al., 2021). Building on the afore-men- tion to marginalized groups (Bryant, 2015). As its ‘sister tioned literature, and opting for the concept of counter- field’, environmental justice has traditionally focused on reporting, we aim to contribute to the counter-accounting the unequal distribution of environmental costs and ben- literature by relying on qualitative data from a diverse range efits across different geographies, issues of participation of of sources. affected communities, and the recognition of their claims, To this aim, we promote the use of the EJAtlas for the while acknowledging that vulnerable and discriminated performance of counter-reporting in the field. The EJAtlas is communities and human groups are disproportionately sub- currently the largest dataset of socio-environmental conflicts jected to higher risks of environmental threats than other at the global level. As of March 2021, it catalogs evidence (Schlosberg, 2007; Martínez-Alier, 2009). The environmen- of more than 3300 conflicts. These are retrieved from dif- tal justice framework is very much relevant for business eth- ferent kinds of sources, ranging from NGO reports, media ics, as corporate behavior is often a main driver for injustice, records and governmental sources to project-related docu- which in turn relates to the ethics and (ir)responsibility of ments (such as Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs)). the actions of TNCs. However, despite few exceptions (Ben- Recent academic publications on CSIR have drawn on the ton, 2002; Hoffman, 1991; Maher, 2019; Nadeem, 2020; EJAtlas and contribute to establishing this tool for novel Oyewole, 2001; Ramirez, 2021), environmental justice is research in business ethics (Maher et al., 2021; Martinez- still under-used in business ethic studies. Alier, 2021; Saes et al. 2021). Counter‑Reporting and the EJAtlas Context Background: WeBuild and its While leveraging on post-normal science, political ecol- Business Branch of Dam Construction ogy, and environmental justice as theories, we draw on the concept of counter-reporting to develop our methodology. WeBuild (webuildgroup.com) is today the major Italian Among a wide range of deliberative practices in CSR studies industrial group specialized in construction and civil engi- that could be described as “accounting for the other, by the neering works. It is the rebrand (from May 2020) of Salini other” (Shearer, 2002; Tregidga, 2017, p. 511), Gallhofer Impregilo following its acquisition of Astaldi, another giant et al. (2006, p. 681) define the concept of counter-accounting of the construction sector (WeBuild, 2020a). In turn, Salini as “information and reporting systems employed by groups Impregilo, founded in 2014, is the result of the merge of such as campaigners and activists with a view to promot- ten companies (Girola, Lodigiani, Torno, FIAT Impresit, ing their causes or countering or challenging the prevailing Cogefar, Todini, Impregilo, S.A. Healy, Lane Industries, and official and hegemonic position”. Despite the emancipatory Salini Costruttori) over more than one century of history. potential of these kinds of practices (Gallhofer et al., 2006; Table 1 resumes the main events that marked the history of Gray et al, 2014), the approach is under-explored in aca- the Italian industrial group. demia, partially because of the high labor costs associated 13 Counter‑reporting sustainability from the bottom up 11 Fig. 1  Methodological steps The company has been operating in more than 50 coun- dam in Iraq (EJAtlas, 2017b), or Chixoy in Guatemala (EJAt- tries across the world. With a backlog of about 42 billion las, 2019b). Other cases are less known but just as dramatic, euros (WeBuild, 2020b), Salini Impregilo was listed by such as Nathpa Jhakri in Northern India (EJAtlas, 2015a) or the American magazine Engineering News-Record as the the Tokwe Mukorsi dam in Zimbabwe (EJAtlas, 2017c). The worldwide unrivaled top international contractor in the water methodology (schematized in in Fig. 1) was then conceived infrastructure sector for five years in a row (ENR, 2018). to explore the CSR frameworks and sustainability discourses From the 1960s onwards, the group’s track record counts of WeBuild and to build a counter-report based on alterna- with more than 300 dams and hydroelectric plants for an tive sources. installed power of 52,900 MW, including projects under We first reviewed the company’s website (www.​salini-​ construction (WeBuild, 2020c). impre​gilo.​com, available until the rebrand into WeBuild), their sustainability reports published from 2013 to 2019 (for the years 2018 and 2019, these reports were included in the Methodology company’s consolidated financial statements) and publica- tions (library.webuildgroup.com). The categories for the This research was triggered by the extraordinary case of the coding of Salini Impregilo-WeBuild reports were chosen Ethiopian Gibe III dam, which was shortly introduced at based on the “triple bottom line” concept of sustainabil- the beginning of the article. The extent of the impacts it ity, namely economic, environmental, and social, which is caused and the magnitude of outrage it generated inspired largely deployed in corporate reporting (Krajnc & Glavic, and pushed us to investigate further. The Italian TNC was 2005). chosen then as the object of study after realizing that twenty To build our counter-reporting exercise, we conducted high-intensity socio-environmental conflicts ascribable to a review of existing sources of evidence for other potential dams that are acknowledged among WeBuild’s civil works controversial cases with the aim of broadening the informa- were already registered in the EJAtlas database at the begin- tion contained in the EJAtlas and of making the analyzed ning of this study in 2019, proving the contentious presence database as comprehensive as possible. We first identified of the company in various countries. The EJAtlas represents all the dams featuring a hydropower component built across today the largest global database of socio-environmental WeBuild’s history, retrieving the list from the company’s conflicts. It was created in 2011 to give more visibility to website and publications. For each of these projects, we con- conflicts, to collect data from the ground up, and to advance ducted online research to characterize the following features: political ecology research toward large comparative and sta- country, start and end date of the civil works, contractor, tistical analyses (Temper et al., 2018). It has involved hun- operating capacity (MW), and evidence (or not) of contro- dreds of collaborators, both activists and academics. For versy, dispute, or conflict. We followed the conceptualization further information on the EJAtlas rationale, see Temper of socio-environmental conflicts proposed by Martínez-Alier et al. (2015). Most of these cases were already well known and O’Connor (1996), who defined them as conflicts over both by two of the authors of this article (as contributors the (unfair) distribution of environmental benefits and costs. of the EJAtlas) and in the international press, such as El This conceptualization was further developed in the political Quimbo in Colombia (EJAtlas, 2019a), the Lesotho High- ecology and environmental justice literature, as those con- land Water Project in Lesotho (EJAtlas, 2020b), the Grand flicts including mobilizations and protests around the lack Renaissance dam in Ethiopia (EJAtlas, 2017a), the Mosul of participation and recognition by local communities, and 13 12 A. Bontempi et al. more broadly by environmental justice organizations, to refer available, we complemented this information with academic to particular economic activities, infrastructure construction and peer-reviewed publications. Our scientific methodology or waste disposal/pollution whereby environmental impacts and political positionality aim therefore at abiding to both are a key element of their grievances (Schlosberg, 2004). To scientific and political rigor (Temper et al., 2019), as well as collect the information about the dams, we associated the to the principles of quality in the scientific process suggested name of each dam to a set of keywords, as follows: by post-normal science scholars. The final dataset analyzed in this article includes 38 [Name of the dam] AND (problem OR corruption highly controversial dams. The sources of evidence related OR liability OR conflict OR violence OR dispute OR to these 38 cases were then coded. Codes were created start- impact OR police OR military OR protest OR strike ing from dimensions of environmental justice, such as the OR controversy OR eviction OR resistance OR envi- unequal distribution of goods and bads (e.g., environmental ronmentalist OR opposition OR protest OR claim OR and socio-economic impacts), participation, and recognition contested OR controversy OR resettlement OR victim (transparency and repression of dissent). We then comple- OR survival OR threat OR demonstration OR affected mented this with specific coding related to the construction OR homeless OR disruption OR abuse OR poverty OR of hydro-dams. Coding was both inductive and deductive development OR livelihood). (Khandkar, 2009), as we started from an environmental jus- The search was performed between January and Febru- tice framework to capture claims and grievances but also ary 2020 through the Google and Google Scholar search included categories that strongly emerged from our sources engines to capture both academic and non-academic types and that did not fall in these categories. Codes were then of sources; at first in English, and then repeated in Spanish, refined throughout the analysis to best capture issues at French or Italian, depending on the language spoken in the stake. country where the dam was built. The same keywords were NVivo was used to code both the reports of Salini associated with the names of the companies that made up Impregilo-WeBuild and the diverse sources found in rela- WeBuild (see Context Background and Table 1). This way, tion to conflicts. The full codebook is included in the Sup- we retrieved cases that were associated to previous names of plementary Information. the company. This provided us with 53 cases that presented pieces of evidence of different forms of contention and con- flicts, out of the 92 dams that were initially identified. We Results then excluded those cases with limited data (e.g., cases char- acterized by generic statements, statements not related to the The Company’s CSR and Sustainability Discourses specific case, those without proper references, or historic cases for which no online information could be found). Nev- The review of the Salini Impregilo-WeBuild website and ertheless, as even current conflicts remain underreported or publications reveals an image of an industrial group that completely invisible to the mainstream media, it was neces- is avant-gardist in its mission of CSR accomplishments. sary to expand our information base. For those cases where In 2013 Salini Impregilo subscribed to the United Nations little online information could be found, therefore, and to the (UN) Global Compact initiative and consequently adopted extent of our capacity, we reached out to local organizations the UN Guiding Principles for Business and Human Rights and front-line communities and activists to confirm data or (UNGC, 2021; Salini Impregilo, 2013, p. 3). Moreover, the provide additional sources. We relied on our own activist company has included the UN Sustainable Development networks and on snowball methodology, as well as integrat- Goals within its sustainability policy since 2015 (Salini ing the database with information from the social media pro- Impregilo, 2015a, 2016b, 2017a, 2018, 2019). Since 2013, files and webpages of environmental organizations, when the company has published annual sustainability reports possible. This process rests on the principles of the co-pro- (WeBuild, 2020d), where they self-account for their actions duction of knowledge around socio-environmental conflicts, through an audit carried out by an independent third-party. which is also at the core of the EJAtlas dataset (Temper & Besides this, Salini Impregilo-WeBuild declares the adop- Del Bene, 2016). Evidence mainly comes from documenta- tion of an anti-corruption policy, a code of ethics (WeBuild, tion produced from the ground up, i.e., from members of 2020e, 2020f), and an integrated management system in established organizations or collectives that have large social compliance with UNI EN ISO4 9001 (quality management), legitimacy amid environmental controversies. It includes 4 press notes, declarations and statements released by the UNI (Ente Italiano di Normazione), EN (European Committee for Standardization) and ISO (International Organization for Standardi- same organizations, reports, and other (non-academic) pub- zation) are respectively Italian, European and International organi- lications. This type of knowledge is often sidelined or dis- zations for (voluntary) standardization. They develop and publish missed in mainstream media or corporate reporting. When Standards. 13 Counter‑reporting sustainability from the bottom up 13 Table 2  References to a selection of CSR guidelines and standards that Salini Impregilo-WeBuild pledges to comply with UN Business & Human Rights Guiding Principles “The responsibility to respect human rights requires that business enterprises: (a) Avoid causing or contributing to adverse human rights impacts through their own activities, and address such impacts when they occur; (b) Seek to prevent or mitigate adverse human rights impacts that are directly linked to their operations, products or services by their business relationships, even if they have not contributed to those impacts.” (UNOHCHR, 2011, p 14) UN Sustainable Development Goals (https://​sdgs.​un.​org/​goals) “End poverty in all of its form everywhere” (#1) “End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture” (#2) “Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all” (#3) “Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all” (#6) “Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable energy for all” (#7) “Protect labour rights and promote safe and secure working environments” (#8.8) “Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss” (#15) “Promote peaceful and inclusive societies […], provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels” (#15) UNI EN ISO 9001 (quality management system standards) “When planning for the quality management system, the organization shall […] determine the risks and opportunities that need to be addressed to […] prevent, or reduce, undesired effects” (ISO 9001:2015(E), 6.1.1, p. 4) UNI EN ISO 14001 (environmental management system standards) “requires an organization to identify the environmental aspects arising from the organization's past, existing or planned activities, products and services, in order to determine the environmental impacts of significance” (ISO 14001:2004(E), A.1, p 10) ISO 26000 (social responsibility) [an organization should] “be accountable for its impacts on society, the economy and the environment” (ISO 26000:2010(E), 4.2, p. 10) “[…] be transparent in its decisions and activities that impact on society and the environment (ibid., 4.3, p. 10)” […] respect, consider and respond to the interests of its stakeholders. (ibid., 4.5, p. 12) “[…] respect human rights” Global reporting initiative standards “The reporting organization shall report […] a description of its significant economic, environmental and social impacts, and associated chal- lenges and opportunities. This includes the effects on stakeholders and their rights as defined by national laws and relevant internationally- recognized standards” (Disclosure 102–15 of GRI 102, 2016, p. 15) UNI EN ISO 14001 (environmental management), UNI EN in the Carbon Disclosure Project (CDP)’s Climate A List ISO 45001 (health and safety) international standards, all (Salini Impregilo, 2015a, p. 13; WeBuild, 2020h). With certified by an independent external body (Salini Impregilo, regards to Environmental, Social and Governance (ESG) 2013, p. 12; WeBuild, 2020g). Moreover, WeBuild alleg- ratings, WeBuild claims to be a “benchmark of excellence” edly also operates in compliance with the OSCE Guidelines (WeBuild, 2020i), scoring high in various assessments by for multinational enterprises and with the principles of the main rating agencies (EcoVadis, Morgan Stanley Capital ISO 26000 standard on ‘Social Responsibility’ (WeBuild, International, ISS, VigeoEiris). 2020g). In Table 2 we report a selection of CSR guidelines In the vision of the industrial group, big infrastructure is and standards that the company pledges to comply with or a desirable key necessity for the well-being of future genera- follow. tions (Salini Impregilo, 2016a, p. 7). Dams and hydropower The firm boasts several awards (WeBuild, 2020h). It plants are framed as tools to reduce carbon emissions and appears in the Top 11 Open Corporation ranking, a pro- regulate waterflows while simultaneously raising countries' ject led by the Italian union Filcams-Cgil and co-financed economic potential, especially needed in those 'poor' (South- by the European Commission (Open Corporation, 2021; ern) countries that lack large infrastructure development Salini Impregilo, 2017b). In addition, they rank third in the (Salini Impregilo, 2015b; Salini Impregilo, 2016a, p. 158). Social Reporting Transparency Index for companies with These corporate sustainability discourses have been coded the “best sustainability reports” (Salini Impregilo, 2017b), and shown in Table 3, and mapped onto three sustainability and eighth in the Total Transparency Index (ibid.), with dimensions: economic, environmental and social. their website winning the NC Digital Awards for “best sto- We found that the reporting is mostly not case-specific, rytelling” (Salini Impregilo, 2015a, p. 13). Salini Impregilo and data (on economic, environmental and social dimen- adopted the Global Reporting Initiative guidelines in prepar- sions) are aggregated—that is, numbers that are reported, ing its reports (Salini Impregilo, 2013, p. 3), and is included such as GDP growth or land restoration figures, tend to be 13 14 A. Bontempi et al. Table 3  Codification of Salini Impregilo’s sustainability narratives Codes Illustrative quotes Economic sustainability Energy security “Access to energy represents one of the major pillars for the development of society. Yet the current fossil fuel-based energy system leaves about 1.4 billion people around the world without access to electricity” (Salini Impregilo, 2013, p. 9) GDP growth (at country and local levels) “Salini Impregilo aims to develop infrastructure projects that act as catalysts for growth in the countries where we operate” (Salini Impregilo, 2013, p. 21) “The Group is committed to expanding opportunities for suppliers of goods and services in every host country by prioritising local sourcing, wherever possible” (Salini Impregilo, 2015a, p. 21) Green economy “Under the ‘green economy’ paradigm, economic growth and socio-environmental sustainability are viewed not as incompatible, but as mutually reinforcing” (Salini Impregilo, 2013, p. 9) Infrastructure need “Robust infrastructure is the lifeblood of strong economies and societies, play- ing a major role in industrial, agricultural, rural and urban development” (Salini Impregilo, 2015a, p. 15) Job creation “In addition to the direct workforce, the construction industry makes regular use of subcontractors for certain activities, as well as other providers of services (includ- ing technicians, consultants, catering staff, etc.), which contribute significantly to the number of jobs created at the local level. In 2014 around 16,700 people were employed by our subcontractors, and another 2900 by related service providers, 74% of whom were hired locally" (Salini Impregilo, 2014, p. 24) “We engaged nearly 15,000 people to participate in the projects at the end of 2015, 97% of whom come from rural communities nearby” (Salini Impregilo, 2015a, p. 32) Poverty alleviation “Infrastructures improvement is inextricably linked with poverty alleviation, particu- larly in low-income countries, where better infrastructure can provide a safety net against natural disasters and economic shocks” (Salini Impregilo, 2013, p. 9) Revenues creation (for shareholders; from labor income) “Our shareholders and investors benefited from the growth of our revenue (+ 13.6%) and backlog (+ 9.9% in the construction and plant sector) in terms of return on their investments and share value (+ 108.57%);” (Salini Impregilo, 2013, p. 3) “The Company has operating procedures and practices designed to ensure that its remuneration policies comply with the regulations applicable in all the countries where the Group operates and especially the minimum wage requirements, where these exist” (Salini Impregilo, 2017a, p. 154) Environmental Sustainability Circular economy “Improving performance throughout the infrastructure’s life cycle” (Salini Impregilo, 2016b, p. 52) Clean, renewable energy “Through our projects we play an important role in combatting climate change” (Salini Impregilo, 2013, p 46) Impact assessment “All potential environmental impacts deriving from our construction activities are assessed according to a standardised methodology, based on specific criteria (prob- ability of occurrence, consequences for the environment, duration of the event, difficulty of restoration). Following the impact assessment, each project prepares an Environmental Management Plan, which describes the management and moni- toring activities (Environmental Control Plans) for all environmental components involved” (Salini Impregilo, 2014, p. 41) Impact mitigation “We are committed to reclaiming all areas affected by our plants, facilities, quarries and landfills during or after the completion of a project. The aim is to leave these areas in a condition that facilitates natural re-vegetation, prevents soil erosion, improves slope stability, returning affected areas to their original state” (Salini Impregilo, 2013, p. 50) Social sustainability Anti-corruption policy “Salini Impregilo has a zero tolerance policy for all types of corruption and is com- mitted to complying with the anti-corruption laws ruling in all the countries where it operates”. (Salini Impregilo, 2017a, p. 179) 13 Counter‑reporting sustainability from the bottom up 15 Table 3  (continued) Codes Illustrative quotes Community support – capacity building for locals “Local road improvements, electricity supply, sport facilities construction” (Salini Impregilo, 2013, p. 16) “We have realized dozens of projects in recent years, including schools, health centres, public offices, water networks, roads and bridges” (Salini Impregilo, 2013, p. 27) “A total of 207 social programmes were carried out over the period 2012–2014 (48 in 2014)” (Salini Impregilo, 2014, p. 27) Ethics “Code of Ethics, which defines for each corporate value the principles that guide our behaviours. These include honesty, fairness, integrity, impartiality, confidentiality, physical integrity protection, respect for human dignity, environmental protection, and the respect of local communities” (Salini Impregilo, 2015a, p. 38) Human rights (of local populations and workers) “The Group supports the rights enshrined in the International Bill of Human Rights and the International Labour Organization conventions” (Salini Impregilo, 2016b, p. 78) Stakeholders' engagement “For Salini Impregilo, building shared growth also means interacting with and sup- porting the communities that live near our sites. We have a longstanding commit- ment to understanding the cultures, needs, andexpectations of those communities. For example, we seek to integrate our sites with the surrounding areas by deepen- ing our knowledge of the country and local area, and regularly engaging with communities” (Salini Impregilo, 2015a, p. 22) Work safety and health; training to employees “We pay particular attention to the provision of good living conditions for personnel employed in remote areas and challenging socio-environmental contexts” (Salini Impregilo, 2013, p. 38) macro-scale figures which are difficult to map onto specific this second part, we trace the unsustainability claims tied to projects or processes. In the few cases where the context of the cases with a geographical and chronological approach. a particular project is mentioned, the reports celebrate the Table 4 lists the 38 dams that were included in the analy- ways in which the company benefits local populations, or sis. For each dam, where retrievable, we report information the environment. For example, in Uganda, when delivering on the name, country, year (start and end of civil works), the Bujagali plant, Salini Impregilo partnered with an NGO capacity (MW) and references. The codebook that systema- dealing with oncological treatments (Salini Impregilo, 2013, tizes the information on the various sources is provided in p. 29); in the frame of the Tocoma dam in Venezuela, a voca- Table 5, where for each (sub)code we report references to tional training program was developed to teach sustainable emblematic quotes and dams (the full source documents farming to local communities (ibid., p. 29); in Malaysia, the are provided in the Supplementary Information). This set company claims that the local communities impacted by the of codes does not overlap with the one obtained from the Ulu Jelai dam would benefit from road improvements, elec- analysis of company’s disclosures (Table 3): this is because tricity supply and the construction of sports facilities (ibid., the narratives deployed by claimants and by the corporation p. 16). The story that emerges from a book that celebrates are inherently different and sometimes diverging. their 110 years of history is one they “are proud to tell” Evidence of conflicts is retrievable across years, dam fea- (Salini Impregilo, 2016a, p. 7). tures, project phases and geographies. From the oldest to The reports never mention potential or actual negative the most recent, the cases were ordered chronologically in impacts of the works they have been involved in. Yet, as Table 4 to show how disputes and conflicts are not bounded the results of our research in the next section show, the ver- to a particular time, but rather recurring across decades. sion portrayed by the corporation substantially differs from Controversies do not only emerge in the context of large alternative sources. hydropower development, as the power capacity ranges significantly across cases. The unsustainability claims tied Unsustainability Claims to the dams encompass all stages of the civil works: from the project (technical-economical) design to its long term In this section, we provide an overview of the results from (environmental, social, economic) consequences, passing by the counter-reporting exercise that we described in the meth- the construction phase. The range of claims associated with odology. We start by providing an overview of the types of multiple stages of each project make it hard to disentangle injustices linked to the 38 selected projects; then, we focus those specifically associated with civil works from broader on discussing in more detail select emblematic cases. For claims which cannot be directly traced to WeBuild. This is 13 16 A. Bontempi et al. Table 4  List of hydropower schemes included in the analysis Name Country Civil works Company Capacity (MW) Main references Start End Kariba Zambia-Zimbabwe 1956 1959 Impregilo 600 Darbourn (2015); EJAtlas (2017d); International Rivers (2009); Lang et al. (2000); Scudder (2005) Dez Iran 1959 1963 Impregilo 520 Lang et al. (2000); Akosombo Ghana 1961 1965 Impregilo 912 EJAtlas (2016a); Hilton (1966); Lang et al. (2000); Miescher (2014) Kainji Nigeria 1964 1999 Impregilo 760 EJAtlas (2014a); Lang et al. (2000) Tarbela Pakistan 1968 1974 Impregilo 3′478 Bennet and McDowell (2012); EJAtlas (2019c); Lang et al. (2000); Kossou Ivory Coast 1969 1972 Impregilo 174 Pittalunga et al. (2002); Prowizur (1976); Raphaël et al. (2019) Chivor Colombia 1970 1982 *** 1′000 Semana (2019) James Bay Canada 1974 1981 Salini Costruttori 5′616 Curran (2012); EJAtlas (2020c); Wall (2017) Itezhi-Tezhi Zambia 1974 1978 *** 120 Godet and Pfister (2007); Lang et al. (2000) Chixoy (Pueblo Viejo) Guatemala 1976 1983 Cogefar 281 Colajacomo (1999); EJAtlas (2019b); GHRC (2011); Johnston (2010); Lang et al. (2000); Manes (2012) El Cajón Honduras 1980 1985 Impregilo 300 Lang et al. (2000); McCully (2001) Betania Colombia 1981 1988 *** 510 Galindo Vanegas (2018) Mosul (Saddam) Iraq 1981 1985 Impregilo 750 Al-Ansari et al. (2020); Bender (2014); Borger (2016); EJAtlas (2017b); Filkins (2016) Bumbuna Sierra Leone 1982 2009 Salini 143 D'Angelo (2014); EJAtlas (2020d); Mazzei and Scuppa (2006) Daule Peripa Ecuador 1982 1987 Impregilo 213 EJAtlas (2019d); Gerebizza (2009) Yacyreta Argentina—Paraguay 1983 1988 Impregilo 3′100 EJAtlas (2019e); Lang et al. (2000) Piedra del Aguila Argentina 1985 1993 Impregilo 1′400 Balazote and Radovich (2003) Ertan China 1987 1998 Impregilo 3′300 Lang et al. (2000) Lesotho Highlands Water Project Lesotho 1989 ** Impregilo 110 EJAtlas (2020b); Lang et al. (2000); Lenka Thamae and Pottinger (2006); Transparency Interna- tional (2007) Nathpa Jhakri India 1993 2004 Salini Impregilo 1′530 EJAtlas (2015a); Himdhara (2015); Lang et al. (2000) Xiaolangdi China 1994 2000 Impregilo 1′836 Lang et al. (2000) Lower Kihansi Tanzania 1995 2000 Impregilo 300 EJAtlas (2017e); International Rivers (2001); Lang et al. (2000); Quinn et al. (2005) Ghazi Barotha Pakistan 1996 2003 Impregilo 1′450 ILO (2002); Lang et al. (2000) Gibe I Ethiopia 1997 2003 Salini Costruttori 184 Carr (2017) Kali Gandaki Nepal 1997 2002 Impregilo 144 EJAtlas (2014b); Khadka (2003); Thanju (2008) Caruachi Venezuela 1997 1998 Impregilo 2′076 Lang et al. (2000) Tokwe Mukorsi Zimbabwe 1998 2017 Salini Impregilo 12 EJAtlas (2017c); Human Rights Watch (2015) Tocoma Venezuela 2002 ** Impregilo 2300 El Pitazo (2019); Poliszuk et al. (2018); Transparencia Venezuela (2018) 13 Counter‑reporting sustainability from the bottom up 17 Table 4  (continued) Name Country Civil works Company Capacity (MW) Main references Start End Kárahnjúkar Iceland 2003 2009 Impregilo 690 EJAtlas (2014c); Thorarins (2013); Zhang (2013) Gibe III Ethiopia 2006 2016 Salini Impregilo 1′870 ARWG (2009); Carr (2017); EJAt- las (2020a); Franchi and Manes (2016); Hodbod et al. (2019); Human Rights Watch (2014a); OECD Watch (2017); The Oak- land Institute (2019); Survival International (2021) Bujagali Uganda 2007 2012 Salini 250 EJAtlas (2015b); NAPE Uganda (2014) HidroSogamoso Colombia 2009 2015 Impregilo 820 EJAtlas (2019f); Moreno Socha (2019); Rios Vivos Colombia (2021); Roa Avendaño and Duarte Abadía (2012) El Quimbo Colombia 2010 2015 Impregilo 400 EJAtlas (2019a); Dussán Calderón (2021); Galindo Vanegas (2018) Angostura Chile 2010 2014 *** 316 Ecosistemas (2018); EJAtlas (2017f); ElDesconcierto (2014); Osses (2014) Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Ethiopia 2011 2020 Salini Impregilo 6′000 BBC (2020); EJAtlas (2017a); Hussein (2014); International Rivers (2013, 2014, 2017); Roussi (2020); Zane (2020); Zelalem (2020) Neckartal Namibia 2013 2018 Salini Impregilo 3 Namibian Sun (2015); New Era Live (2014); Tjihenuna (2014) Nenskra Georgia 2015 *,** Salini Impregilo 280 BankWatch (2019); Chipashvili (2017); DFWatch (2020); EJAtlas (2018) Rogun Tajikistan 2016 ** Salini Impregilo 3′600 EJAtlas (2016b); Human Rights Watch (2014b); Skoba (2013) *In 2019, Salini Impregilo withdraws **The facility is still under completion *** Missing data particularly true for cases of geopolitical conflicts or alle- of available evidence. On the right side of the figure, specific gations of corruption. Rather than excluding those broader dams (identified by a number) are tied to unsustainability and more ambiguous claims, we keep their evidence, as it claims. Figure 3, on the other hand, shows the geographical points to the complex picture of which WeBuild is often distribution of the 38 dams. The figure shows a clear trend: a part of, and from which it cannot be divided. Figure 2 except for Iceland’s Kárahnjúkar dam and Canada’s James shows how different unsustainability claims are tied to the 38 Bay project, all the dams are in the Global South. dams. They are grouped under eight categories: design and While the general overview of Fig. 2 provides a snapshot construction defects; financial unsustainability; geopolitical of the type of unsustainability claims tied to each dam, and and interstate conflicts; impacts: environmental disruption; Fig. 3 shows geographic trends, it is necessary to move to a impacts: socio-economic disruption; labor right violations case-by-case discussion to fully grasp the magnitude of the and safety issues; repression of dissent; lack of transparency. controversies as stake. Below, we touch upon some of the Each category is then disaggregated into specific sub-nodes. most emblematic cases from the database, moving through As Fig. 2 shows, most dams map onto most broad catego- chronological and geographical order. ries: injustices are multi-faceted, so that one instance rarely The Kariba dam on the border between Zambia and occurs within an isolate category. When isolated cases do Zimbabwe, the oldest project in our database (with con- occur, it is important to note that this may also be due to lack struction starting in 1956), is a historical example of forced 13 18 Table 5  Codebook for unsustainability claims associated with the analyzed hydropower schemes Code Emblematic cases Illustrative quote 13 Design-construction defects Geological vulnerability of the site Mosul, Daule Peripa, Nenskra “Mosul dam engineers warn it could fail at any time, killing 1 m people” (Borger, 2016) High costs of maintenance Mosul, Chixoy, Tarbela “Constant grouting is necessary to keep the structure from collapsing in upon itself” (Bender, 2014) Over/under-sizing GERD, Ertan, El Cajón, Nathpa Jhakri “The dam is 300% over-sized. More than half of the turbines will be rarely used” (International Rivers, 2013) Poor or none feasibility and alternatives' study Bujagali, LHWP, Gibe III, El Quimbo “Options like solar, wind, biomass and geothermal have not been adequately studied to provide evidence that Bujagali dam project is the least-cost option” (NAPE Uganda, 2014, p.19) Structural and components' defects Akosombo, Kariba, Chixoy “Three turbines had to be taken out of service in 1998 at a cost of $5 million in lost production when cracks appeared” (Lang et al., 2000, on Yacyreta) Financial unsustainability “The dam has turned out to be a financial disaster” (Colajacomo, 1999, p.14) Electricity overproduction Ertan, Yacyreta “The general manager of Ertan Hydropower Development Corpora- tion, has become increasingly anxious because he could sell only 60% of the dam’s output” (Lang et al., 2000, on Ertan) Increase of energy tariffs and public debt Yacyreta, Bujagali, Daule Peripa “ANDE wants to increase electricity tariffs by 30% to overcome its critical financial state” (Lang et al., 2000, on Yacyreta) Project Cost overrun Yacyreta, Tarbela, Bujagali, Chixoy “The dam’s costs soared from an original estimate of $2.7 billion to $11.5 billion” (Lang et al., 2000, on Yacyreta) Time overrun Bumbuna, Tocoma, Yacyreta “‘When Bumbuna is completed’ became a popular phrase, which indicated, ‘never’” (Mazzei & Scuppa, 2006, p. 15) Geopolitical and interstate conflicts GERD, Mosul, LHWP, Bumbuna “Ethiopia has started filling the GERD, as Egypt still calls it an ‘existential threat’” (Roussi, 2020) Impacts—environmental disruption Emission of greenhouse gases Hidrosogamoso, GERD “Flooding 168,000 hectares will result in decomposition of vegeta- tion, leading to emissions of carbon dioxide and methane gases” (Luna, 2020) Biodiversity loss Kihansi, LHWP, HidroSogamoso “The loss of the spray from the waterfall […] has sent the critically endangered Kihansi Spray Toad and at least two endangered plant species to the brink of extinction” (International Rivers, 2001) Deforestation GERD, El Quimbo, Kali Gandaki “The dam will flood 1,680 square kilometers of forest” (International Rivers, 2014) Disruption of river ecology and water contamination Gibe III, Karahnjukar, Kariba “The reduction in river flow will cause the level of Lake Turkana to fall by about two thirds.” (Survival International, 2021) Erosion and sedimentation Akosombo, Chivor, Karahnjukar “The trapping of silt behind the dam has also led to severe coastal erosion downstream, with beaches and sections of the highway along the West African coast being washed away” (Lang et al., 2000, on Akosombo) A. Bontempi et al. Table 5  (continued) Code Emblematic cases Illustrative quote Loss of protected, sacred or archeological sites Xiaolangdi, Gibe III, El Quimbo “The reservoir will also flood 100 archeological sites where 10,000 year-old relics, and objects from the Song Dynasty (900– 1279 AD), have been found” (Lang et al., 2000, on Xiaolangdi) Impacts—socio-economic disruption Accidents Kainji, Kariba “At least 39 people were killed […] after floodgates were opened to release rising floodwaters at the Kainji dam” (Lang et al., 2000, on Kainji) Displacement & Resettlement Forced or violent displacement Chixoy, Gibe III, Akosombo, Tokwe Mukorsi “A massacre took place in Guatemala that left 400 people dead. Countless more were displaced, tortured, raped or left starving. And all to make way for a hydroelectric dam” (Dearden, 2012) Inadequate or no compensation measures Tarbela, Bujagali, Chixoy, Tokwe Mukorsi, Gibe III “Some 96,000 people were displaced by the project and are still Counter‑reporting sustainability from the bottom up fighting in the courts for compensation” (Lang et al., 2000, on Tarbela) Inadequate resettlement Kariba, Bujagali, LHWP, Rogun The involuntary resettlement of 57,000 people within the reservoir basin and immediately downstream from the dam was responsible for serious environmental degradation which was one of a number of factors that left a majority of those resettled impoverished (Scudder, 2005, p. 1) Health related issues Akosombo, Chivor, Daule Peripa, Lower Kihansi, Kpong “Water-borne diseases such as schistosomiasis, onchocerciasis and malaria have increased dramatically since the filling of the reser- voir” (Lang et al., 2000, on Akosombo) Increase in violence and crime El Quimbo, Gibe III, LHWP “Now that the lake has reduced, the other tribes have moved closer and raids have intensified along with killings on both sides.” (Allib- hai, 2015, p. 15) Local poverty creation Damage or loss of properties and households Bujagali, LHWP, Hidrosogamoso, Kariba, Rogun, Tokwe Mukorsi “Households from both sides of the river banks […] raised concerns about damages to their houses due to blasting of rocks at the dam site.” (NAPE Uganda, 2014, p.15) Energy Poverty Yacyreta, Bujagali, Rogun “The government provides electricity to resettled communities for only a few hours per day.” (Human Rights Watch, 2014b, p.32) Loss of basic facilities and services Katse, Chivor, Kossou “Getting sick is practically forbidden in that sector during the sum- mer. Without river transportation, transporting a patient to the municipality's health center becomes a difficult and very expensive odyssey.” (Semana, 2019) Loss of livelihoods and employment Gibe III, Tokwe Mukorsi, Kariba “the dam is set to destroy the livelihoods of hundreds of thousands of tribal people” (OECD Watch, 2017) Malnutrition and lack of safe water Bujagali, Daule Peripa, Tokwe Mukorsi, Kariba “Between 70 and 90% of inhabitants do not have access to drinkable water” (Gerebizza, 2009, p. 13) Monetary poverty Rogun, Towke Mukorsi, Chixoy, Hidrosogamoso “People who had previously relied on their lands to provide food reported that, after resettlement, they had to purchase most or all of their food at markets, leaving less money for other household 13 19 needs.” (Human Rights Watch, 2014b, p.3) 20 Table 5  (continued) Code Emblematic cases Illustrative quote 13 Loss or threat to cultural identity Bujagali, Angostura, Tarbela, Gibe III “We had our own culture and customs. We had a set way of life. All that has been disturbed” (Bennet & McDowell, 2012, p. 41) Migration Hidrosogamoso, Kossou “As their fields produce too little, the young people are forced to look for jobs abroad” (Prowizur, 1976, p. 244) Labor rights violation and safety issues Accidents & deaths at construction site Mosul, Kariba, Bujagali, Neckartal “The Iraqi-American hydrological engineer, told me that, in Iraq, when laborers fell into wet cement during large infrastructure pro- jects, it was common for the work to carry on.” (Filkins, 2016) Low or inadequate wages Ghazi Barotha, Bujagali, GERD, Rogun, Neckartal “Impregilo is accused by local and international trade unions of not respecting a joint agreement on wage” (Lang et al., 2000, on Ghazi Barotha) Poor or unsafe working conditions Neckartal, Ghazi Barotha, Mosul “They work on empty stomachs with no safe drinking water at the construction site despite the long extended working hours” (Tijhe- nuna, 2014) Threats and Violation of constitutional workers' rights Neckartal, Nathpa Jhakri, Hidrosogamoso “Workers expressed grievances over allegations of discrimination, human rights violations, victimization, racism, and unfair dis- missal, among a host of other things.” (Tijhenuna, 2014) Repression of dissent Assassinations of environment defenders Hidrosogamoso, Chixoy “Assassination of six members of the Social Movement in defense of Sogamoso river” (censat.org) Criminalization of dissent El Quimbo, Chixoy, Ghazi Barotha “Union leaders’ relatives were detained and some even tortured.” (Lang et al., 2000, on Ghazi Barotha) Violent repressive measures and militarization Chixoy, Bumbuna, Gibe III, Kariba, Tokwe Mukorsi, Hidrosoga- “The construction company's directors therefore decided to hire moso mercenary troops to protect their staff and prevent further theft and destruction of equipment and machinery” (D'Angelo, 2014, p. 39) Lack of transparency Lack or poor information or involvement of local com- Bumbuna, Tarbela, Gibe III, Chixoy, Daule Peripa, El Quimbo, “Consultations took place only in 1976, after the dam construction munities in the decision-making GERD had started.” (Colajacomo, 1999, p. 2) Alleged corruption and pending cases Yacyreta, Bumbuna, Nenskra, Tocoma, James Bay, El Quimbo “The Yacyreta dam was famously described by Argentinian president Carlos Menem as a ‘monument to corruption’” (Lang et al., 2000, on Yacyreta) Proven corruption LHWP “Impregilo […] pleaded guilty to ‘attempting to defeat the course of justice’” (Transparency International, 2007, p. 89) Contract- and bidding related issues Gibe I and III, El Quimbo, GERD, Mosul “EEPCO repeated its turnkey contracting—disregard for bidding pro- cess and project oversight—in successive Gibe dam contracts with Salini.” (Carr, 2017, p.32) Poor or no E(S)IA Gibe I and III, Chixoy, El Quimbo, LHWP, Bujagali “The Ethiopian EPA did not produce an environmental or socio- economic impact report (EIA) prior to the development” (Carr, 2017, p.33) A. Bontempi et al. Counter‑reporting sustainability from the bottom up 21 displacement and of how dams can impoverish communities former president Carlos Menem “a monument to corruption” for decades. The descendants of the 57,000 Tonga people (EJAtlas, 2019e; Lang et al., 2000). Originally budgeted at who were forcibly resettled for the construction of the dam $2.5 billion, the project's total cost has exceeded $15 bil- still struggle today with hunger, alcoholism, prostitution lion, while it has operated at a maximum of 60% of capacity and smuggling, among other problems (EJAtlas, 2017d; (ibid.). Its construction began in 1979, but the floodgates Scudder, 2005). A few years later in Ghana, the Akosombo were closed, and the dam was filled for the first time only dam (1961–1965) became notorious not only for its size in 1994, before a detailed environmental and social mitiga- (being one of the biggest reservoirs in the world), but also tion plan was in place (ibid.). Meanwhile, thousands of the for systematic technical failures (e.g., several problems at 50,000 people who were forced to move received no com- the turbines), under-performance (e.g., 20 h per week black- pensation (ibid.). outs during the 1994 drought) and downstream erosion (the Researchers also raised concerns around projects built coasts of neighboring Togo and Benin being lost at the rate in the ‘90 s, a decade where big dam projects started to of 10 m a year) (Lang et al., 2000). The dam, built to provide be heavily criticized by the public opinion. Those years in electricity to aluminum smelters and thus to boost the coun- Asia, the company was contracted for the construction of the try’s industrialization, displaced 80,000 farmers and caused Nathpa Jhakri dam in India, Xiaolangdi in China, and Ghazi the spread of diseases such as malaria and river blindness Barotha in Pakistan. In the Indian Himalayas, the Nathpa (Onchocerciasis; ibid.; EJAtlas, 2016a). Jhakri dam is located in a flood prone zone. In August 2000, In the 1980s, the company built some of the most con- flash floods led to an extensive loss of time and money. To troversial dams in the world, such as Chixoy (Guatemala), ensure continued support by the World Bank, employees Mosul (Iraq), and Yacyretá (Argentina-Paraguay). In Guate- worked round the clock to complete all restoration works to mala, community members from Rio Negro opposed reloca- the pre-flood level. In 1999 workers at the plant denounced tion and sought better compensation for the construction of low wages and unfair working conditions. The mobiliza- the Chixoy dam, promoted by the Inter-American Develop- tion received attention at the national level, also due to the ment Bank, the World Bank and assigned to the then named repression measures taken by the police (EJAtlas, 2015a). Cogefar-Impresit company. Dam authorities, the army and The Xiaolangdi dam in China led to the eviction of 180,000 the paramilitary labeled local Mayan indigenous communi- people and further impacts on at least 300,000. The reservoir ties as guerrilleros and perpetrated multiple massacres to also flooded 100 archeological sites with 10,000 years-old curb the alleged anti-state threat. Estimates count about 400 relics (Lang et al., 2000). In the case of the Ghazi Baro- people murdered, and many more tortured and violated, the tha dam in Pakistan, in the late ‘90 s, the Italian contractor majority being women and children (facts later known as the was accused of not respecting an agreement on wage and Rio Negro massacres; Colajacomo, 1999; EJAtlas, 2019b; working conditions with management and security forces GHRC, 2011; Lang et al., 2000; Manes, 2012). The few physically abusing the workers, and arbitrary detentions of survivors had to escape to the hills and live for several years union leaders’ relatives. Trade unions denounced the suspen- hiding in the woods. This way, the area was evacuated, and sion of their rights by the Government of Pakistan under the building work could carry on. In 1999, the Comisión the pressure of the project’s contractors (ILO, 2002). In the para el Esclarecimiento Histórico of Guatemala (promoted case of the Lesotho Highland Water Project and the related by the UN) acknowledged that genocide was perpetrated in construction of the Katse and Mohale dams (1991–1997), Rio Negro. In 2005, the infamous case was brought to the the company was directly involved in a corruption case. Inter-American Commission of Human Rights. The same According to the organization Transparency International, decade, the Mosul dam was built in Iraq under the rule of “Impregilo had restructured itself, arguably, in an attempt Saddam Hussein. The regime allegedly sought the multi- to avoid prosecution during an investigation. The company purpose facility for downstream irrigation, flood control, sought unsuccessfully to avoid trial by a number of artful and hydropower. However, in a country at war, the dam was arguments about the serving of the summons, the personal mainly meant for the generation of electricity for war and to liability of employees for actions taken during the course of prevent the flooding of troops. Since its inception, the dam their employment and the jurisdiction of the court” (Trans- wall has been at risk of failure for a severe foundation defect, parency International, 2007: p. 89). Eventually, in 2008, the as it stands on a karstification-prone terrain. The dam has Lesotho High Court fined Impregilo US$ 2.04 million after required constant maintenance to avoid a collapse that would it pleaded guilty. affect more than six million people downstream (Al-Ansari Cases of highly intense socio-environmental conflicts are et al., 2020; EJAtlas, 2017b; Filkins, 2016). The US Corps of also reported at the dawn of the XXI century, despite the lull Engineers called the Mosul dam “the most dangerous dam in of the sector after the publication of the World Commission the world” (Filkins, 2016). The transboundary Yacyretá dam of Dams report (WCD, 2000). In Zimbabwe, fifty years after between Argentina and Paraguay was called by Argentina's its first proposal, the Tokwe Mukorsi dam was completed in 13 22 A. Bontempi et al. Fig. 2  Matching cases with categories of unsustainability claims 2017 (EJAtlas, 2017c). According to Human Rights Watch, 300% over-sized Grand Ethiopian Renaissance dam, which construction happened under a veil of corruption, stepping echoes in the media as it is at the center of a heated dispute on the human rights of about 20,000 people whose home, with downstream Sudan and Egypt for the control of the land and livelihoods were taken. The Zimbabwe Government flooding of the Nile River (BBC, 2020; EJAtlas, 2017a; Hus- used the inexistence of compensatory mechanisms, inad- sein, 2014; International Rivers, 2013, 2014, 2017; Roussi, equate food, shelter, sanitation, right to choose residence, 2020; Zelalem, 2020; Zane, 2020). In Namibia, workers at misuse of humanitarian aid, coercion, force, harassment, and the Neckartal dam construction site denounced extremely arrests to manage the development scheme behind the largest poor working conditions, abuse and victimization by their dam in the country (Human Rights Watch, 2015). In Ethio- Italian supervisors (Namibian Sun, 2015; New Era Live, pia, besides the Gibe III project, it is worth mentioning the 2014; Tijhenuna, 2014). In Colombia, the Hidrosogamoso 13 Counter‑reporting sustainability from the bottom up 23 Fig. 3  Geographical distribution of the analyzed cases. Each dot represents a hydropower scheme; the bigger the dot, the higher its generating capacity dam fueled organized protests by local communities. These tied to Salini Impregilo-WeBuild raise important environ- protests have been systematically and violently repressed by mental justice concerns, as they cause socio-ecological military forces, with communities facing forced displace- conflicts and produce negative social-economic-environ- ment, a grab of their sources of livelihood, militarization of mental impacts. The CSR guidelines and standards shown the area and misrecognition of the status of affected people in Table 2 appear to be problematic when inspected through (EJAtlas, 2019f; Moreno Socha, 2019; Rios Vivos Colom- the lenses of third sources. bia, 2021). The El Quimbo project is another highly con- The inconsistency between what the company reports and troversial case in the country, where opponents have faced what emerges from our data raises concerns around the vol- criminalization. One of the social leaders of the associa- untary and legally non-binding nature of CSR accounting. In tion Asoquimbo has been involved in five lawsuits (in all of fact, as the CSR mechanisms adopted by Salini Impregilo- which he was found innocent) for his activism against the WeBuild are based on self-reporting, there is no room nor project. He also denounced Impregilo for illegal practices any obligation for presenting third-party accounting. Given in the extraction of construction materials (EJAtlas, 2019a; that the very nature of TNCs is to pursue the growth imper- Dussán Calderón, 2021). ative in a competitive international market, every means becomes essential to meet such imperative, whether it implies looking away from high-level controversies tied to a firm’s operations, or systematically diverting the discussion Discussion toward win–win solutions in its corporate rhetoric. We argue therefore for the necessity of strengthening control over Our empirical exercise points to a mismatch of narratives. corporate activity beyond their own voluntary initiatives. On one side, there is a corporation that has been internation- In this perspective, our concerns also resonate with those ally involved in the construction of large dams in the Global of several social and environmental organizations regard- South for decades. The company claims it fully complies ing initiatives currently under debate at the European level, with international CSR standards, bringing prosperity to such as the Due Diligence Directive that should introduce people and environments. On the other side, a radically dif- EU-wide mandatory human rights due diligence require- ferent picture emerges when inspecting each case through ments for businesses (see for example: DCP, 2021). This is multiple sources. Results show how some of the major dams an important step in the EU context. However, the lack of 13 24 A. Bontempi et al. binding rules and control mechanisms might jeopardize the activities such as dam building, while problematizing the effective implementation of human rights and true social and corporate one–way discourse on the sustainability of its environmental justice. own operations. We hold that the post-normal science phi- In this context, we question the reliability of existing CSR losophy becomes very relevant in the context of ecological mechanisms and instruments as the main or only measure of conflicts globally, and in the analysis of CS(I)R. a firm’s ethics. For example, WeBuild’s presence on the UN As political ecologists, we argue for a re-politicization Global Compact website (Human Rights Watch, 2014b) is at of the debate around CS(I)R that can lead governments and odds with reports on violation of human rights and of unjust international institutions to act upon violations of human resettlement which appear throughout the company’s works rights and environmental justice principles enshrined in (see Fig. 2). Similarly, the registrar and classification soci- international agreements and national constitutions. These ety DNV GL has accredited Salini Impregilo-WeBuild as include the unjust burden of socio-environmental impacts, complying with ISO 14001 standards (related to minimized the exclusion of local populations from participation in environmental impacts). It is unclear whether the DNV GL decision-making regarding their own needs and desires is simply unaware of the multiple cases of environmental and the lack of due public hearings and accessible infor- degradation caused by the corporation (as shown, again, in mation about the projects. Eventually, they include the Fig. 2), or whether the lack of a standardized process to recognition of different and differing values, priorities, include these kinds of sources allows international socie- and languages of valuation of local people from those of ties to look away from such cases. As another example, the a supposed development and progress for all touted by the company Reconta Ernst & Young SpA, when auditing Salini corporation (Martinez-Alier, 2003, 2009). Impregilo’s 2015a, 2015b sustainability report, concluded This is particularly true for some regions. Scholars in that the corporation was in compliance with Global Report- post-development, post-colonialism, and post-extractivism ing Initiative standards. However, our results show how the studies (Acosta, 2011; Escobar, 1995; Machado Aráoz, under-reporting of all negative socio-environmental impacts 2007; Mbembe, 2019; Sachs, 1992; Shrivastava & Kothari, of the corporation’s actions is severe, to say the least. 2012; Zibechi, 2016) argue that the Global South has been The stark differences between third-party reporting and long used either as a source of primary sources (including apparent compliance with international standards shows how energy, food, and materials) or as a source of capital in the if the discussion on sustainability averts complexity, thus growth-oriented global economy, while communities and averting to challenge the broader political and economic local value systems have been systematically dismissed. systems in which any development project is promoted, At the same time, real impacts on local communities and sustainability accounting becomes a mere legitimization ecologies have been considered acceptable side effects in of business as usual. As such, it becomes an instrument of sacrifice zones. Business ethics and management stud- power through which the company tries to avoid conflict. ies could therefore importantly benefit from literature In sustainability reports there is no space for acknowledg- that discusses what ‘development’ really means in these ing and responding to critical reporting, and the distinctive contexts, whether large infrastructures are actually ben- character of corporate publications is generally one of reduc- eficial to local people, and how different values and world tion of complexity (as in Boiral, 2013, 2016; Hahn & Lulfs, visions can truly be recognized as environmental justice 2014; Talbot & Boiral, 2018). The absence of an independ- principles. ent third-party ensuring fair accountability allows corpora- In terms of methodology, we hope that the EJAtlas data- tions to construct their own version of facts (Laufer, 2003), base becomes increasingly implemented as a repository of while the difficulty in building and enforcing international evidence that can further inform corporate analysis. The monitoring instruments and mechanisms reinforces the lim- review process of conflictive cases presented in this article ited liability of TNCs (De Jonge, 2011). and in the EJAtlas can provide a toolbox for business eth- In this sense, the critical scholarships of post-normal ics studies to inquire into environmental justice concerns science and political ecology help in both including beyond a single case study approach. In fact, the EJAtlas complexity into the analysis and politicizing the debate database contains information on the actors involved in the around CS(I)R. By including multiple voices and sources conflicts, including companies, for each conflictive case. As of information, we aimed to respond to the call of post- such, it can be used as a starting point to focus on injus- normal science scholarship to embrace plurality and avoid tices tied to specific companies. A comparative or statisti- the hegemonization of dominant narratives, while also cal political ecology perspective could indeed offer valuable improving the quality of the scientific research process insights to investigate systematic patterns and evidence of in the context of socio-environmental conflicts. This pro- irresponsibility and associated corporate discourses, how vides a more nuanced picture of the complex socio-eco- corporations operate around the globe, how they allocate nomic interests and impacts of conflictive and extractivist 13 Counter‑reporting sustainability from the bottom up 25 their investments, and what local responses they face (Del Our recommendation is to bring these fields into a com- Bene et al., 2018; Scheidel et al., 2020). mon dialog. In doing so, both the scientific process and the With respect to the lack of counter-reporting regarding achievement of justice would benefit. Post-normal science corporate operations in business ethics studies, we suggest helps problematize the debate on ethics through the provi- that scientists should use their own privileged role to unveil sion of useful concepts from complexity science, while envi- the power relations between different actors involved in ronmental justice can add case studies to the political CSR CS(I)R accounting practices and of highlighting the incom- literature. While post-normal science tends to be developed mensurable values people hold in connection to their terri- and applied in more theoretical terms, political CS(I)R and tories and cultural systems. This shifts the role of scientists environmental justice can give concreteness to Funtowicz from one of truth-making to one of revealing the unavoid- and Ravetz’ scholarship. In turn, business ethics helps to put able complexity and plurality of the world. Our suggestion is the focus on the ethics of corporations, who are key actors in that, when facing evidence of socio-environmental conflicts the complex panorama of global socio-ecologies. and injustices and while trying to quantify or measure CS(I) Future research in the field could be directed not only R, academia’s focus in discussing CS(I)R in the context of to further unpack the complex relationships and power development projects should be placed in amplifying the dynamics between actors in the CS(I)R arena, but also to voices of those who are on the ground, by mobilizing knowl- explore the reasons why inconsistencies between their dia- edge that is co-produced between academia, environmental lectics exist in the first place. This can not only call into activists and defenders (Temper & Del Bene, 2016). While question (asymmetrical) human rights and environmental we recognize that scientists themselves are also part of a justice issues, but also helps in understanding how and why complex web of power relations, a push in this direction TNCs systematically avoid the critical discussion on respon- could be given by spending time and resources to amplify sibility in their accounts. More firm-focused case studies the voices of those who have less power, engaging with using counter-accounting as a methodology from fields other those affected by environmental injustices on the ground than hydropower development could add food for thought and using diverse channels to problematize the way compa- and enrich the business ethics literature by answering the nies account for sustainability. The EJAtlas is one possible question of who is behaving unethically and, importantly, platform that can be concretely used to this aim. how that behavior could be regulated. Lastly, the political economy of the uneven global development pattern is also an important aspect to consider in business ethics stud- Conclusions ies. In fact, almost the totality of the analyzed conflictive hydropower schemes is located in countries that are gener- This paper collected evidence of unsustainability claims tied ally labeled as ‘developing’ or ‘underdeveloped’. The com- to the Italian construction company WeBuild, generating a pany’s narrative reported in this article is one of optimistic counter-reporting exercise grounded in environmental jus- trust about the fact that megaprojects will bring prosperity, tice, political ecology, and post-normal science. development, and alleviation of poverty in these countries. Our hybrid and novel methodology came with some limi- However, data show that promises such as job creation, tations. First, the large number of cases does not allow for an health improvements and education facilities, or access to in-depth case study approach. Second, for the same reason it electricity, were not always met and were generally limited would not be feasible to check the legal responsibility of the to a short time frame. company for all the claims and concerns that arose around The ethics of CS(I)R is a complex issue, that needs to be the projects. The fact that the company under scrutiny here politicized for building justice around socio-environmental is a construction company rather than a commissioning body conflictive contexts. Justice claims call therefore for a much or a plant operator adds complexity to this endeavor, as their more plural political arena of actors, particularly including formal responsibility is supposedly limited to the building those affected by large-scale hydropower projects. works. We have pointed at the conflictive issues that have arisen around dam projects either before, during, or after Supplementary Information The online version contains supplemen- tary material available at https://d​ oi.o​ rg/1​ 0.1​ 007/s​ 10551-0​ 21-0​ 4946-6. construction but that are not featured in any sustainability accounting and are therefore neglected or downplayed. Fur- Acknowledgements The authors acknowledge the hard work of front- ther research could aim to further discuss the role played line communities and organizations who denounce the ecological and by construction companies within global unsustainability social impacts of megaprojects. We are grateful to them for respond- dynamics. ing to our queries and for contributing to the making of the database. Despite those limitations, we believe that the combination Funding Open Access Funding provided by Universitat Autonoma de of post-normal science, political ecology and environmen- Barcelona. 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