Geoheritage (2023) 15:40 https://doi.org/10.1007/s12371-023-00808-x ORIGINAL ARTICLE Nurturing Italian Geo‑palaeontological Heritage with Virtual Palaeontology: Preliminary Report of Its Application in Two Natural History Museums Saverio Bartolini‑Lucenti1,2 · Lorenzo Rook1,3 Received: 28 December 2022 / Accepted: 20 February 2023 © The Author(s) 2023 Abstract In this manuscript, we present a preliminary report on the use of virtual palaeontology methodologies in two natural history museums in central Italy, the Geology and Paleontology Museum of Florence and the Civic Museum of Natural Sciences of Faenza. Despite the differences between the museums (in terms of history, type and size of the collections, etc.), the use of surface and computed tomography (CT) scans has allowed the acquisition of a consistent amount of data to create digital copies of selected specimens and to plan several future projects sparked from the use of these methodologies. Our first step focused on the selection of the scanning sample: type and historically relevant specimen in the case of the Florence museum, and fragile and relevant specimens for the Faenza museum from a local yet internationally known site, Cava Monticino, dated to the Late Miocene. The scanning techniques included the use of three high-resolution scanners, with different specifications, to acquire surface data and a medical scanner to obtain CT scans. The outputs of the surface scans were excellent digital copies of the specimens, whereas tomography allowed the first investigations and visualisations of the presence of embed- ded bones in the fossiliferous blocks of Cava Monticino. The resulting 3D and raw data represent invaluable resources that the two museums are currently planning to implement in their exhibitions using digital visualisation devices and techniques (e.g. AR web apps, touchscreens) or 3D-printed touchable specimens. Keywords Virtual paleontology · 3D techniques · AR · Digitisation Introduction The innovations in the methods for obtaining digital data of fossil specimens now provide easier and less expensive The development of virtual palaeontology and its tech- ways for museums and other institutions to use their fossils niques has added numerous arrows to the quiver of natu- in exhibits and for conservation purposes. In a way, virtual ral history museum curators to help them engage people palaeontology itself has revolutionised how palaeontol- more with their collections and the science behind them. ogy is perceived: the dusty, old-fashioned discipline has become a fascinating, rigorous and engaging subject, open to ever-improving techniques and analyses. One key to the This article is part of the Topical Collection on Geoheritage in SW Europe: advances and challenges. success of these methodologies, among many others, lies in the non-invasiveness of their use on the specimens: neither * Saverio Bartolini‑Lucenti tomographic imaging nor surface scans require preliminary saverio.bartolinilucenti@unifi.it preparation of the specimens, nor do they impose any dam- Lorenzo Rook age, making them perfect for precious, invaluable objects lorenzo.rook@unifi.it such as fossils. 1 Earth Science Department, Paleo[Fab]Lab, Università Di As a consequence, natural history museums have Firenze, Via G. La Pira 4, 50121 Florence, Italy derived great benefits by digitising their own collec- 2 Institut Català de Paleontologia M. Crusafont, Universitat tions. For instance, digitising provides the possibility of Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain preserving a virtual copy of a specimen to keep track of 3 NBFC, National Biodiversity Future Center, Piazza Marina its state of conservation. Furthermore, digital archives of 61 (C/O Palazzo Steri), 90133 Palermo, Italy stored 3D models of specimens also enable museums to 13 Vol.:(0123456789) 40 Page 2 of 13 Geoheritage (2023) 15:40 plan restorations of particularly fragile items that require is testified by the presence in its collections of a bulk of limited handling or special care due either to their value fossil specimens collected and known since Medici’s times and importance or their intrinsic fragility. Some of these (i.e. at least since the seventeenth century), as well as by restorations could even be made in the virtual environment, the attention it receives from the international scientific as crushed, deformed or incomplete fossils can be recon- community. Indeed, thanks to the work of important local structed, thereby allowing museums to overcome some of scientists (e.g. G. Targioni Tozzetti, 1712–1783) in the the limits imposed by taphonomic and fossilisation pro- early nineteenth century, the museum was visited by pres- cesses while offering to the public life-like restorations of tigious scholars like Georges Cuvier (1769–1832), whose long-extinct animals. Recently, mathematical protocols observations on the fossils of Upper Valdarno basin were have been applied for analytical retrodeformation of the included in its ‘Recherches sur les ossemens fossiles de distorted type specimen of a fossil equid from the Geology quadrupèdes: où l'on rétablit les caractères de plusieurs and Paleontology Museum of Florence, using geometric espèces d'animaux que les révolutions du globe paroissent morphometric approaches and an undeformed specimen avoir détruites’ (1812 and later editions: 1821–1824), and as a guide for the retrodeformation process called target several of its specimens still serve today as international (Cirilli et al. 2020). More than 150 years after its first references for extinct taxa (as holotypes, syntypes, etc.) description, the ‘mathematically correct’ original morphol- (Monechi and Rook 2010). The museum’s value was also ogy and proportions of this valuable specimen can now reinforced by the constitution of the Central Palaeonto- be displayed for visitors, as well as used by scholars who logical Collection of Italy in 1861 as a place to store all intend to study it. relevant fossil occurrences of the Peninsula. Unfortunately, In this ever-developing environment, Italian natural the project was abandoned when the Royal Geological history museums are starting to adopt digital tools for Office (now the Geological Survey of Italy) of the Ital- conservation purposes and as implementations for in situ ian Geological Society was established in 1873, but the applications or online web pages and apps. In the past few extensive invertebrate and palaeobotanical collections years, the Earth Science Department of the University of are still housed in the museum building. Currently, the Florence has built up a virtual palaeontology lab (formally museum (Fig. 1) holds more than two hundred thousand known as Paleo[Fab]Lab) with high-resolution surface palaeontological specimens, spanning from the early Pal- scanners (Artec Eva, Artec Spider and Artec Micro) and aeozoic to the late Quaternary. The museum was the object an SLA 3D printer (Formlab 3). This equipment has been of a 2-year project for digitisation and valorisation of its used in different instances for both scientific research and most valuable specimens (e.g. types; historical and iconic museum conservation purposes. Here, we report two cases specimens), carried out and supervised by the authors of of digital applications to the collection of two Italian natu- this contribution. This project represents the first attempt ral history museums that differ greatly from one another in at systematic digitisation of palaeontological collections many aspects (e.g. type of institution, size of their collec- in Italy. tion, scopes). The first case is the digitisation of the type collection of vertebrates of the Geology and Paleontology Museum of Florence. Thanks to the financial support of the Tuscany Region, a 2-year project named ‘Paleontolo- gia virtuale, un approccio non invasivo e per la fruizione, diffusione e condivisione del patrimonio paleontologico’ (acronym PalVirt) was activated, representing the first example in Italy of valorisation of the palaeontological heritage by systematic digitalisation of relevant parts of museum specimens. The second case is the non-invasive investigation of an ossiferous block from the Miocene site of the Monticino gypsum quarry held at the Natural Sci- ence Museum of Faenza and its dissemination to the public. Geology and Paleontology Museum of Florence Founded in 1775 as part of the Imperial and Royal Museum of Physics and Natural History, under the illu- Fig. 1  Geology and Paleontology Museum of Florence: here, the minated Grand Duke Peter Leopold, the scientific history renowned Early Pleistocene Upper Valdarno collection, which of this museum spans nearly 250 years. Its high relevance includes several type specimens 13 Geoheritage (2023) 15:40 Page 3 of 13 40 Museo Civico di Scienze Naturali ‘Malmerendi’ of Faenza The Natural Sciences Museum of the municipality of Faenza was founded in 1980 after the acquisition by the municipal- ity of the zoological collections (specifically ornithological and entomological collections) of the surveyor Domenico Malmerendi (1900–1980). In the 1980s, thanks to collabora- tion with the local speleological group, the collections were enriched with geological and palaeontological specimens collected from the area surrounding Faenza and the whole Ravenna province. Together with fossils from the Pliocene marine deposits and the Quaternary alluvial successions, a large amount of rocks and fossils was collected from the widespread karstic cave system that characterises the area located in the north-western part of the ‘Appennino Tosco- Romagnolo’ (a portion of the Apennines between Tuscany and Emilia-Romagna—particularly the transregional border shared by the provinces of Florence and Ravenna) due to the extensive outcrops of the Messinian gypsums of ‘Gessoso- Solfifera Formation’ (deposited between 5.96 and 5.61 Ma during the Messinian Salinity Crisis; Marabini and Vai 1989). In this sector, this formation has the considerable height of 200 m, with extensive karst processes as interest- ing features. The fossils coming from this sector range in age from the latest Miocene (such as those from the Cava Mon- ticino and its mainly clayish infilling of the ‘Colombacci Formation’; Marabini and Vai 1989; Sami 2021) to the late Fig. 2  Civic Museum of Natural Science ‘D. Malmerendi’ of Faenza. Pleistocene (Sami and Ghezzo 2015) (Fig. 2). a Outside view of the building from the botanic garden ‘Giardino Botanico Paolo Liverani’. b Example of the exhibits of the museum, particularly the carnivorans from the Late Miocene Cava Monticino site Materials and Methods Selected Materials Digitised such as those that were part of the bulk of the Medici’s private collection of fossils (thus known from at least the seventeenth From the extensive collections of the Geology and Paleontol- century, if not earlier) (Monechi and Rook 2010) or the speci- ogy Museum of Florence (IGF) and of the Natural Sciences mens used to erect taxa no longer considered valid. The third Museum of Faenza (MSF), we selected a representative sub- criterion used to select valuable specimens from IGF was to set, in agreement with the curator of each museum, according scan those with ‘iconic value’, such as sabertoothed cats and to the museum and the scientific interest of the resulting 3D mammoths. These criteria met the requirements and avail- data obtained by the scans. In the case of IGF, the primary ability of the museum staff in charge of supervision of the objective was to digitise the most scientifically and historically digitisation, which had the purpose of documenting, archiving relevant specimens held in the collection. Therefore, the first and eventually sharing 3D models of the fossils with experts fossils to be scanned included type specimens of renowned and the non-expert public. taxa (principally vertebrates) from the Miocene-Pleistocene In the case of MSF, the selected material consisted of of Italy (particularly from Tuscany). Among them are the the most relevant skeletal remains of the fauna from Cava famous types of the Upper Valdarno collections, which not Monticino (a latest Miocene karstic site located close to only merge scientific significance but also are relevant histori- Faenza) and some of the ossiferous blocks found there. One cally: some of these very specimens are part of the history of of the main goals, apart from the creation of 3D copies of Vertebrate Palaeontology depicted by the famous French pal- the specimens via surface scans, was to determine whether aeontologist G. Cuvier, who used them to erect new species in the ossiferous conglomerate included other bones and, if his work of the 1810s to 1820s. Another criterion that guided so, to non-invasively investigate them further with digital the selection was the historical importance of the specimen, techniques. 13 40 Page 4 of 13 Geoheritage (2023) 15:40 Digital Acquisition and Elaboration Methodologies by isolated teeth), for tiny postcranial bones of birds and reptiles, and on specimens in which we were interested in Digital models of the selected fossil specimens were obtaining a high-resolution mesh (e.g. peculiar enamel struc- obtained through non-invasive techniques of surface scan- tures). All three scanners, both the hand-held (Artec Eva ning and tomographic imaging. The former was carried out and Space Spider) and the desktop (Artec Micro) versions, using three-dimensional (3D) high-resolution surface scan- use blue-light technology to map the surface geometry of ners that differed in their resolution, field of view, and port- the specimens, while capturing high-quality pictures of their ability, with the aim of obtaining the best results, depending texture with the specific cameras present on them. Neverthe- on, for instance, the size of the specimen or the intended less, the scanning procedure differs between the hand-held resolution of the final 3D files. Large- to medium-sized and the desktop scanners. For the Artec Eva and Space Spi- specimens were digitised using two hand-held scanners der, the selected object is scanned in multiple passes, tak- (the Artec Eva and Artec Space Spider), whereas the Artec ing care to acquire a significant portion of overlap between Micro acquires detailed 3D models of small specimens. The two scans (Fig. 3). This speeds up the postprocessing and specific parameters of each scanner reveal their scan capabil- 3D reconstruction process. With the Artec Micro, the scan ity of acquisition (https://​www.​artec​3d.​com). acquisition is performed using the native software Artec Stu- The Artec Eva field of view (FOV) ranges between dio 15 Professional (ver. 15.0.3.425). The object is placed a maximum of 83.8 × 48.8 cm and a minimum of on an automated platform that rotates and tilts according to 24.4 × 14.2 cm with a working distance of 40–100 cm the selected scanning paths available in the program, thereby from the scanned object. This allows the Artec Eva to allowing the acquisition of the object’s surfaces from every scan objects larger than 10–20 cm in total length. The desired angle. The paths can also be customised according maximum 3D resolution and mesh accuracy of the Artec to the researcher’s own needs (Fig. 3). Eva is 0.2 mm and its accuracy is 0.1 mm. Examples in Regardless of the scanner used in the acquisition, the which we used the Artec Eva were large specimens, such raw data are registered and processed using Artec Studio 15 as those of Mammuthus meridionalis or Hippopotamus Professional. The native software carries out all the steps antiquus (IGF) and the bone breccias of Cava Monticino required to obtain the digital surface reconstruction of the (MSF). The Artec Space Spider provides higher resolution target specimens (Fig. 4), from editing of the single scans scans due to the closer proximity to the specimens (work- and their alignment and fusion to texture mapping on the 3D ing distance 20–30 cm) and smaller FOV (9 × 7 cm and mesh and export of the final 3D model in the most common 18 × 14 cm). This close-range scanner is ideal for medium digital file formats (e.g..obj,.stl,.ply). to small specimens (i.e. a maximum size of approximately In the case of MSF, we were also able to apply tomo- 50 cm). Larger specimens can also be scanned, although graphic imaging to two relevant ossiferous blocks (MSF 62 the raw data created by these scans are often difficult to and MSF 89), which are particularly rich in bones, to inves- post-process using desktop or portable workstations (e.g. tigate the presence of additional fossils contained within the the size of the file, the number of required scans to cover sediment matrix and not visible on the surface of the block. the entire surface); thus, the use of the Artec Space Spi- The tomographic scans were performed at the Medical Radi- der is not advised for large objects. The 3D resolution of ology ward (‘SOS Radiologia’) of the San Giovanni di Dio the Artec Space Spider reaches 0.1 mm, whereas the 3D Hospital (Florence) using a Siemens Somatom Definition accuracy of the generated mesh is 0.05 mm. In our case AS scanner. To avoid excessive handling of the more fragile studies, the Artec Space Spider was used for more detailed samples, those samples were scanned while inside the pack- or smaller specimens, such as the cranial and dentognathic aging used for their safe transport from MSF to Florence. remains of Megantereon cultridens, Canis etruscus and The best-preserved samples were directly exposed to the Oreopithecus bambolii (IGF) or those of Lycyaena cf. scanner (Fig. 5). Different preset settings of the scanning chaeretis, Eucyon monticinensis or Oioceros occidentalis program were used according to the size of the scanned sam- (MSF). ples to reach an optimal resolution for each sample. The third scanner used in the digitisation process, espe- The scan yielded 1392 images for ossiferous block cially for the material from Cava Monticino of the Museum MSF 89 and 758 for block MSF 62, each with a pixel of Faenza, was the desktop Artec Micro, which has the size of 512 × 512, a thickness of 0.6 mm and a pitch of highest resolution and accuracy of all the scanners: 29 μm 0.4 mm. The output data were DICOM images (.dcm (the maximum 3D resolution) and 10 μm. Its specifics are files). The samples were scanned twice with slightly therefore excellent for digitising very small objects (the different settings, particularly by changing the kernel maximum dimensions, according to the scanner specif- parameter (i.e. the convolution matrix), to obtain two raw ics, are 6 × 6 × 9 cm). Indeed, we used the Artec Micro for datasets of each piece with different blurring and sharp- type specimens of small mammals (e.g. those represented ness. The data obtained from the scans were visualised 13 Geoheritage (2023) 15:40 Page 5 of 13 40 Fig. 3  Scanning process with high-resolution surface scanners Artec Eva (a, b), Artec Space Spider (c) and Artec Micro (d, e). In f, the visuali- sation of the scans in the native software Artec Studio 15 Professional with the free MicroDicom viewer software (ver. 3.9.5; Results and Discussion https://​w ww.​m icro​d icom.​c om/) while the processing of the DICOM files and the analysis were performed using In both case studies, the results of the digitisation were Amira (ver. 5.4.5; https://​www.​t herm​ofish​er.​com/​order/​ excellent in terms of the quality and fidelity of the final 3D catal​og/​produ​ct/​AMIRA). The open-source Blender soft- meshes (Fig. 6), in terms of the satisfaction of the museum ware (ver. 2.93; https://​w ww.​b lend​e r.​o rg) was used to staff and in terms of the new opportunities opened for improve the visualisation of the 3D mesh resulting from museum exhibitions and collection management. the segmentation of the blocks. The scanning activity at IGF has resulted in the digitisa- tion of a total of nearly 300 specimens. Most of the selected Augmented Reality Web App samples (more than 75%) are vertebrates, whereas the remainder consists of invertebrates and plants (Fig. 7). The Some of the 3D models resulting from the digitisation of vertebrate fossils include type and historically relevant spec- the two collections were also implemented in augmented imens of mammals (skeletal and dental material), reptiles reality protocols to allow their remote visualisation sim- (skeletal, dental and ichnological material), birds (skeletal ply using a mobile device (e.g. smartphone or tablet) material) and chondrichthyans (dental material). They span with a camera and an internet connection. The selected a stratigraphic range from the Middle-Late Triassic (with specimens presented here include two of the most rel- the amniotes’ footprints of Monte Pisani) to the Upper Pleis- evant fossils in the exhibitions of the IGF and MSF: (1) tocene, although most of the specimens are Late Neogene- the almost complete skeleton of Hippopotamus antiquus, Quaternary in age (Monechi and Rook 2010). Regarding the IGF 1043, the type specimens used by the French zoolo- invertebrates, the majority are mollusc shells (mainly Ceno- gist A. G. Desmarest (1784–1838) to erect the species; zoic bivalves and Mesozoic cephalopods), followed by cor- and (2) the small ossiferous block with the remains of als, plants, arthropods, echinoderms and brachiopods. The several individuals of Plioviverrops faventinus, MSF 62. scanned types of plants come from the relatively abundant The created code-based web app follows the methodology fossil flora of the Carboniferous-Permian deposits of Monti applied to paleontological specimens by Bartolini-Lucenti Pisani (Monechi and Rook 2010). The 3D models constitute et al. (2020, 2021), based on the source codes of Etienne the results of this first digitisation of a nationally and inter- (2017) and Carpignoli (2019). The coding was conducted nationally relevant palaeontological collection in Italy. They using Visual Studio Code (ver. 1.41) implementing AR.js will compose the bulk of the digital archive, and the museum and A-Frame (ver. 0.9.2; https://​www.​aframe.​io) to render staff is currently working on a new online platform to host, the 3D model in the environment. visualise and share the models with researchers interested 13 40 Page 6 of 13 Geoheritage (2023) 15:40 Fig. 4  Workspace of the native software Artec Studio 15 Professional removal, b alignment of the scans, c construction of the 3D mesh, d showing some of the most relevant steps from the acquired scan to hole filling, e texture mapping on the obtained mesh the finalised mesh of a cranium of Lycyaena cf. chaeretis: a base in studying them, as well as with the widest possible public or by the museum staff. Furthermore, the peculiar composi- audience, encompassing anyone fascinated by palaeontology tion of the conglomerates makes the blocks particularly frag- and evolution. ile so they could easily deteriorate. The digital applications The second case study involved the use of both surface allow the preservation of the specimens in their existing state and CT scans of the material from the Miocene site of Mon- by surface scanning and determining the presence of bones ticino gypsum quarry at Brisighella (Faenza, RA, Italy) held inside the blocks using tomographic imaging. Indeed, both at MSF, with a particular focus on two exhibited fossilifer- specimens contained bones embedded in the matrix. Despite ous blocks (MSF 62 and MSF 89). These specimens have this interesting result, the digital extraction of bones from slightly different compositions: one is a compact clayish- the matrix or from the other clasts surrounding the bones of sandy block with the bones of a small Miocene hyaenid MSF 62 and MSF 89 was particularly complex and yielded (Plioviverrops faventinus) and two others are argillitic- different results for the two blocks. The density of the fos- chalky microconglomerates that contain numerous bones silised bone appeared to be incredibly similar to that of the of carnivorans and herbivores of the diverse association of sediment (as in the case of MSF 62) and to the clasts that Cava Monticino within them (Rook 2021) (Fig. 8). Apart make up the microconglomerate of block MSF 89 (Fig. 8). from the bones emerging on the surface of the conglomer- The quality of the slices did not improve, even when apply- ates, the possibility of finding and identifying bones hidden ing different kernels (Fig. 8). For high values of the convo- within the blocks has never been investigated by researchers lution matrices (Fig. 8), the sharpness correction applied 13 Geoheritage (2023) 15:40 Page 7 of 13 40 defined and marked than the surrounding sediment. These undesired effects of the pattern of interference and blurri- ness of some components were particularly strong for MSF 89, where the sedimentological-chemical composition of the microconglomerates and the large number of clasts made segmentation of the acquired data virtually impossible. Despite these difficulties, at least in the case of MSF 62 (the smaller specimen with the cranium of Plioviverrops), we were able to obtain 3D models of the previously unsus- pected numerous bones contained within the block itself (Fig. 9). Most of these consist of postcranial bones, mainly caudal vertebrae and metapodia, of a small carnivore, pre- sumably Plioviverrops, and of a medium-large carnivore, possibly the hyaenid Lycyaena cf. chaeretis (as no larger carnivorans are currently known from Cava Monticino; Bar- Fig. 5  CT scan of the fossiliferous block MSF 62, which includes tolini-Lucenti et al. 2022). Further detailed studies of these numerous bones of Plioviverrops faventinus, acquired at the Hospital materials are currently underway. Regardless, the tomo- San Giovanni di Dio of Florence graphic investigation has allowed us to show, for the first time and while retaining the total safety of the samples, that the fossil content of these blocks is more abundant and even by the scanning program generated ‘interferences’, which more interesting than expected from an external examina- disturbed both the visualisation and the elaboration. Simi- tion. These results were presented at the Museum of Faenza lar problems arose with low kernel values (Fig. 8), as the in the second half of 2021 at two different public meetings, contours of the various bones appeared too smoothed and which were attended by a large audience. The curator of blurred, so they were difficult to make out, as they were less the museum, surprised by the results of the non-invasive Fig. 6  Results of digisation in both museums using differ- ent scanners. a, b Specimens scanned with Artec Eva (a Stephanorhinus etruscus, type cranium, IGF 756; b ossiferous block MSF 89); c, d specimens scanned with Artec Space Spi- der (c Oreopithecus bambolii, type juvenile mandibles, IGF 4335; d cranium of Lycyaena cf. chaeretis, MSF 84); e, f specimens scanned with Artec Micro (e Hystrix etrusca, inci- sor, IGF 938; f detail of the mesh of single m1 of Eucyon monticinensis, BRS 5/27). Specimens not to scale 13 40 Page 8 of 13 Geoheritage (2023) 15:40 Fig. 7  Proportion of scientifically and historically relevant speci- complete cranium of Mammuthus meridionalis; g fragment of cra- mens scanned at the Geology and Paleontology Museum of Florence. nium of Crocodylus bambolii; h skull of Canis arnensis; i tarsometa- Selected examples: a cranium fragment with antlers of Pseudodama tarsus of Fuligula aretina; j carapace of Gonoplax meneghiniii; k slab nestii; b mandibles of Macaca sylvanus florentina; c skull and par- with Argyroneta destefanii; l slab with several fronds of Acitheca tial skeleton of Sus strozzii; d broken skull of Homotherium crena- isomorpha; m shell of Coralliophaga brocchii; n shell of Cypraea tidens; e hemimandible fragment of Lepus valdarnensis; f almost haveri; o leaf of Quercus parlatorii techniques, is planning to include digital screens and 3D retrodeform taphonomically altered fossils (see Cirilli et al. prints in the current exhibition to inform visitors of the even 2020). Together with the museum staff, we created a database greater value of these beautiful specimens preserved and of 3D models and raw data to store the digital information of displayed in the museum. each specimen, recording the current state of preservation of invaluable fossils like the type specimens of IGF or the large The use and future possibilities of the digital fossils ossiferous blocks of MSF. Especially in the latter cases (and in the case studies similarly, whenever specimens are considerably fragile), their superficial and tomographic data, as well as their 3D recon- Despite the differences between the two museums and the spe- struction, could prevent the loss of their original structure. cific objectives of these applications, many benefits in com- At the same time, these data allow us to consider resto- mon are evident resulting from the use of 3D scans. Other ration intervention and/or extraction of the bones embed- authors have underlined these advantages in general terms ded in the sediment (like those shown in Fig. 9). A relevant (e.g. Cunningham et al. 2014; Adams et al. 2015), but we will alternative to the physical extraction of the bones enclosed discuss them here with regard to the two considered contexts. within the block would be to print them, thereby allowing Figure 10 sums up both the workflow and the aforementioned researchers and visitors at the MSF to touch and manipulate opportunities. In conservation, reports of the state of pres- them, while keeping the fragile specimens safely in their ervation of a specimen are essential to understand whether showcases. This is an interesting and commonly appreci- and how to handle it, to know its stability and, eventually, to ated way of expanding the standard exposition (as evident plan its restoration. Written notes and photographs remain by surveys such as that of Wilson et al. 2017 and references valid and irreplaceable means of registering this informa- therein) to enable a more interactive and intuitive experience tion. However, with digital techniques, the amount of data of the museum, with attention to visitors with vision dis- recorded in a single session of scans (especially tomographic abilities who could then also enjoy the museum collection. ones) is far larger and more complete than any ‘analogue’ The construction of the database of digital data is also rel- means of data collection. In terms of planning, 3D copies evant, as the museum staff at IGF is also planning the use of of the fossil specimens offer the chance to see the results of online platforms, owned and controlled by the museum or the restoration directly on the digital object simply by mod- via existing clients, to host and make the models available on elling it into the restored version. In this way, curators and request to scientists, teachers or students interested in them. technicians could approve or disregard interventions that Indeed, one of the key advantages of using digital fossils is the would otherwise alter the original specimens. Today, numer- opportunity for good practices of open science. As with any ous digital methodologies are available that could be used to other type of digital file, 3D models of fossils can be exchanged 13 Geoheritage (2023) 15:40 Page 9 of 13 40 Fig. 8  Raw data of the CT scans of MSF 89 (a, b) and MSF 62 (c, d) blurred. The use of these different presets in the scans deeply affects using different kernel values. The sets in a and c have higher values, the possibility of discriminating between bone, matrix, and clasts so sharper scans, whereas b and d have lower kernel values, so more as easily as sending an email. This has great potential for the methodologies and for those who require 3D models of some entire palaeontological community, allowing researchers from fossils. The great advantage is the use of the models in virtual distant places to visualise and study fossil specimens without exhibitions, both in situ and online. Many scientific museums the cost of travel and accommodation to reach the collections. today use websites or mobile apps that allow remote visits to With virtual palaeontology becoming a common prac- their exhibitions and often implement 3D models. tice in palaeontological analyses, the issue of copyright and/ The curators of IGF are currently developing an online expe- or ownership of the perfect copies of the physical specimen rience of a 360° virtual visit to the museum, which will include has arisen (Lewis 2019). Museum institutions that already use the digitised models resulting from the project presented here. online repositories (e.g. Digimorph, Morphosource) to store This online exhibition should be released sometime during 2023. and share their digital models now use ad hoc one-to-one agree- Digital models could also be effectively used on site as parts of ments via online/digital forms, which need to be filled in and virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR) and mixed real- submitted to the curators before authorisation for the download ity (MR) exhibits. Of the three, AR experiences are generally is granted (see, e.g., Adams et al. 2015). The curators of IGF, intuitively easy-to-use and attractive to user of all ages, more together with our help and that of the legal office of the Uni- and more often available for ludic or educational purposes versity of Florence, prepared a similar document for incoming (Cabero-Almenara et al. 2019), as testified by the increasing visiting researchers who wish to make use of 3D acquisition number of AR apps on the online store repositories (i.e. App 13 40 Page 10 of 13 Geoheritage (2023) 15:40 additional resources. Several authors have discussed the benefit effects that AR have to count the ‘digital isolation’ involving the user in first person (despite the actual objective of the AR expe- rience, e.g. educational, edutainment, game) (Pyae and Potter 2016; Cabero-Almenara et al. 2019 and reference therein). Of the many types of AR methodologies (e.g. Bower et al. 2014; Kolivand et al. 2018), marker-based application has proven suit- able for independent and remote use by users (Kan et al. 2011; Cabero-Almenara et al. 2019). For instance, in the case of the results of scientific research (as in Bartolini-Lucenti et al. 2020, 2021), the AR content can be used to perform intuitive digital comparisons between different specimens. In a similar way, scientific museums could take advantage of the high appeal of digital fossils to boost their visibility and engagement with the general public, enabling people to visit exhibitions on the web or Fig. 9  Image obtained thanks to the segmentation of CT data of the for visitors to experience the museum collections in an innova- sandy-clayish block MSF 62 showing the fossil bones preserved tive way (e.g. Duguleana and Voinea 2018; Bennett et al. 2022). within the block itself In our projects, a marker-based AR application was also employed in the cases of IGF and MSF to engage the public by showing the ossiferous block MSF 62 and the mounted skeleton Store and Google Play Store; Koetsier 2017). Moreover, AR of Hippopotamus antiquus during the COVID-19 pandemic. gives the visitor the liberty to experience the exposed material Figure 11 shows the two web apps and AR renderings of these and the digital implementations at their own pace, without the 3D models, using a QR code (to access the webpage of the AR use of immersive or special devices other than one’s own tab- content) and a marker. On site, an easy-to-use marker-based or let or smartphone (Azuma 1997; Rigby and Smith 2013; Yuen georeferenced AR web app could be implemented in the exhibi- et al. 2013; Akçayır and Akçayır 2017; Fistola et al. 2020). It tion itinerary to show hidden contents (e.g. the embedded bones has the asset without replacing neither the physical world nor of MSF 62 or the internal volumes and structures of fossils of the real object with digital copies, as VR (Bennettet al. 2022), IGF), thereby increasing the attractiveness of the museum with but rather expanding the potentiality of the exhibitions with limited cost or resource expenditure. Fig. 10  Virtual paleontol- ogy workflow followed in the two digitisation projects here presented, with the advantages prospected by the resulting 3D models of fossils. Legend: rectangles = (physical or digital) objects; dashed ovals = tech- niques and methods (3D printing is reported in bold to represent its relevance as an advantage offered by digital fossils but also the outstanding variety of methodologies, types, material nowadays available as 3D prints); hexagons = differ- ent branches of paleontology; circles = opportunities; rounded parallelograms = practices (e.g. decolonisation, repatriation) or topics relevant to museol- ogy (e.g. outreach). Lines and arrows indicate (some of) the possible connection between the topics as deepened in the text 13 Geoheritage (2023) 15:40 Page 11 of 13 40 reported here, both museums are starting to plan and create virtual environments and applications, such as the creation of an online platform hosting the 3D models and a new vir- tual tour of the exhibition of the Geology and Paleontology Museum of Florence, as well as the possible implementation of 3D prints and/or screen showings of digital fossils to the public in the Natural Science Museum of Faenza. Appendix: Guide to use of the AR web app To visualize the QR code: choose any free application from the App Store/Play Store. Best performance of the AR visu- alisation can be achieved with printed markers, rather than on screens (pc monitors, tablets, etc.). Prints reducing back- scattered light on the markers represent optimal conditions for the AR visualisation. iOS devices To visualize the Augmented Reality web app: (1) Allow Safari to open the camera of the iPhone: Go to Setting > Safari > turn on ‘Camera and Microphone Access’ under the ‘Privacy and Security’ submenu. (2) Scan the QR code. (3) Open the link in Safari (n.b.: the web app does not work Fig. 11  QR code and augmented reality (AR) marker showing two in Chrome for iOS or other browsers). models: a the Hippopotamus antiquus skeleton (IGF 1043) of the (4) Confirm the use of the camera by the browser. Geology and Paleontology Museum of Florence and b the clay block (5) Point at the marker, wait for the model to load. with Plioviverrops faventinus (MSF 62) from the Civic Museum of Faenza. Instructions: Scan the QR code on the left; open the link; allow the browser to access the camera of your device; point the cam- Best model-rendering performances if the scene is in land- era toward the marker (on the right); and wait for the model to load scape mode (i.e. allowing the phone to automatically rotate the (up to 10 s). It is possible to turn the device around the marker (or view). N.b. If the model does not appear in landscape mode, to move the marker) to see different parts of the model. Best visuali- although it was visible in portrait mode, refresh the page. Recom- sation performances can be achieved by printing the markers, rather pointing at them on screens. Refer to Appendix and Bartolini-Lucenti mended iOS versions to visualize the AR content 15.0 or above. et al. 2020; 2021) for common issues Android devices Concluding Remarks To visualize the QR code: choose any free application from The use of virtual palaeontology methods in museums is a the App Store. valuable and progressively more affordable possibility that To visualize the Augmented Reality web app: enhances the engagement and awareness of non-expert visi- tors, while also favouring conservation and open-science (1) Scan the QR code. virtual practices. Moreover, systematic digitisation projects, (2) Open the link in your mobile browser (note that Chrome such as the ones we carried out at the Geology and Paleontol- is preferable). ogy Museum of Florence and the Natural Science Museum (3) Confirm the use of the camera by the browser. of Faenza, follow the guidelines and objectives of the 2019 (4) Point at the marker, wait for the model to load. European Commission Museum ‘Declaration of Cooperation on advancing the digitisation of cultural heritage’ to pro- Best model-rendering performances if the scene is in land- mote the digitisation of European cultural heritage, thereby scape mode (i.e. allowing the phone to automatically rotate the respecting the goals of many museal institutions. Sparked view). N.b. If the model does not appear in landscape mode, by the scanning activity in their collections, as preliminarily although it was visible in portrait mode, refresh the page. 13 40 Page 12 of 13 Geoheritage (2023) 15:40 Additionally, some users may need to install ‘Google VR ser- Bartolini-Lucenti S, Madurell-Malapeira J, Martínez-Navarro B, vices’ to their mobile phones in order to see the AR content. Palmqvist P, Lordkipanidze D, Rook L (2021) The early hunt- ing dog from Dmanisi with comments on the social behaviour Acknowledgements We thank the kindness of the curators of the Museum, in Canidae and hominins. Sci Rep 11(1):1–10 object of these projects: Dr. E. Cioppi, Dr. S. Dominici, Dr. A. Savorelli Bartolini-Lucenti S, Madurell-Malapeira J, Rook L (2022) The car- and Dr. L. Bellucci of the IGF; and E. Bagnaresi and Dr. M. Sami of MSF. nivorans from Cava Monticino (Faenza, Italy; Messinian) revis- We are indebted to the staff of the San Giovanni di Dio Hospital, especially ited. Hist Biol 34:1458–1470. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1080/​08912​963.​ to Dr. MD E. Peruzzi and Dr. MD G. Dedola and all the technicians of 2022.​20428​06 Medical Radiology ward (“SOS Radiologia”) for granting us access to Bennett MR, Budka M, Belvedere M, Reynolds S (2022) Deploying their CT scanner and support in processing raw data. Finally, we thank augmented reality to help engage the public with palaeontologi- TBNET SOLUZIONI 3D (Arezzo) for their availability and their always cal applications. Proc Geol Ass 133(1):22–31 helpful technical support. We thank two anonymous reviewers for their Bower M, Howe C, McCredie N, Robinson A, Grover D (2014) Aug- useful suggestions and corrections that helped improve the manuscript. mented reality in education–cases, places and potentials. Edu Media Int 51:1–15 Author Contribution All authors contributed to the study conception Cabero-Almenara J, Barroso-Osuna J, Llorente-Cejudo C, del Mar- and design. Data collection and analysis were performed by SBL. The tínez MMF (2019) Educational uses of augmented reality (AR): first draft of the manuscript was written by SBL and all authors com- experiences in educational science. Sustainability 2019(11):4990 mented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and Carpignoli N (2019) AR . js — the simplest way to get cross-browser approved the final manuscript. augmented reality on the web. In: Medium. https://​medium.​com/​ swlh/a​ r-j​ s-t​ he-s​ imple​ st-w ​ ay-t​ o-g​ et-c​ ross-b​ rowse​ r-a​ ugmen​ ted-r​ eali​ Funding Open access funding provided by Università degli Studi di ty-​on-​the-​web-​10cbc​721de​bc Firenze within the CRUI-CARE Agreement. The authors received sup- Cirilli O, Melchionna M, Serio C et al (2020) Target deformation of port from NBFC to the University of Florence (Earth Sciences Depart- the Equus stenonis holotype skull: a virtual reconstruction. Front ment), funded by the Italian Ministry of University and Research, Earth Sci 8:1–12. https://​doi.​org/​10.​3389/​feart.​2020.​00247 PNRR, Missione 4 Componente 2, “Dalla ricerca all’impresa”, Inves- Cunningham JA, Rahman IA, Lautenschlager S, Rayfield EJ, Donoghue PC timento 1.4, Project CN00000033. Part of the prject here described (2014) A virtual world of paleontology. Trends Eco Evo 29(6):347–357 was supported by the Tuscany Region program "Assegni di Ricerca Duguleana M, Voinea GD (2018) Enhancing the experience of visiting in ambito culturale – anno 2018" (POR FSE 2014-2020), co-funded outdoor heritage sites using handheld AR. Commun Comput Inf by the Sistema Museale dell'Università degli Studi di Firenze and the Sci 852:184–191. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​978-3-3​ 19-​92285-0_​26 Fondazione Ente Cassa di Risparmio di Firenze. Etienne J (2017) AR-Code: a fast path to augmented reality. In: Medium. https://​medium.​com/​arjs/​ar-​code-a-​fast-​path-​to-​augme​nted-​reali​ty-​ 60e51​be3cb​df Declarations Fistola R, Rastelli A, Pham C, Amore FO (2020) Augmented reality for cultural heritage: a new dimension for the perceptual knowledge. Conflict of Interest The authors declare no competing interests. IOP Conf Ser Mater Sci Eng 949. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1088/​1757-​ 899X/​949/1/​012053 Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attri- Kan TW, Teng CH, Chen MY (2011) QR code based augmented reality bution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adapta- applications. In: Borko F (ed) Handbook of augmented reality. tion, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long Springer, New York, NY, pp 339–354 as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, Koetsier J (2017) Apple CEO Tim Cook: There are now more than provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes 1000 AR Apps in the AppStore. In: Forbes https://​www.​forbes.​ were made. The images or other third party material in this article are com/​sites/​johnk​oetsi​er/​2017/​11/​06/​apple-​ceotim-​cook-​there-​are-​ included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated now-​more-​than-​1000-​ar-​apps-​in-​the-​app-​store/ otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in Kolivand H, El Rhalibi A, Tajdini M et al (2019) Cultural heritage in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not marker-less augmented reality: a survey. Adv Methods New Mater permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will Cult Herit Preserv. https://​doi.​org/​10.​5772/​intec​hopen.​80975 need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a Lewis D (2019) The fight for control over virtual fossils. Nature copy of this licence, visit http://​creat​iveco​mmons.​org/​licen​ses/​by/4.​0/. 567(7746):20–24 Marabini S, Vai GB (1989) Geology of the Monticino Quarry, Brisighella, Italy. 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