Acta Diabetologica https://doi.org/10.1007/s00592-023-02136-6 ORIGINAL ARTICLE On the occasion of the centennial of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1923: Nicolae C. Paulescu—between scientific creativity and political fanatism Alberto de Leiva‑Hidalgo1,2 · Alejandra de Leiva‑Pérez2 Received: 18 April 2023 / Accepted: 11 June 2023 © The Author(s) 2023 Abstract Aims Since the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded in 1923 to FG Banting and JJR Macleod, many voices have been raised against this decision. The bitterest protest was that of the Romanian scientist Nicolae C. Paulescu. In 2002, The Romanian Academy of Sciences, the European Association for the Study of Diabetes (EASD) and the International Diabetes Federation (IDF) planned to hold a series of academic events the following year in Paris to acknowledge Paulescu's scientific merits in the discovery of the antidiabetic hormone. However, the initiative was cancelled in August 2003, when the European Center of the Simon Wiesenthal Foundation (SWC) accused Paulescu of being antisemitic. The authors of this manuscript have decided to approach "the Paulescu case" from its double aspect, scientific and sociopolitical, to analyze the circumstances surrounding the discovery of the antidiabetic hormone, and Paulescu's alleged antisemitic past in the historical context of the Romanian nation in the interwar period. Methods We contacted the SWC and people related to the 2003 events in Paris. We performed a comparative review of the documents published by the Toronto group and by Paulescu and analyzed the correspondence and articles generated by international experts from the scientific community interested in the controversy. We carried out an exhaustive bibliographic search through several online catalogs (INDEXCAT, NLM Gateway, EUREKA, MEDHIST). We travelled to Bucharest, where we visited Paulescu's house-museum, interviewed a former student of the Romanian professor, and a prominent medical historian who was knowledgeable about Paulescu's scientific and political biography. Dan Angelescu†, son of Dr. Constantin Angelescu (1904–1990), Paulescu's nephew and collaborator, provided us with a copy of all the available documentation from Paulescu's personal archive. It constitutes an essential source for understanding Paulescu's personal, political and academic biography. Archives consulted: Românǎ Academy (Bucharest). Personal Archive of Paulescu, House -Museum (Bucharest)*. Romanian Jewish Heritage (Bucharest). http://​roman​ianje​wish.​org/ **. Simon Wiesenthal Center (Los Angeles, CA) http://​www.​wiese​nthal.​com **. Romanian Patent Office. Oficiul de Stat pentru Invenții şi Mǎrci (OSIM) (Bucharest)***. Nobel Archives (Stockholm) https://w ​ ww.n​ obelp​ rize.o​ rg. Internet Archive (San Francisco, CA) https://a​ rchi​ ve.​org **. Wellcome Library (London) https://​wellc​omeli​brary.​org **. The European Library https://​www.​theeu​ropea​nlibr​ ary.​org/ **. US National Library of Medicine, NLM historical collections http://​www.​nlm.​nih.​gov/​hmd/​index.​html **. US. Holocaust Memorial Museum http://​www.​ushmm.​org/ (*: archive consulted on site; **: material found in the online catalog of the archive; ***: archivists sent us digitized copies of archival material). Books consulted for information on the history of Romania and antisemitism: “Nationalist ideology and antisemitism. The case of Romanian intellectuals in the 1930s”, by Leon Volovici; “The mystique of ultranationalism: History of the Iron Guard, Romania, 1919–1941” by Francisco Vega; “Romania 1866–1947”, by Keith Hitchins; “History of Romania. Compendium”, by Ioan-Aurel Pop and Joan Bolovan; “The Holocaust in Romania. The destruction of Jews and Gypsies under the Antonescu regime, 1940–1944”, by Radu Ioanid; “The Jews of East Central Europe between the World Wars”, by Ezra Mendelson; “Cultural Politics in Greater Romania. Managed by Massimo Porta. Alberto de Leiva-Hidalgo and Alejandra de Leiva-Pérez have contributed equally to this work. Extended author information available on the last page of the article 13 Vol.:(0123456789) Acta Diabetologica Regionalism, Nation Building and Ethnic Struggle, 1918–1930”, by Irina Livezeanu, and “Judeophobia. How and when it is born, where and why it survives”, by Gustavo Daniel Perednik. Articles are referenced in the bibliography section at the end of the manuscript. Results A-Nicolae Paulescu developed an intense long-term research activity, which included complete pancreatectomy and preparation of a pancreatic extract (PE) containing the antidiabetic hormone he called pancreina. Parenteral administration of the PE achieved excellent results in the treatment of experimental diabetes in dogs and induction of hypoglycemia in the healthy animal. This work was initiated before 1916 and published at least eight months antedating the publication of the first article by Banting and Best (February 1922), who were acquainted with Paulescu's results, but misinterpreted them. The pancreatic extract of the two Canadian researchers, -iletin/insulin-, only achieved similar results to that of the Romanian scientist once they abandoned the use of the "degenerated pancreas" extract (ligation of the ductal system), replacing it with the pancreas of adult or fetal bovine. Pancreina and insulin were very similar. The award of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine to FG Banting and JJR Macleod in October 1923 honored the successful clinical use of insulin in patients with diabetes mellitus. Paulescu's achievements were ignored. B-Nicolae Paulescu publicly manifested his Judeophobic ideology on multiple occasions in academic and political interventions and in publications and participated with other figures from the Romanian intellectual sphere in the founding of the Uniunea Național Crestinǎ (UNC, National Christian Union) in 1922 and of the Liga Apǎrǎrii Național Cresține (LANC, League for Christian National Defense) in 1923, antisemitic far-right political parties, associated with an irrational Christian orthodoxy and hatred of Jews. Paulescu played a pivotal role in the spread of antisemitism. Conclusions A-The Romanian scientist NC Paulescu started an intense research program aimed at the isolation of the antidiabetic hormone before 1916, including an original procedure of pancreatectomy in the dog and the elaboration of a pancreatic extract that achieved excellent results in the treatment of experimental diabetes, demonstrating its beneficial effects on the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins and fats and reducing both glycosuria and glycemia and the urinary excretion of ketone bodies of depancreatized dogs toward normality. The results of these investigations were published in 1920 and 1921, predating the first report published by FG Banting ​​ and CH Best in February 1922. It has been sufficiently demonstrated that Canadian researchers were aware of Paulescu's excellent results, mentioning them only in passing, albeit erroneously misrepresenting key results of the Romanian scientist's publication in the aforementioned seminal Canadian article. Expert historians and international scientists have recognized that the pancreatic extract that Paulescu called pancreina and that obtained by Banting and Best, insulin, were very similar. The October 1923 award of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine to FG Banting and JJR Macleod ignored Paulescu's scientific achievements in the treatment of experimental diabetes and rewarded the extraordinary advance of insulin treatment in human diabetes. B-At the end of August 2003, a few days before the date of the celebration at the Hôtel Dieu in Paris of the scheduled program of tribute to the scientific merits of NC Paulescu and his important contribution to the discovery of the antidiabetic hormone, convened by the Romanian Academy and the International Diabetes Federation, the Wiesenthal Foundation publicly accused the Romanian scientist of being an antisemite, an act that determined the cancellation of the announced events. The exhaustive investigation of the personal convictions and antisemitic behavior of Nicolae C. Paulescu has undoubtedly documented the Judeophobic ideology of the Romanian scientist, linked to his orthodox religious radicalism, manifested in multiple documents (mostly pamphlets) and interventions in collaboration with other relevant personalities of the Romanian intelligentsia of his time. Furthermore, Paulescu participated in the creation of political organizations of the most radical extreme right that played a fundamental role in the spread of antisemitism amongst the Romanian population and the university community. Keywords Nobel Prize · Controversy · Antidiabetic hormone · antisemitism · Pancreina · Insulin Resurgence of interest in Paulescu's traces were erased from the history of Romanian science contribution to the discovery (Fig. 1) [1]. of the antidiabetic hormone (1968–2003) The renaissance of Nicolae Constantin Paulescu in the scientific community and his contribution to the discovery Nicolae C. Paulescu died on July 7, 1931, from kidney of the antidiabetic hormone have been mainly the result of complications related to a bladder carcinoma. With the the intense and continuous work of Ion Pavel, Ian Murray, tragic vicissitudes of the Second World War and the rise Constantin Ionescu-Tirgoviste and members of the Roma- to power in Romania of the Communist Party, Paulescu's nian Academy. 13 Acta Diabetologica Fig. 1  Left: Portrait of Nicolae Constantin Paulescu. Author and date unknown. https://​ commo​ns.​wikim​edia.​org/w/​ index.​php?​title=​File:​Nicol​ ae_​Paule​scu.​Foto02.​jpg&​ oldid=​65194​6579. Right: N.C. Paulescu and his students on the access stairs to the Faculty of Medicine, University of Bucha- rest. Year 1926. Paulescu's personal archive. Courtesy of Dan Angelescu† Ion Pavel (1897–1992) was a student of Paulescu in the Paulescu's priority in the discovery of the antidiabetic hor- academic year 1916–1917. Pavel, for many years profes- mone, publishing two monographs and a series of articles sor at the Clinic for Nutritional Diseases and Diabetes at on the subject (Fig. 2) [2–4]. Cantacuzino Hospital, is considered the founder of Roma- Ian Murray (1899–1974), Professor of Physiology at nian diabetology. In 1939, he started the Romanian Diabe- Anderson College of Medicine in Glasgow, Vice-President tes Registry and in 1944 he published the monograph “Le of the British Diabetic Association and founding member of Diabète”, which earned him the prize of the Paris Academy the International Diabetes Federation (IDF) found convinc- of Sciences. A member of the Romanian Academy and the ing evidence that several researchers had obtained pancreatic French Academy of Medicine, for many years he vindicated extracts with greater or lesser biological activity, capable of Fig. 2  Comparison between Paulescu's pancreatic extract (1921) and Banting and Best'(1922) [2] 13 Acta Diabetologica generating symptomatic relief of diabetes in pancreatectomy On February 29, 1972, Murray wrote to Pavel in these dogs, prior to the first experiences in Toronto by Frederick terms: “My suggestion is that the IDF should institute a G. Banting and Charles H. Best. Of all of these pioneering Paulescu Memorial Lectureship, for which relevant scien- contributions, the most significant, according to Murray, was tists would be selected at future congresses of the federation that of Nicolae C. Paulescu, whom he considered the dis- [1; p. 593]. coverer of the pancreatic hormone, now known as insulin. Constantin Ionescu-Tirgovişte was born in Târgovişte The Scottish professor wrote in October 1968 to the Pro- in 1937. University professor since 1999 at the Faculty of fessor of Physiology (then Grigore Benetato) at the Faculty Medicine, University of Bucharest, he also directed between of Medicine, University of Bucharest. In the absence of a 1997 and 2007 the University Clinic for Diabetes, Nutrition response, Murray contacted Professor Ion Pavel, a mem- and Metabolic Diseases and the National Institute of Diabe- ber of the Romanian scientific community with recognized tes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases "Nicolae C. Paulescu" prestige among IDF members. In this way, a cordial cor- in Bucharest. A full member of the Romanian Academy, respondence between Murray and Pavel was established on Ionescu-Tirgoviste has continued with extraordinary inter- November 17, 1968, which lasted until 1974. The documents est the work initiated by I. Murray and Ion Pavel to claim sent by Murray to Pavel included three publications that Paulescu's priority in the discovery of the antidiabetic hor- confirmed the international growing interest in Paulescu's mone (Fig. 3) [8–11]. work, and the suggestion to generate a Romanian delega- tion to participate in the IDF general council meeting to be held at the VII Congress in Buenos Aires of the IDF (1970) IDF Report of the Special Committee set to debate research achievements related to the discovery of up to present a written summary of work insulin [5–7]. leading up to the discovery of insulin, 1971 “The fascinating story of the discovery of insulin still provokes con- In the VII Congress of the International Diabetes Federa- troversy (…). Insufficient recognition has been given to Paulescu, tion celebrated in Buenos Aires (August 1970), a Special the distinguished Romanian scientist, who at the time when the Toronto team were commencing their research, had already suc- Committee was created to devise a summary on the research ceeded in extracting the antidiabetic hormone of the pancreas and developments related to the discovery of insulin. The Com- proving its efficacy in reducing the hyperglycaemia in diabetic dogs mittee was formed by: F. G. Young (UK), President of the (…). His results, published in August 1921, proved convincingly Committee; he was elected President of the IDF at the end of that he had succeeded in isolating the antidiabetic hormone of the pancreas and demonstrating its action in lowering the blood sugar the Buenos Aires Congress and was Best’s personal friend. in both diabetic and normal dogs (…). Banting and Best are com- The other members of the Committee were: R. Haist (Can- monly believed to have been the first to have succeeded in isolating ada), who worked with Best, and succeeded him to the Chair insulin. They have been hailed as their ‘discoverers’. Their work, of Physiology at the University of Toronto; W. J. H. But- however, may more accurately be construed as confirmations of Paulescu’s findings (…). There can be no doubt that pancreina and terfield (UK); Rolf Luft (Sweden) and P. Rambert (France). iletin were identical. Unfortunately, both these extracts caused such More information on the scientific biography of FG Young local irritation when injected subcutaneously that administration by is available in Supplementary Material (1). this route was impossible.” The report was published in 1971 (forty-nine years after Ian Murray, 1971 [7] the discovery of insulin). It started with a foreword from Young, and an introduction that said: Fig. 3  From left: Portraits of Ion Pavel, Ian Murray and Con- stantin Ionescu-Tirgoviste, who played a key role on the renais- sance of Nicolae Constantin Paulescu in the scientific com- munity and his contribution to the discovery of the antidiabetic hormone 13 Acta Diabetologica …There was no intention to detract in any way from Pavel corresponded with FG Young to defend Paulescu's the contributions of Banting, Best and Macleod in priority. In one of these letters, Young openly explained to Toronto in 1921-1922 but rather to pay tribute to oth- Pavel his personal relationship with the Toronto research- ers whose published observations formed part of the ers, as well as his attempts to be as objective as possible in background in which the investigations of the group in the contents of the IDF official report [13], [Supplementary Toronto began fifty years ago. Material (2)]. The report stressed above all the importance of the clini- cal application of insulin carried out by the Toronto team, without paying too much attention to the importance of the Michael Bliss, Jasbir Singh Bajaj and John physiological step. Therefore, the work of Paulescu and the Waller recognized the priority of Paulescu other pioneers was diminished and the chronology of events in the discovery of the antidiabetic hormone was ignored. Some extracts of the report are reproduced antedating insulin below [12] (Supplementary Figures S1, S2). Michael Bliss (1941–2017) "If the isolation of a substance involves the preparation of it in pure form, as indeed the word isolation does imply, Banting and Best did Bliss, Professor of History at the University of Toronto, not isolate insulin. What they did was to produce for the first-time wrote in 1993: “The Paulescu case was based on the realiza- pancreatic extracts containing that substance which were suitable tion that, in fact, Banting and Best had not produced results for subcutaneous injection into animals and man, such treatment being highly effective in controlling the symptoms of diabetes mel- more impressive than Paulescu’s.” [14]. litus in diabetic dogs and human patients." "There can be little doubt that Paulesco, as well as Banting and Best, Jasbir Singh Bajaj (1936–2019) obtained a pancreatic extract which contained insulin, and that the pancreina and the insulin present in the crude extracts in which the J. S. Bajaj, Professor and Director of the Department of hormone was first obtained, are the same substance." Medicine at All India Institute of Medical Science, Health "Undoubtedly, Professor N.C. Paulesco should be given special credit for the successes with which his experimental observations were Minister (1991–98) [15], Doctor Honoris Causa from the crowned. But more than experimental physiology was needed if Karolinska Institute and IDF President (1985–1988), vindi- insulin was to become available in the form, and on the scale, in cated Paulescu in his monograph The Discovery of Insulin. which it was quickly needed for the therapeutic use. The resources A critique [16]. required involved not only the large-scale production of material of a refinement that ensured no irritant reaction on subcutaneous injection into a human being, but also the biological standardization John Waller (1972‑) of the hormone and the extensive clinical testing of the standard- ized product." John Waller, Lecturer in the History of Medicine, University "The Nobel Prize that was given to Banting and Macleod was awarded for work which the Professorial Staff of the Caroline Insti- of Melbourne, wrote in his book Fabulous Science (Fig. 4) tute considered to be of great importance, theoretically and practi- [17] that: “NC Paulescu published the results of his experi- cally. The practical importance of the investigations initiated by ments involving depancreatized dogs before Banting and Banting and Best is witnessed by the fact that since 1922 countless Best had submitted their first paper in 1921 (…). The impli- numbers of diabetic people have been able to live normal lives." cations were clear, if controlling the blood sugar levels of Fig. 4  From left: Portraits of Jasbir Singh Bajaj (National Academy of Medical Sciences, India), John Waller and Michael Bliss (Public domain) 13 Acta Diabetologica dogs was adjudged the basis of the discovery, Paulescu’s this event in the IDF's bulletin. Some excerpts are repro- priority became extremely hard to deny”. duced below [19] (Fig. 5): "I recently had the enormous honor to unveil a large bronze statue Institutional acts of recognition of Nicolae Paulescu in Bucharest together with the President of Romania. The occasion was the 80th anniversary of the publication and posthumous tribute to Paulescu (1990– of Paulescu’ seminal paper of his discovery of insulin." 2002) "(…) He (Paulescu) was the first to discover the actions of what was later called insulin and clearly demonstrated that it was a hormone In the last decade of the twentieth century, multiple acts of with actions on all aspects of metabolism." recognition and homage to Paulescu were held in Romania. "(…) My own view is that Paulescu’s observations were fundamental In 1990 Paulescu was posthumously appointed a member to our understanding of insulin, but the Canadians were the first to treat patients successfully. Sufficient credit was not given to the of the Romanian Academy. On March 3, 1993, the Bucha- outstanding work of Paulescu." rest Institute of Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases George Alberti, 2001 [19] adopted the name “Institulul de Diabet, Nutritie si Boli Metabolice N,C. Paulescu”. On June 27 of the same year, In 2002, the Romanian Academy, the European Associa- in Cluj-Napoca, on the occasion of the commemoration of tion for the Study of Diabetes (EASD) and the International World Diabetes Day, a postmark was issued in his honor and, Diabetes Federation (IDF) agreed to organize a series of in 1994, he was portrayed in one of seven stamps in memory academic events to pay homage to NC Paulescu: of Romanian celebrities [18]. In 2001 on the occasion of the 80th anniversary of the publication of Paulescu's article on the discovery of pan- A‑International Research Award “Nicolae Paulescu” creina, a bronze statue of him was erected near Bucha- rest University of Medicine and Pharmacy. The President It was agreed to give an award named after Paulescu, for of Romania, Ion Iliescu, and the President of the IDF, Sir original investigation of excellence related to the antidiabetic George Alberti, presided the ceremony. Alberti wrote about hormone, on competitive and international bases. For this Fig. 5  In 1993, a postmark was issued to honor Paulescu. In March statue of Paulescu was erected near the University Carol Davila in of the same year, the Bucharest Institute of Diabetes, Nutrition and Bucharest (photographs taken by the authors in 2007) Metabolism adopted the name of N.C. Paulescu. In 2001 a bronze 13 Acta Diabetologica purpose, an evaluation committee was appointed, formed by glorification of a purveyor of hatred and violence, a cer- Robert Heine (The Netherlands), Alberto de Leiva (Spain) emony that, by association, would dishonor the reputation of and Zvi Laron (Israel) as president [1; pp. 601–603]. the Hospital, of French medicine, and Romania’s credibility Four international experts presented their candidacy. in dealing with antisemitic phantoms of its past” (Fig. 6) The Commission unanimously decided to award the prize [21]. to Geremia Bolli, Professor at the University of Perugia. On August 26, 2003, Nicolas Weill, journalist for Le In accordance with the premises of the call, the awarded Monde since 1995, expert on the Middle East, published researcher would give the “NC Paulescu Memorial Lecture” an editorial confirming the claim filed four days earlier by on August 27, 2003, as part of an academic act to be held at the SCW. Weill reported that the ceremony called to honor the Hôtel Dieu (Paris), where a commemorative plaque and Etienne Lancereaux and Nicolae Paulescu had been canceled sculptures of N.C. Paulescu and his mentor, E. Lancereaux, in extremis. The journalist denounced Paulescu's antisem- would be installed [20]. itism manifested in Judeophobic pamphlets and his role as co-founder in 1923 of the “Ligue Nationale de Défense Chrétienne”, a violently anti-Jewish party (Fig. 7) [22]. Nicolae Paulescu denounced for antisemitism (Judeophobia) Opinions and reactions of various These celebrations were canceled as a consequence of the organizations to the denunciation reception by the French Minister of Health, François Mat- of Paulescu for antisemitism tei, and by the Romanian Embassy in Paris of a complaint and the cancellation of the scientific tribute of antisemitism against the Romanian researcher made by to him Dr. Shimon Samuels, director of Internal Affairs, European Center of the Wiesenthal Foundation in Paris, on August Nicolae Cajal (1919–2004), an internationally renown sci- 22, 2003 (Fig. 6) [21]. The Center urged both the Health entist born into a Jewish family, director of the Department Minister and the Romanian Ambassador “to cancel this of Virology at the University of Bucharest, expert of the Fig. 6  Left: Portrait of Dr. Shimon Samuels, director of Internal the French Minister of Health, Jean-François Mattei and Romanian Affairs, European Center of the Wiesenthal Foundation (SWC) in Ambassador, regarding “the Paulescu case” (August 22, 2003). Pub- Paris. Right: News release from the European Center of SWC to lic domain 13 Acta Diabetologica Fig. 7  Editorial by N. Weill in le Monde, reporting on the cancellation of the homage in Paris to the “antisemitic inventor of insulin” (08–26- 2003). Public domain World Health Organization (WHO), member of the Royal “Almost one century after these events we wonder if it is fair to Society of Medicine (London), president of the European judge the man’s scientific values according to his personal options. Association for the Study of Poliomyelitis, the Department They are distinct problems that should be considered as such. We of Medical Sciences of the Romanian Academy, and presi- cannot judge the work of the great prose writer Céline accord- ing to his political ideas. We cannot take Ernst Jünger out of the dent of the Federation of Jewish Communities in Romania twentieth century literature only because he was an officer of the from 1994 until his death [23], called a press conference German army. This dissociation is absolutely necessary in science on August 31, 2003, in which he defended the scientific too, or better said, specially in science. What is more important in merits of Paulescu, and insisted on the need to establish a scientific life: the fact that he discovered insulin an in this way has been saving millions of lives or that in some circumstance of a relevant distinction between his academic contributions his biography he published a few (true, regrettable) articles with and his antisemitic views. At the end of the statement, nationalistic tendencies?” Cajal affirmed that no one can ignore the scientific merits Eugen Simion and Maya Simionescu, 2003 [1: p. 612] of Paulescu for his contribution to the benefit of the health of citizens [24] (Supplementary Fig. 3). Eugen Simion (1933–2022), literary critic and historian, On September 29, 2003, Eugen Simion, president of was Professor of the Department of History of Roman Lit- the Romanian Academy, and vice president, Maya Simos- erature, University of Bucharest and of Romanian language nescu, expressed their disagreement about the cancellation at the University of La Sorbonne (Paris-IV). In 2006 he of the act of homage to Paulescu in a letter addressed to assumed the general direction of the Institute of History and Pierre Lefèbvre, President of IDF. In a paragraph they Literature “G. Calinescu” in Bucharest. He presided over the insisted on the essential aspects of the press statement of Romanian Academy between 1998 and 2006 [25]. the Jewish Community of Romania of August 31, 2003, Maya Simionescu received her PhD from the Faculty of and their solidarity with the statements of Nicolae Cajal Biology, University of Bucharest. After 10-year training (Supplementary Fig. 4). 13 Acta Diabetologica under Prof. Georg Emil Palade, Nobel Prize Laureate of Symposium in Delphi, 2005, on the occasion Physiology or Medicine in 1974 for his contribution on the of the 41st Annual EASD meeting. “Who functional organization of the cell, worked at Rockefeller discovered Insulin? University, NY and Yale University, New Haven, CT. After her return to Romania, she cofounded the new Institute of On September 8, 2005, Christos S. Bartsocas, Spyros G. Cellular Biology and Pathology (ICBP). In 2000, ICBP was Marketos, KGMM Alberti, Jørn Nerup, Joh Alivisatos, selected Centre of Excellence of the European Community. Stefano Geroulanos and Sotorius Raptis organized an Inter- At present, she is director of ICBP, member of the Romanian national Symposium of Experts in Delphi on the occasion Academy and President of the Section of Biological Sci- of the celebration in Athens of the 41st Congress EASD ences and President of the Romanian Society of Cell Biol- Annual, entitled “Who discovered insulin?” (Supplementary ogy [26] (Fig. 8). Fig. 6). In October 2003, Prof. Gérard Slama, Director of the The different keynote lectures by Thorstent Deckert Diabetes Department, Hôtel Dieu, and Honorary Professor (Denmark), Alberto de Leiva-Hidalgo (Spain), Consta- at the Paris V Faculty of Medicine, published a letter in The tin Ionescu-Tirgoviste (Romania), John Dupré (Canada), Lancet, that ended with the following words: “It seems to Jay Skyler (USA) and Paolo Pozzilli (Italy) reviewed the me that the Romanian authorities are extremely reluctant most significant progress in the history of the discovery of to publicly recognize and condemn Paulescu's past (…). the antidiabetic hormone and confirmed that international One might ask if, by its conspiracy of silence, Romania has organizations had ignored the scientific contributions of NC tried to manipulate international public opinion by hiding its Paulescu for many years. antisemitic past behind a public veil”. In the last speech, Zvi Laron denounced Paulescu's Two months later, George Alberti and Pierre Lefèbvre, antisemitism and explained the terrible consequences of the President and past President of IDF, wrote a letter to The Romanian Holocaust. The magnitude of these revelations led Lancet, referring to Slama's earlier writing, stating that: to widespread confusion, and the symposium's organizing “The IDF is now collecting the appropriate writings of committee decided to cancel the debate, the voting and the Paulescu. These will be scrutinized by an independent com- drafting of a final document, provided for in the program. mittee. The IDF does not wish to mix science and politics. In the same year, 2005, the Executive Committee of the But more information is needed before we can internation- IDF declared that the Federation did not want to associate ally laud an individual who has undoubtedly made a major its name with that of NC Paulescu and for this reason the scientific contribution but who may have espoused a morally Paulescu Conference would not be convened in the official unacceptable position later in life.” [27, 28] (Supplementary programs of future IDF world congresses [1; pp. 616–617]. Fig. 5). Three years later, Z. Laron wrote an article about Paulescu, that concluded with the following remarks [29]: Fig. 8  Portrait of Nicolae Cajal. Unknown date and author. Source: Archive/ROMPRES [24] Public domain. Eugene Simion and Maya Simionescu. Source: Romanian Academy. Unknown dates and authors. Public domain 13 Acta Diabetologica "Paulescu may be acknowledged for his scientific work, but unques- amongst many others, spread antisemitism warnings about tionably should not be feted and honored. Quite the contrary -he the threat that Jews represented to Romanian culture [36]. should be unequivocally censured for his contribution to the dark Important members of the Romanian Orthodox Church also pages of Romanian history" contributed to the consolidation of popular antisemitism. Antisemitism in Romania The Jews of Romania were the last in Europe to obtain citizenship, as late as 1919. The antisemitic discourse was Hostility toward Jews has a long tradition in Europe, that's further inflamed by theories of race and eugenics. why it's sometimes called "the longest hatred" [30]. Phi- losopher Hannah Arendt, author of The Origins of Totali- tarianism, described Romania as "the most antisemitic Race and Eugenics in interwar Romania country in pre-war Europe" [31]. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, renowned Romanian intel- Social Darwinism, a theory popular in the late nineteenth lectuals, among whom Nicolae Paulescu, helped to spread and early twentieth centuries, that misapplied Darwin’s natu- antisemitist propaganda. To try to understand why the ral selection to human groups, held that the human existence Romanian cultural and scientific elite espoused antisem- was ruled by the “survival of the fittest” [37]. Social Darwin- itism, it is necessary to give some background information ism was used to develop a scientific discourse about "racial" on the historical context of judeophobia. differences and to justify racist policies. The new concept of William I. Brustein, a widely-published scholar in nation integrated geography, historical destiny, and biologi- the areas of political extremism and ethnic, religious cal terms. Anthropometric parameters and the composition and racial prejudice, identifies four historical forms of of the blood became important somatological characteristics, antisemitism in Europe: religious, economic, socio-polit- inseparable from racial identity [38]. ical, and racial [32]. The roots of Romanian antisem- Craniometry, physiognomy, and phrenology, that were itism lie in a combination of these four streams and are concerned with measuring the human body, were used to intertwined with the political upheavals of the process of identify "racial" differences. For instance, Victor Papilian Romanian nation-building. (1888–1956), Romanian anatomist, writer and university Present-day Romania includes four major histori- professor, used craniometry to differentiate between popu- cal provinces: Transylvania, Wallachia, Moldavia, and lations from Transylvania (where there were people of Hun- Dobroudja. In 1859, the principalities of Wallachia and garian origin) and Romanians from the Old Kingdom [39]. Moldavia, which were under Ottoman rule, united follow- Eugenics became a common practice for state interven- ing the election of Alexandru Ioan Cuza as prince of the tions to prevent defective individuals from procreating. two. In the Russo-Turkish War (1876–1877), Wallachia Sexual sterilization was justified to improve the biological and Moldova fought on the Russian side. In the aftermath qualities of future generations [40]. of the Russian victory, by virtue of the Treaty of Berlin Gheorghe Banu (1889–1957), a Romanian hygienist and (1878), Romania was recognized as a sovereign independ- Health Minister in the Octavian Goga cabinet (1937–1938), ent state by the European Great Powers, provided that it declared abortion, segregation, and prophylactic sterilization, accepted some territorial changes (Bessarabia—the east- as effective eugenic measures. The sterilization of imbeciles, ern part of Moldavia—was given to Imperial Russia, while idiots, epileptics, criminals, and psychotics, as well as individ- Romania incorporated a part of the region of Dobroudja), uals suffering from syphilis, tuberculosis and leprosy allowed and that Romania also granted full citizenship rights to the the conservation and improvement of the race [41, 42]. Jews, who composed 4.3 per cent of the Romanian popula- tion [33, 34]. The Romanian Government fought to keep this provision out of the Treaty and the "Jewish question" Antisemitism in the interwar period became an integral part of public debate. in Romania Prominent politicians argued that the integration of Jews in Romanian society would jeopardize the State’s Roma- After World War I, pursuant to the Peace Treaty of Paris nian national character. The process of nation building was (1919), Romania acquired the provinces of Bessarabia (from accompanied by the development of a populist, xenopho- Russia), Transylvania and the Banat (from the Hungarian bic and antisemitic discourse [35]. Jews were also seen as a half of the Austro-Hungarian Empire) and Bucovina (from threat to the emerging Romanian middle class, since most the Austrian half of Austria-Hungary) and formed Greater Jews made their living in crafts and commerce, as well as in Romania (România Mare). Romania's territory and popula- the liberal professions. Well-known intellectuals like Mihai tion doubled. Jews, particularly in the annexed territories, Eminescu, Alexandru Xenopol, Nicolae Iorga, Vasile Conta, were perceived as foreign hostiles and "were constantly 13 Acta Diabetologica accused of having pro-Hungarian or “Bolshevik” inclina- The incorporation into Romania of Jews from former tions" [43]. Hungarian and Russian territories linked antisemitism to Antisemitism was rampant throughout all layers of Roma- anticommunism. The Romanian Communist Party included nian society. Jews were considered a triple threat in Roma- among its leaders’ members of ethnic minorities, espe- nia: religious, ethnic and political. The Romanian press cially Jews, like Ana Pauker, Marcel Pauker and Alexander called the Jews usurers, purveyors of adulterated alcohol, Dobrogeanu-Gherea, heads of the communist movement in spies and blood suckers. Instead of the neutral word “evreu” the interwar period [1: pp. 626–627]. (Jew), the derogatory jidan gained currency [44]. In March 1923, the Romanian Government proclaimed Alexandru C. Cuza (1857–1947), Professor of Law at a new constitution that offered the nationality to minority Iaşi University, founded the “Liga Antisemita Universala” groups, including Jews. A new campaign of protests showed in 1895. In 1910, Cuza and the historian and writer Nicolae severe hostility against Jews with the complicity of a good Iorga (1871–1940) established the “Nationalistic Democratic number of intellectuals (Vasile Conta, Vasile Alecsandri, Party” as a reaction to the arrival of Jewish refugees fleeing Mihai Eminescu and Ioan Slavice, among them) [46]. from Russia, mainly to Transylvania, Bessarabia, Northern Alexandru Cuza, member of the Parliament, created in Bucovina, and part of Dobruja (Fig. 9). 1923 the “Liga Apǎrǎrii National Creştine”, LANC (League Marius Turda, founder of the International Working of National Christian Defense), with the participation of five Group on the History of Race and Eugenics and Deputy prominent intellectuals (including Nicolae Paulescu). The Director of the Centre for Health, Medicine and Society at LANC had its roots in the Christian National Union (UNC), the School of Arts and Humanities, Oxford Brookes Univer- created in 1922 by Cuza and Paulescu. The main purpose of sity, pointed out that [45]: the UNC was to support Romanian economic, political and cultural interests against the Jews: to deny their emancipa- (…) The Jews became “undesirable” both politically and medically. tion; to expel the Jewish population arrived in Romania after Degeneration was one of the arguments used most consistently in 1914; to apply the numerus clausus against Jews in schools, stigmatizing the Jews and opposing them to the “healthy” Romani- ans businesses, industries, universities and liberal professions, (…) Romanian doctors thus envisioned a national community based and banning Jews from electoral lists. The symbol of LANC upon the exclusion of those to be “alien”, “hereditary ill”, or “anti- was the flag of Romania with a svastika at the center. For social” them, the svastika represented the "sign of the Romanian (…) The Romanian national community itself was categorized in nation and of its most distant past and symbol of the will to according with racial criteria. These criteria included not only ideas preserve ourselves in the future" (Fig. 10) [1; p. 650–653]. of “racial purity” but also biological measures against Jews Fig. 9  Administrative map of Romania in 1930. (Public domain) 13 Acta Diabetologica Fig. 10  Alexandru C. Cuza (portrait) and other Romanian intel- Selected records related to A.C. Cuza and the National Christian lectuals (Paulescu among them) founded the Liga Apǎrǎri National Party (United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Archives). Public Creştine (LANC, League for Christian National Defense). The offi- domain cial Newsletter of the organization was Apǎrarea Nationalǎ. Source: Cuza and Paulescu were in favor of parliamentarian- triple cross, that represented the bars of prison or shield ism, while Corneliu Zelea-Codreanu, a young law student, of martyrdom (Cross of the Archangel Saint Michael). leader of the extreme radical orientation of LANC, tried to Its members wore green shirts (a sign of rejuvenation) get the League to organize itself on the model of the fascist and the Roman salute. A.C. Cuza, president of LANC, and paramilitary formations present in various countries in despite the ideological communion, disagreed with the Europe at the time. The League participated in the general violent tendency of the “legionnaires”, which generated elections of 1926, with the support of Octavian Goga, Min- a distance between both organizations [47]. ister of the Interior, obtaining 4.76% of the votes. Nicolae The legion carried out assassinations of politicians they Paulescu unsuccessfully aspired to the position of senator considered corrupt, including the Premier Ion G. Duca. in the county of Ilfov (district of Romania in the Muntenia Codreanu advocated Romania’s adherence to Nazi Ger- region, which surrounds Bucharest). Due to LANC's radical many [48]. racism, Nicolae Iorga decided to leave the association with William I. Brustein, A. Ronnkvist and Ryan D. King, Cuza. Iorga would later accept the granting of Romanian looking at data from 1899 to 1939, a period of intensified citizenship to all Jews. Cuza maintained his radical antisem- antisemitism in Western European countries, concluded itism, although betting on the parliamentary path. that Romanian antisemitism during this period was char- In 1927, Codreanu abandoned LANC and created the acterized by a higher degree of violence than in the other fascist antisemitic party, “Legiunea Arhanghelului Mihai” European countries investigated (Great Britain, France, (Legion of the Archangel Michael), that would be later Germany and Italy) [49]. known as “Garda de Fier” (The Iron Guard). Relevant In December 2003 we consulted the Simon Wiesenthal intellectuals joined the movement (Nichifor Crainic, Nae Center. Then we continued the investigations on “the Ionescu, Mircea Eliade, among others); they adopted Paulescu case” by visiting institutions and archives and messianism, the cult of personality, and anti-commu- interviewing relevant professionals in Bucharest who knew nism, exalting orthodox Christian values ​​accompanied first-hand about Nicolae Paulescu's socio-political activi- by a spiritual aura. The legion chose as its main symbol a ties. A summary of these activities can be found in the Supplementary Material (3): “Consultation of the Simon 13 Acta Diabetologica Fig. 11  NC Paulescu House-Museum (Calonfirescu, 15 St, intersection with Hristo Bolev). Cover of Paulescu's private album with documents and images. Courtesy of Dan Angelescu. Photographs taken by the authors, October 2007 Wiesenthal Center and results of our visit to Bucharest in Society for the History of Medicine, among other honors 2007”. (Fig. 12) [50–52]. During the interview, Brǎtescu was accompanied by his wife, Tatiana Parker, daughter of the communist political N.C. Paulescu political activism leader Ana Parker. Brǎtescu described to us in detail what he called the "drama of Paulescu", a great scientist but We interviewed Professor Gheorghe Brǎtescu in the liv- unfortunately politically deviant on the extreme right and ing room of Paulescu's House-Museum (Fig. 11). Brǎtescu a radical fanatic antisemite [53]. (1922–2017), a physician affiliated with the Romanian On October 20, 2007, we conducted an interview with Communist Party in his youth, abandoned professional Dr. Serban Milcoveanu (1913–2009) at his home. Milcov- politics in 1956, to dedicate himself entirely to research eanu, a disciple of Paulescu (1930–1931), was president in the History of Medicine. He was Vice-President of the of the National Union of Christian Students of Romania Romanian Society for the History of Medicine, President (1937–1940) and felt a deep admiration for Paulescu, with of its Bucharest committee (1977–1986), member of the whom he shared political and religious ideas (Fig. 13). Romanian Academy and Honorary member of the Swedish In the interview, Milcoveanu confirmed to us that LANC, antisemitic political party, was chaired by Prof. Alexandru Fig. 12  Portrait of Gheorghe Brǎtescu. Unknown author and date. The building of the Romanian Academy, the seal and a postmark. Public domain 13 Acta Diabetologica Fig. 13  Left: Portrait of Serban Milcoveanu (1913–2009), old stu- authors in October 2007). Right: Portrait of Corneliu Zelea. Codreanu dent of Paulescu (1930–1931) and President of the Union of Chris- (unknown date and author). The main symbol of the Legionary move- tian Students of Romania (1937–1940). (Photograph taken by the ment was the triple cross or prison bars. Public domain C. Cuza (Law Faculty, University of Iaşi). Five other uni- 2. Orthodox Christianity versity professors, important figures of the Romanian intel- lectual spheres, were co-founders: Ion Catuneanu (Roman Paulescu was a creationist. In his writings, conferences Law, Cluj-Napoca University), Ion Gavanescu (Pedagogy, and lectures he tried to rationalize the figure of the creator Iaşi University), Nicolae Paulescu (Physiology, University of in biological terms, as well as the existence of the soul and Bucharest), Constantin Tomescu (Theology, Chisina Univer- the errors of materialism. sity) and Corneliu Sumuleanu (Chemistry, Iaşi University) (…) God is the initial cause and the final scope of everything that [14; pp. 651–652]. exists. True science can only come to decipher the desires and Milcoveanu, devotee of Cornelio Z. Codreanu, was active reasons for the divinity of Jesus Christ. (…) The scientist not only says: Credo in Deum. It has to affirm strongly Scio deum esse in the legionary movement until Codreanu was assassinated in 1938 [54]. The antisemitism professed by Paulescu was fruit of his Christian-orthodox radicalism. He was deeply devoted to his love for Jesus Christ. Nichifor Crainic (1889–1972), theolo- Main ideological documents written by NC gian and member of the Romanian Academy, popularized at Paulescu. numerous conferences and events organized by the Institute for Christian Studies, the figure of Paulescu as the Christian- The extensive list of documents and pamphlets written by nationalist prophet of Romania. The physician Vasile Trifu NC Paulescu, available as Supplementary Material (4), has wrote in 1930 that Professor Paulescu had clarified the resur- allowed us to figure out the religious and sociopolitical ide- rection of Christ from a scientific point of view. This explains ology of the Romanian scientist, which we present in sum- the sculpture we saw in Paulescu's bedroom, a bust of Jesus mary form: crowned with thorns, the work of the sculptor Dimitrie Paciu- rea, probably the best representative of Romania's sculptural 1. Antidarwinism avant-garde. Paulescu maintained personal relationships with Romanian contemporary intellectuals and artists. Among the Paulescu was opposed to both spontaneous generation art objects present in Paulescu's house, we were particularly and darwinism. He did not admit evolution. He believed that struck by Paulescu's oil portrait painted by Constantin Art- the species of living beings, both plants and animals, were achino (1870–1954), a founding member of the Society of invariable or fixed [55, 56]. Young Romanian Artists, with N. Vermont, S Popescu and S. Luchian, among others. Artachino taught at the Bucharest School of Fine Arts between 1920 and 1935 (Fig. 14) [1, 57]. 13 Acta Diabetologica Paulescu's ideas of religious antisemitism were widely shared by Alexandru Cuza and set forth in articles in the “Apǎrarea Naționalǎ” (National Defense) magazine on "alleged real cases" of ritual murders of Christian children at the hands of Jews [1; pp. 658–660). “Can we perhaps exterminate them in the ways bedbugs are killed? That would be the simplest, easiest and fastest way to get rid of them", he wrote. But added: "but no! we mustn't even think of that, because we're Christians" [62]. 4. Ultra-nationalist political antisemitism According to Francisco Veiga, professor at the Depart- ment of Contemporary History at the Autonomous Uni- versity of Barcelona (UAB), Paulescu was influenced by Gougenot des Mousseaux (1805–1876), a French antisemitic journalist and writer [63]. Fig. 14  Left: Portrait of Paulescu in 1906, painted in oil by C. Art- Paulescu thought that Jews wanted to obtain world power, achino. Right: Sculpture of Jesus Christ, the work of Dimitri Paciu- and that the Talmud instructed the Jews to obtain this objec- rea, dated 1907. Photographs taken by the authors in the hall and bed- room, respectively, of Paulescu's home in October 2007 tive and accused the Jews of using alcohol to exterminate the Romanian nation. In his own words [64]: "(…) Wherever they go, the Jews begin to create clandes- 3. Religious antisemitism tine taverns, where they accustom the indigenous people to drink: after having stunned them, they loot all their property Paulescu located the origins of "Jewish treachery" in and end up killing them. the Talmud (the central text of Jewish theology). Lib- (…) With the invasion of the hordes of Galiția, this hor- eralism, socialism and Marxism had their origin in the rific social scourge arose in our country that today is about Talmud. Paulescu's antisemitism was, for the most part, a to exterminate the people. consequence of his Orthodox-Christian radicalism. Deeply (…) Alcohol represents the most feared weapon of con- devout, he had come to believe in the myth of Jewish ritual quest of this infamous race that wants to exterminate us to murder recounted in the “Book of the Kahal” [58]. take over our country". Paulescu compared the Koran and Islamic laws with Jew- ish laws, insisting that the Talmud's teachings did not include 5. Racial antisemitism moral obligations toward gentiles. He believed that the activ- ities of the Kahal and Freemasonry were intertwined with Paulescu believed in the theory of the "Jewish degenera- Judaism in its bid for world domination and the destruction tion as a race" and connected it with crime and the affinity of Christian civilization. He considered the Kahal as the for political movements such as anarchism, socialism and factor of corruption that threatened the state [59]. communism. Paulescu based these ideas on the book by the Paulescu believed that Freemasonry was the primary criminologist and professor of Psychiatry in Turin Cesare means used for the destruction of Christian civilization by Lombroso, “L’Uomo delinquente” [65] and the atlas pub- removing access to trade and industry to all individuals of lished in France, “L'Homme criminel” [66]. other religions and by concentrating all capital and real Paulescu wrote the following: estate in their hands [60]. “The Jews have an asymmetrical head, being microcephalic or macro- According to his interpretation of the Apocalypse: “The cephalic, oblique and narrow forehead, similar to monkeys, aquiline world is divided into Christian people (“divine Christian- nose like birds of prey and crossed eyes, drooping ears, long and ity”) and Luciferian people (“demonic Judaism”). He relied misshapen, similar to the ape-like type (…). Although degenera- on a distorted version of the New Testament to decipher the tion is hereditary, the Talmud imposes on the Jews a new cause of degeneration: marriage between blood relatives. The two causes divine will for the extermination of the Jews. In this writing combined worsen and perpetuate the degeneration of the Jewish Paulescu's vision of the Christian church is that of a univer- race” [67] sal antisemitic organization [61]. 13 Acta Diabetologica NC Paulescu: Final Report However, let's not fall into what historians’ call "pre- of the International Commission sentism", and judge the past with present criteria. James H. on the Holocaust in Romania Sweet, president of the American Historical Association until January 2023, wrote: "Doing history with integrity The international Commission on the Holocaust in Roma- requires us to interpret elements of the past not through nia was established on October 22, 2003. Elie Wiesel, hon- the optics of the present but within the worlds of our his- orary member of the Romanian Academy and Nobel Peace torical actors" [69]. Therefore, a biography of Paulescu Award (1986) accepted to be the chairman of the Commis- should incorporate the lights and darkness of his figure, sion by invitation of Ion Ilescu, President of Romania. The and, while tracing the influence he exerted on antisemitic main objective of the Commission was to investigate the organizations and condemn his judeophobia, place him in truth about the Holocaust in Romania and their preceding his historical context, not to exempt him from his respon- events. International experts in history, humanities and sibility in spreading hateful ideas about Jews, but to better social sciences, survivors of the Holocaust, members of understand the time and place he lived in. international organizations and delegates of the Romanian Antisemitism, though, was not confined to Romania. Presidency, participated in three meetings (Washington The years 1899–1939 are widely regarded as a high point DC, May 16–22, 2004; Jerusalem, September 6–9, 2004; in antisemitism in Western societies [49]. During the eight- Bucharest, November 8–13, 2004). On November 11, eenth and early nineteenth century, under the influence of 2004, the final report was presented to the President of the liberal ideas of the Age of Enlightenment and the French Romania. Revolution, Jews in many European states achieved legal The essential paragraph of the document addressing the equality, were allowed to leave the ghettos, participate in the obsessive antisemitism of Nicolae Constantin Paulescu trades and professions from which they had been excluded, can be found in page 35. The most relevant excerpts are and vote. Modernization theories of antisemitism argue that reproduced below [68]: Jewish upward social mobility caused friction with non- Jews and heightened antisemitic sentiments [70]. A seminal (…) Paulescu found the origins of Jews perfidy in the Talmud, which example of antisemitism in nineteenth century Europe is the he determined was a tool for the extermination of other nations, Dreyfuss Affair, that involved a French captain of Jewish- and the kehillah, which he argued secretly plotted the disasters that Alsatian descent, Alfred Dreyfus, who was falsely convicted afflicted the rest of mankind. While he could not have anticipated the Nazi death camps, Paulescu condemnations of the Jews was so of treason for allegedly selling military secrets to the Ger- total that he even went so far as to raise the possibility of extermi- mans in 1894. The trial sparked a wave of antisemitic riots nating the infesting evil parasites in the way bedbugs are killed and became an international cause célèbre. (…) Interestingly, not only was Cuza influenced by Paulescu, but the Another example that reveals how deep-rooted antisem- young Corneliu Zelea Codreanu, future founder of the Iron Guard, itism was in the early twentieth century is the text The Pro- specifically acknowledged the powerful impact of Paulescu’s ideas on his development tocols of the Elders of Zion, a forged document that claimed to reveal a Jewish plot for global domination, first published in Russia in 1903, translated into many languages and circu- lated widely internationally [71]. Therefore, antisemitism in the early twentieth century Final remarks permeated almost every social strata. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplemen- The Judeophobic content and outbursts of these texts tary material available at https://d​ oi.o​ rg/1​ 0.1​ 007/s​ 00592-0​ 23-0​ 2136-6. are surprising. It is incompatible to reconcile the scien- tific rigor and honesty of Nicolae Paulescu's biological Funding Open Access Funding provided by Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona. This was supported by the Institute of Biomedical Research, experiments with the acceptance of such far-fetched and Hospital de Sant Pau-Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona and Fundació confused ideas. His Judeophobic obsession distorts the DIABEM. rationality of his thought and discourse. Paulescu died in 1931, years before the Iron Guard Declarations seized power in Romania for a short while in 1940, period Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of during which this fascist movement carried out violent interest. antisemitic attacks against Romanian Jews, but Paulescu did play a pivotal role in the spread of antisemitism and Ethical Standard Statement The paper reflects the authors' own was revered by members of far-right political groups. research and analysis. All sources used are properly disclosed. The authors declare the absence of conflicts of interest of any kind and 13 Acta Diabetologica that given the specific characteristics of this research, patient consent 17. Waller J (2002) Fabulous science. Oxford University Press, New disclosure was not required. York 18. Ionescu-Tirgoviste C (2020) History of diabetes mellitus in Roma- Informed consent This original article is a historiographic research nia. Proc Rom Acad Ser B 22(3):199–212 not requiring patient consent disclosure. 19. Alberti G (2001) Lessons from the history of insulin. Diabetes Voice 46:33–34 20. de Leiva-Hidalgo A, de Leiva-Pérez A (2023) On the occasion Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attri- of the centennial of insulin therapy (1922–2022), II-Organo- bution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adapta- therapy of diabetes mellitus (1906–1923): Acomatol. Pancreina tion, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long Insulin Acta Diabetologica 60:163–189. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​ as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, s00592-​022-​02014-7 provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes 21. Simon Wiesenthal Center (2003) News releases. SWC to French were made. The images or other third party material in this article are Minister and Romanian Ambassador: Cancel Hospital Tribute to included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated antisemitic hatemonger. https://​www.​wiese​nthal.​com/​site/​apps/​ otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in ninet/ ​ c onte ​ n t2. ​ a spx?c= ​ b hKR1 ​ 6 PDlnE% ​ 9 9% ​ A Fct= ​ 3 50194. the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not Accessed 21 Feb 2011 permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will 22. 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Paulescu NC (1908) Physiologie philosophique: definition de la physiologie, méthode expérimentale, generation spontanée et Darwinism Authors and Affiliations Alberto de Leiva‑Hidalgo1,2 · Alejandra de Leiva‑Pérez2 1 * Alberto de Leiva‑Hidalgo Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Spain aleiva@fdiabem.org 2 Fundació DIABEM, Barcelona, Spain 13