Table 1: Three dimensions and indicators of sustainability to assess adaptation in Indigenous and local contexts (adopted from [29]) Sustainability Indicators Questions asked with adaptation indicators References dimensions Social Social Does the option offer health and education benefits? [30] benefits Does the option minimize negative trade-offs with other development policy goals and identify positive synergies with other policy goals? Sociocultural Is there public resistance to the option? Does the option [31–33] acceptability typically find acceptance within existing sociocultural norms and utilize diverse knowledge systems including Indigenous and local knowledge? Social and regional Does the option include different social groups and [34–36] inclusiveness remote regions? Does the adaptation option adversely affect vulnerable groups or other areas? Economic Microeconomic and What are the economic costs and trade-offs of the [37,38] macroeconomic option? (high costs correspond to low feasibility) viability, including Would the option lead to higher economic employment and productivity? productivity Does the option employ many people or does the enhancement potential system’s productivity increase under the option? Environmental Adaptive capacity/ Does the option enhance the ability of ecosystems or [39] resilience-building relevant decision-makers to adjust to potential damage potential to the environment, take advantage of opportunities, or respond to consequences, or does the option contribute to building resilience (the environment’s ability to cope with stressors and reorganize to maintain structures and functions and retain the capacity to transform)? Ecological capacity Does the option enhance supporting, regulating, or [39] provisioning ecosystem services in any way? Table 2: Examples of Indigenous and local knowledge-based adaptation responses and their impacts on sustainability Adaptive Examples (+/–) Impacts on Sustainability References responses sustainability dimensions Community- Participatory (+) Support community Social, [40,41*] based adaptation planning cohesion, local resource Environmental adaptation (Langalanga people management (forest, from the Solomon water, and fisheries), and Islands) disaster risk reduction (-) Increased settlement along the coast leads to conflicts over access to fishing grounds Inclusion of women (+) Inclusion of women’s Social [77**] in fisheries knowledge in fisheries (Alaskan native decision-making (Alaskan people, United native people, United States) States) (-) Limited research considering the knowledge and perspectives of fisherwomen in Alaska (Alaskan native people, United States) Diversificatio Livelihood (+) Diverse skills give Economic, [3,44] n diversification them opportunities to Social (Indigenous peoples maximize the flexible use in the Asia Pacific of all available capital to region) sustain their livelihood and reduce climate risks and vulnerability (-) Limited specialization in one livelihood activity (expert knowledge and learning) Crop diversification (+) Contribution to Environmental, [51,54,55,67] (Bangladesh; Milpa agrobiodiversity, Economic, farmers in Mexico; improved soil quality, Social various ethnic reduced pest infestation, groups in northern health and nutritional Vietnam; intake diversity Yi people in China) (-) Although mixed cropping increases yield, indigenous crops generally display lower yields and lower market prices, resulting in generally lower income generation potential compared to improved varieties Local Co-management (+) Empowered Social, [78,79] governance (small-scale fishers communities are more Economic, and conflict in Timor-Leste and likely to meet both socio- Environmental resolutions Bangladesh) economic and biological schemes goals being involved in decision-making (-) Inequities reinforced by the customary power hierarchies reduce incomes and access rights of poor fishers Community-based (+) Foster capacity Social, [80,81] management (Laos building Environmental PDR, Resex (-) Degradation of coastal- Pirajubaé fishers of marine ecosystems and a Brazil) severe impact on traditional fishery did not prevent due to urban growth over the reserve Land, soil, and Soil management (+) Improves soil quality, Environmental, [82,83] water (Thai farmers in including soil fertility and Economic, management Vietnam; water retention potential Social smallholder farmers (-) Labor work-intensive, in Northern Ghana; which is addressed Khasi and Jaintia through collective actions people in Northern and a culture of India) reciprocity Water management (+) a good water Social, [62–64] (Sri Lanka; management systems Economic, Peruvian Andean guarantees sustainable and Environmental Indigenous fair water use among pastoralists; community members Northern Pakistan) (-) Excessive water usage in the dry season might exhaust natural water sources Traditional Traditional weather (+) High cultural Social, [57,61] weather forecast (Alfa acceptance, Information Economic observation pastoralists in sharing to inform all and forecast Ethiopia; Mayan community members milpa farmers in (-) The higher Mexico) unpredictability especially of rainfall, makes traditional weather forecast less reliable and decision-making more difficult