Challenges, Strategies, and Impacts of Doing Citizen Science with Marginalised and Indigenous Communities: Reflections from Project Coordinators RESEARCH PAPER PETRA BENYEI MUKI (MORDECHAI) HAKLAY ARTEMIS SKARLATIDOU EMILY JACOBI DIMITRIS ARGYRIOU ASAYE NIGUSSIE RICK HALL VICTORIA REYES-GARCÍA IDA THEILADE ELIANA RODRIGUES NEREA TURREIRA-GARCÍA THAMARA SAUINI CORRESPONDING AUTHOR: DANIELLE LATRECHE VYACHESLAV SHADRIN Petra Benyei ALEXANDRA ALBERT ANDRE SIQUEIRA Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, ES DAVID BERGER MR. SUPRIADI petra.benyei@gmail.com MAR CARTRÓ-SABATÉ MARDHA TILLAH JESSIE CHANG ADRIEN TOFIGHI-NIAKI RAFAEL CHIARAVALLOTI NIKITA VRONSKI KEYWORDS: Community-based; diversity; ARIANNA CORTESI TIMOTHY WOODS empowerment; experiences; FINN DANIELSEN human-rights; inclusiveness *Author affiliations can be found in the back matter of this article TO CITE THIS ARTICLE: Benyei, P, Skarlatidou, A, Argyriou, D, Hall, R, Theilade, I, Turreira- ABSTRACT García, N, Latreche, D, Albert, A, Berger, D, Cartró-Sabaté, M, Citizen science is growing and increasingly realizing its potential in terms of benefiting Chang, J, Chiaravalloti, R, Cortesi, science and society. However, there are significant barriers to engaging participants in A, Danielsen, F, Haklay, M, Jacobi, non-Western, non-educated, non-industrialised, non-rich and non-democratic contexts. E, Nigussie, A, Reyes-García, V, Rodrigues, E, Sauini, T, Shadrin, By reflecting on the experiences of 15 citizen science project coordinators, this paper V, Siqueira, A, Supriadi, Tillah, M, contributes to the small but growing body of knowledge attempting to identify barriers Tofighi-Niaki, A, Vronski, N and and opportunities of doing citizen science with marginalised and Indigenous communities. Woods, T. 2023. Challenges, Challenges affecting participation in the analysed projects include issues that range from Strategies, and Impacts of lack of basic infrastructure and participant safety to unbalanced knowledge hierarchies Doing Citizen Science with and data rights. We found that, to overcome these challenges, projects have used several Marginalised and Indigenous Communities: Reflections from strategies, from promoting decentralized and low-tech solutions to engaging in bottom- Project Coordinators. Citizen up actions from a human-rights approach. Finally, our analysis of project impacts supports Science: Theory and Practice, 8(1): the idea that doing citizen science with marginalised and Indigenous communities 21, pp. 1–15. DOI: https://doi. might have a greater impact for participants than for science, as scientific achievements org/10.5334/cstp.514 Benyei et al. Citizen Science: Theory and Practice DOI: 10.5334/cstp.514 2 (although valuable) were not among the most important impacts highlighted in terms of project success. By providing stories from the field in a structured way, we aim to guide, to inform, and to inspire other citizen science projects, and to, ultimately, contribute to broader participation in citizen science in the future. INTRODUCTION participation biases in citizen science has resulted in calls for targeted action to eliminate digital and socioeconomic Technological ubiquity and a series of social trends have divides (Soleri et al. 2016). This implies reaching people lowered citizens’ entry barriers for engaging with science who live in rural/remote, low- and lower middle–income (Newman et al. 2012). This has a major impact on the communities, and those who might not have the necessary ways in which citizen science is practiced, and multiplies resources or skills to participate. Only through such efforts the potential benefits for both science and participants can citizen science become a tool to capture all people’s (Skarlatidou and Haklay 2021a). For instance, the Zooniverse voices, knowledge, and struggles, and ensure that no platform, with over 2 million registered participants, has seen one is left behind in addressing our global challenges, a daily contributions continuously increase, with participants goal particularly important for the UN 2030 Agenda for submitting galaxy classifications equivalent to 48 years of Sustainable Development (Fraisl et al. 2020). research (Dinneen 2020). Citizen science has also economic However, there are significant barriers to engaging impacts, as hundreds of citizen science projects engage marginalised and Indigenous communities in citizen science. millions of participants across the world, annually contributing For example, Pocock et al. (2018) identified limited awareness up to US$2.5 billion in-kind (Theobald et al. 2015). of opportunities, limited organisational capacities, and limited For participants, documented benefits of engaging access to relevant technologies as barriers to participation in citizen science projects include: improved health and in East Africa. Paul et al. (2020) identified bureaucratic and well-being (Den Broeder et al. 2017); increased scientific financial hurdles, and poorly understood motivational literacy (Aristeidou and Herodotou 2020); enhanced and institutional hierarchies as barriers in low- and lower perceptions, behaviours, and attitudes (Chase et al. 2018), middle–income countries. And Benyei et al. (2020) found especially with respect to the environment (Requier et that technological uneasiness and knowledge hierarchies al. 2020); increased feelings of responsibility and success that consider non-scientific knowledge as non-valuable were (Turreira-García et al. 2018b); and cognitive, political, social, preventing elders and rural communities from engaging. and economic empowerment (Danielsen et al. 2021). These barriers can be reduced/eliminated through different Despite these benefits, citizen science projects tend to be strategies. For example, the Extreme Citizen Science group at developed mainly in Western, educated, industrialised, rich University College London (UCL) identified several strategies and democratic (WEIRD) contexts. Indeed, citizen science that can increase participation, from establishing a trusted initiatives rarely engage populations with Indigenous or relationship with communities to selecting appropriate and non-Western epistemologies (Tengö et al. 2021). Moreover, co-designed technologies that consider local knowledge they often engage participants with a formal education and culture (Chiaravalloti et al. 2022). Working with illiterate background, with access to infrastructure and technologies, participants in Argentina, Requier et al. (2020) also suggest with sufficient economic resources to afford the equipment using recruitment strategies that reach different participant and the time for volunteering, and who live in areas that profiles, and a high number of local coordinators. Finally, have certain political stability (Mahmoudi et al. 2022). Paul et al. (2020, p. 2) suggest providing compensation or Consequently, people from marginalised and Indigenous designing community-led projects that “meet local needs by communities are largely excluded from participating in citizen targeting relevant socio-environmental problems.” science projects or are simply unaware that opportunities In this paper, we reflect on our practical experiences exist (Dawson 2019). This represents a significant proportion of working in 15 citizen science initiatives with Indigenous of the global population, mostly people living in the Global and marginalised communities in non-WEIRD contexts. We South but also marginalised communities of the Global highlight challenges, strategies, and impacts of conducting North, that is, those confined to the margins of society and citizen science in these contexts. Although our selection of case lacking power and privileges (Cooper et al. 2021). studies is biased towards technological and environmental The current focus on WEIRD contexts creates a huge projects, by sharing these stories in a structured way, we aim bias in citizen science, as it was first described in psychology to guide, inform, and inspire future projects and encourage (Henrich, Heine, and Norenzayan 2010). Acknowledging broader participation in citizen science. Benyei et al. Citizen Science: Theory and Practice DOI: 10.5334/cstp.514 3 We are not representatives of Indigenous Peoples and invite citizen science project coordinators to participate in this marginalised communities, nor do we claim to speak on study. It had 10 open-ended questions, including a description their behalf or represent their knowledge systems. Their of the projects’ context, goals, volunteer characteristics, voices are mostly absent from this manuscript. We speak methodologies, technologies, challenges, and impacts. It from the position of project coordinators with diverse also asked respondents to share three stories from the field. backgrounds and origins but largely as people formally The questionnaire was shared through citizen science mailing educated and articulate in English. We acknowledge that lists, working groups, social media, and by word of mouth. this is only a first step and that future work should consider We collected responses from 16 initiatives, from which we exploring these issues together with project participants retained 15 that (a) worked with marginalised or Indigenous and people from the communities involved. communities; (b) used citizen science methods (e.g., participatory monitoring, data crowdsourcing, or research co-production); and (c) actively involved participants (see METHODOLOGY Table 1). Project coordinators were invited to three 90-minute We followed the methodological approach proposed by online workshops respectively addressing challenges, lessons Anokwa et al. (2009) and used an online questionnaire to learned, and strategies (on 8th, 15th, and 22nd of April, 2021). # NAME AIM LOCATION COMMUNITY 1 CONECT-e: Sharing Traditional To document, share and protect traditional plant/landrace Spain Rural Ecological Knowledge knowledge in an online platform 2 Local Indicators of Climate change To adapt a citizen science online platform to make it useful to Global Indigenous Impacts Observation Network Indigenous peoples 3 Prey Lang: It’s our forest too To collect documentation about resources and illegal logging in Prey Cambodia Indigenous Lang forest with an app. 4 Green Care Cameroon To educate communities about environmental issues and training Cameroon Rural them in new skills for better livelihoods through citizen science programmes 5 SEEDAct – Participatory 3D To assess the sustainable coexistence of people and wildlife Ethiopia Rural Modelling in Babille Elephant at Babille Elephant Sanctuary (BES) by using Participatory Sanctuary 3-Dimensional Modelling (P3DM) 6 Indigenous Navigator To provide online accessible data, by and with Indigenous Peoples, that Global Indigenous will support self-determined development and grounded advocacy 7 Remote Access – decolonizing To support land defenders in the Amazon by co-building technology Amazon Indigenous technology for land defence enabling them to do Citizen Science around oil spills, illegal logging, contamination from mining, and mapping natural resources 8 PPG astronomical club To involve children and teenagers living in the favela Cantagalo Brazil Urban Pavao e Pavaozinho (RJ, Brazil) in citizen science astronomy projects. 9 Serra do Mar Participatory To conduct ethnobotanical surveys with the active participation of Brazil Rural ethnobotany local collaborators. 10 Yakutia Community Based To achieve more sustainable and more democratic management Russia Indigenous Monitoring of the natural resources in Yakutia through participatory environmental monitoring. 11 Extreme Citizen Science in Pantanal To map the traditional territory of a fishery community in the Brazil Rural Pantanal wetland 12 Palestine Institute for Biodiversity To include more citizen involvement into the biodiversity knowledge Palestine Urban and Sustainability generating process, to both support conservation and advance scientific knowledge (data gathering). 13 Night Walks To adapt and design Citizen Science and creative engagements with UK Refugees refugee communities for their social well-being and cohesion 14 Being and Becoming Indigenous To revive the local biodiversity richness and to reconnect youth with Indonesia Indigenous their local agrarian resources 15 ActEarly UKPRP To improve the health and opportunities for children living in two UK Urban contrasting areas of high child poverty; Bradford, West Yorkshire and Tower Hamlets, London. Table 1 List of analysed initiatives. Benyei et al. Citizen Science: Theory and Practice DOI: 10.5334/cstp.514 4 They were encouraged to share their experiences to support External challenges mostly referred to the local political the questionnaire answers, as well as any additional claims. context (e.g., lack of governmental support, political We collected qualitative data during these workshops using instability, participant safety; identified by 13 initiatives). a shared online document in which participants could write For instance, there were reports of local governments’ their stories in more detail. The three workshops were also “imposition of restrictions… granting rights to land audio recorded with the consent of participants. concession companies, threatens with violence and arrests Using an inductive approach drawn from the principles the local (Indigenous) patrollers, corruption of government of grounded theory (Corbin and Strauss 1990), we rangers, harassment of human rights and environmental identified themes and subthemes that emerged from defenders” (Initiative #3). Poor digital infrastructure was the questionnaire and workshops. We then counted raised by 11 initiatives, especially limited internet access, the number of initiatives that identified those themes/ which would inhibit, for example, “communication, such subthemes as highly relevant to their work (see our as planning meetings and other logistics” (Initiative #10) database in Supplemental File 1). and the ability to “provide remote support and training” For further information on our methods and the (Initiative #7). initiatives, see Supplemental File 2. Other external challenges included a constrained local economy (i.e., community poverty; identified by 8 initiatives), funding limitations (8 initiatives), or geographic RESULTS remoteness (7 initiatives). Indeed, “local poverty is an issue … and financial support is low – we have to include funds Here we discuss the challenges, strategies, and impacts for travel and meals in order to facilitate participation” identified from the study, and the interactions between (Initiative #13). Also, there were concerns about the these topics. “difficulty in finding long-term funding … funding could only be secured for one year at a time” (Initiative #10). CHALLENGES OF DOING CITIZEN SCIENCE Internal challenges mostly referred to technologies, WITH MARGINALISED AND INDIGENOUS data, and participants. Common sub-themes describe COMMUNITIES technological challenges referred to usability and We organised the emerging challenges into 19 subthemes, appropriateness (8 initiatives) and the lack of resources largely by referring to external and internal issues (Figure 1). and skills to maintain technologies in the short and long Figure 1 Challenges identified and number of initiatives mentioning each as highly relevant to their work. Benyei et al. Citizen Science: Theory and Practice DOI: 10.5334/cstp.514 5 term (3 initiatives). “The harsh environmental conditions hierarchy among knowledge systems” (Initiative #7). This led several phones to stop working” in one case (Initiative was also true within teams: “sometimes interdisciplinarity #11), and several initiatives commented that “continuous was a challenge when trying to bring together views from external funding is needed to maintain the technologies’’ different disciplines, plus local epistemologies” (Initiative #1). (Initiative #1, ID3). Data management challenges referred mainly to data STRATEGIES OF INITIATIVES DOING CITIZEN privacy or sensitivity issues (8 initiatives) and data ownership SCIENCE WITH MARGINALISED AND and accessibility issues (7 initiatives). Project functioning INDIGENOUS COMMUNITIES and implementation was sometimes constrained by “fears Project coordinators reported the strategies used to of database security, challenges related to digital literacy, overcome these challenges and elaborated on the lessons and the digital divide (more security threats/risks as a result learned (Figure 2). of lesser fluency in digital spaces)” (Initiative #6). To tackle political challenges, projects focused mainly Challenges regarding participants related to their low on promoting a human-rights approach to strengthen technical literacy (9 initiatives) and low engagement and communities’ claims to land or other resources, and to motivation (8 initiatives). For instance, there were issues contest human rights abuses (13 initiatives), and doing with participants “not being familiar with programmes and advocacy work to build alliances with participants and materials’’ (Initiative #8) or having “low technical skills to community organizations (9 initiatives). For example, ID6 maintain technology and technological usability” (Initiative noted that “alongside community, municipal, regional, #9). In some cases, “the project is not the highest priority for national and inter-regional dialogues, we also support the participants. So sustaining motivation and participation communications and participation of representatives in is a challenge” (Initiative #13). international fora (…). Participation at this level brings the Additional internal challenges include the lack of trust stories and experiences of the communities to light and help between participants and project coordinators (7 initiatives) expose these communities to additional opportunities (…). and. For instance, “working with refugee families involved This helps to maximise impacts and enhance the return to considerable preparatory work with managers at the forum, the communities who participate”. for reassurance and confidence building” (Initiative #13). Economic challenges were tackled by seeking alternative The issue of conflicting epistemologies was raised by five funding sources and provide economic incentives for initiatives, for instance, “it’s a challenge to bridge Indigenous participants. Ten initiatives referred to these as central to knowledge and cosmovision with western worldviews, and their work. Funding sources not tied to specific research it is especially exacerbated by the colonial imposition of activities or outcomes allow researchers to shape the Figure 2 Strategies identified and number of initiatives mentioning each as highly relevant to their work. Benyei et al. Citizen Science: Theory and Practice DOI: 10.5334/cstp.514 6 initiative based on participants’ needs, as well as have the Consent (FPIC) process, by which participants need to flexibility to allocate resources to support non-research explicitly consent to the development of any activity. For activities (e.g., community infrastructure and capacity instance, one initiative highlighted that “FPIC is an ongoing building, paying participants, supporting local NGOs) process, and must be continually re-assessed and reviewed. essential for long-term engagement. For instance, “to be It is not only in the preparatory work (programme and grant able to work from a more bottom-up approach, a strategy design), but also in implementation and follow-up in how the was to apply for ‘proof of concept’ funding allowing more data is used and licensed and what licensing agreements applied and less research work” (Initiative #2). mean … A lesson learned would be allocating sufficient Infrastructure challenges (e.g., limited access to electricity resources and support to ensure this can be carried out” or the internet) were addressed using a design process in (Initiative #6). which participants are as independent or self-organized as Finally, strategies used to address challenges related possible (“co-researcher strategy”, 11 initiatives) or using to participation included: (1) adapting technologies and low-tech methods and technologies (12 initiatives). For timing to be culturally appropriate and to fit participants’ instance, several initiatives reported “using methods and tools daily schedules (14 initiatives); and (2) promoting bottom- which are suitable for offline conditions and the problematic up engagement, that is, communities leading the initiative access to technological infrastructures” (Initiatives #7, #14, and how they choose to engage with researchers and #9 and #4). Moreover, and especially since the COVID-19 not the other way around (13 initiatives). A major lesson outbreak, some initiatives have strengthened their remote learned was “to really spend more time on identifying the work, designing remote activities to compensate for the lack needs of the community and be clear about the priorities, of physical access (8 initiatives). For instance, some adapted especially if different needs are expressed by different training sessions and materials and engaged in “developing participants in a diverse group. This will make people more a methodology to train local people to be trainers of the motivated and engaged” (Initiative #1). digital tools, creating more accessible training materials (such In terms of building trust, seven initiatives mentioned as video tutorials, mobile-friendly guides and remote courses) the need for openness and transparency throughout and using new platforms for support (such as Telegram and implementation. Ideas that came out of the workshops WhatsApp groups)” (Initiative #7). include: “Trying to make everything we do as open and In response to technological, data and epistemological accessible as possible, from website design choices to field challenges, the main strategies employed were the use implementation and return of data” (Initiative #6); “[c] of locally fitted methods and technologies (11 initiatives), ommunity holds ownership of all produced data, training establishing community consent protocols (13 initiatives), sessions happening at regular intervals and feedback and providing spaces in which participants’ needs and sessions are set after each major change while consultation ways of thinking are expressed and so taken into account through the network’s core group meetings is continuous” in programme design and implementation (13 initiatives). (Initiative #3); “[e]ngaging community researchers to In addition, some initiatives use technological and initiative spearhead the projects and build trust with community co-design (8 initiatives), arts and other forms of expression members” (Initiative #15); or “[w]e are less interested in (8 initiatives), and data sovereignty (i.e., full data control “building trust” and instead being authentic, transparent and access by communities) approaches (5 initiatives). and focused fully on empowering our partners in our entire For example, ID11 noticed that “co-designing the interface process. Trust should be an equally authentic result of this is essential for technology and citizen science initiative process” (Initiative #2). adoption” and that “people want to instantly view the data they are collecting or we run the danger they lose interest/or IMPACTS OF DOING CITIZEN SCIENCE they become less motivated in further collecting data”. Also, WITH MARGINALISED AND INDIGENOUS ID9 expressed that “in addition to the local residents being the COMMUNITIES holders of the data, they were the ones who actually decided The survey and workshop outputs highlight that doing the project’s objectives, collected these data and chose what citizen science with marginalised and Indigenous would be done with them, as well as the form of its registration communities can have significant impacts (see Figure 3). (audio-visual and books).” This is particularly important when Most project coordinators reported significant data is directly linked to addressing local concerns and socioeconomic and policy impacts (e.g., community challenges chosen by the communities themselves. empowerment, reconquering rights/access to resources, In several initiatives, data were owned by communities, fighting legal battles). Although these were not often which decided on their use and sharing mechanisms, and directly measured, project coordinators considered them participation was guided by a Free Prior and Informed to be more important for the project’s success than the Benyei et al. Citizen Science: Theory and Practice DOI: 10.5334/cstp.514 7 Figure 3 Impacts identified and number of initiatives mentioning each as highly relevant to their work. scientific impacts achieved (e.g., understanding natural operating companies, making them accountable and resulting resource management, documenting traditional plant in fines and remediations” (Initiative #7). Similarly, “input uses, tracking biodiversity). from the community-based monitoring groups (information, The most salient themes were recognizing marginalised analysis and recommendations) has been used by RIPOSR/ views and knowledge (11 initiatives), which resulted the local Indigenous Peoples organization to seek influence in increased self-value (10 initiatives) and stimulated on resource management issues both at Republic and District awareness (8 initiatives), curiosity (6 initiatives) and local level” (Initiative #10). Also, “[citizen science] has the effect of action (11 initiatives). For example, ‘“citizen science can be a sensitizing communities about their own situation and rights. way of changing the way the communities think of themselves It has empowered them to fight for the effective realization and value their knowledge and agency in science and society” of these rights and to identify their development priorities, (Initiative #1). For some initiatives, the work done “resulted creating a sentiment of ownership. These initiatives have in an improved appreciation by other community members, the potential to provide quality, evidence-based tools and who began to value more both citizen scientists and their resources to communities to advocate for a better, brighter own culture” (Initiative #9) and “the main element is the and more just future” (Initiative #6). opportunity to involve different members of the community Other impacts referred to increased community – especially women and young people – in the activity. This capacities (e.g., technical literacy, initiative design and helps to empower them to make positive (environmental) implementation, or negotiation and advocacy; 14 initiatives); changes in their region” (Initiative #4). sustained strategic partnerships with like-minded Policy impacts mostly referred to supporting the initiatives and public resource managers (6 initiatives); and recognition of community rights and advocacy actions (9 improved local socioeconomic conditions (e.g., generating initiatives), building networks and alliances (4 initiatives), and new forms of income or improving community’s access achieving external recognition of a community’s knowledge to resources and livelihood activities; 11 initiatives). For and agency (9 initiatives), which in turn had significant example, initiatives contributed to “outreach and capacity impacts on empowering communities to confront threats building to align with a human-rights based approach and (11 initiatives). For instance, “maps done with Mapeo were the Convention on Biological Diversity process, ensuring the used by the Waorani, Ecuador, to protect their territory from community members could access support materials and oil extraction. In other communities, maps are used to report knowledge regarding their rights and how to interact with the oil spills and other impacts that have not been reported by the system” (Initiative #6). Also, citizen science was considered Benyei et al. Citizen Science: Theory and Practice DOI: 10.5334/cstp.514 8 a tool to “help to understand fragile complex contexts and Similarly, in places where the political context to co-design alternative livelihood mechanisms that can compromises basic human rights and participant generate additional incomes for the community” (Initiative safety, participant data and intellectual rights are also #5). All these changes could contribute to the sustainability compromised. To have an impact in terms of a community’s of community’s engagement in the long term, according to internal and external recognition, empowerment, or even project coordinators. environmental awareness, strategies related to securing data sovereignty or co-designed locally fitted method CHALLENGES, STRATEGIES AND IMPACTS: A development should run in parallel to advocacy work and SYSTEMIC VIEW invest in strengthening networks. Although discussed separately, the challenges, strategies, and impacts described above interact in important ways, specifically when looking at the impact for communities DISCUSSION (see Figure 4, where we have focused on non-scientific impacts for clarity). Our results reveal that citizen science done with marginalised Local economic and political landscapes shape and Indigenous communities contrasts to citizen science the existing infrastructure, but also impact the local done in other contexts. Before discussing these issues, we epistemology, technology, data, and participation. For highlight some caveats that might influence our results instance, in contexts of low income and lack of government and that should be considered in any future work. support, the infrastructure (e.g., internet), skills (e.g., technological literacy), and motivation (e.g., time constraints CAVEATS TO OUR STUDY and other priorities) to run a citizen science project are First, the 15 initiatives analysed will not represent all more likely to be lacking. Thus, to stimulate local action, citizen science done with marginalised and Indigenous increase community’s capacities, or stimulate partnerships, communities, and we acknowledge that the inclusion strategies could simultaneously facilitate independent local of different initiatives might have resulted in different control over projects, engage in remote capacity building, results. However, our work is a first exercise of theorising and offer financial compensation to participants. inductively about these topics, and is valuable because it Figure 4 Conceptual map showing the interactions between challenges, strategies, and impacts. Benyei et al. Citizen Science: Theory and Practice DOI: 10.5334/cstp.514 9 initiates discussions about ways of doing citizen science Another commonality across projects was that formal that are different to the usual Western contexts. educational divides made participation uneasy for some Second, we report the comments and perceptions of people, and sometimes reinforced mistrust in the initiative, project coordinators; these are not neutral and might as previously reported by other studies (Fiske, Prainsack, and provide a biased view. For instance, very few negative Buyx 2019). Strategies to overcome this challenge include impacts of initiatives emerged, and the conversations dedicating more time and resources to identify participants’ focused more on the challenges faced when encountering needs, strengthening initiatives’ capacity-building efforts, the context, than the challenges the initiatives might bring and engaging in the co-creation of decolonized methods to the context. and technologies that consider participants’ non-formal Finally, the most active project coordinators in the knowledge and skills (see, for instance, the methods workshops tended to be articulate English-speaking proposed by Davis, Ramírez-Andreotta, and Buxner 2020). academics with access to the internet. We did include Although these challenges and strategies might not seem participants from the actual marginalised and Indigenous relevant for initiatives working in WEIRD contexts, in fact, communities where the initiatives are being implemented, educational biases in participant engagement have been although there were fewer of them and they were often highlighted by studies on citizen science inclusiveness quieter. We are still missing the voices and perceptions of the in places such as the UK (Pateman, Dyke, and West community in some cases, who might challenge our results. 2021). Indeed, there are calls for rethinking design and development of citizen science activities to open up the DOES CONTEXT MATTER? REFLECTIONS ON space for more diverse participation in terms of educational EPISTEMOLOGY, TECHNOLOGIES, ECONOMIC background even in WEIRD contexts (Pandya 2012). INCENTIVES AND HUMAN RIGHTS Most of the initiatives analysed were developed in Many of the analysed initiatives rely on participants’ rural/remote contexts and thus common challenges Indigenous and local knowledge for data collection. were related to the lack of basic infrastructures. Initiatives using Western methods and research designs, Strategies implemented in response to these challenges and built around Western-scientific research institutions include the use of tools and methods that make project and funding schemes, could be inappropriate and even implementation and coordination less dependent on extractivist in nature, where project data is not governed internet/electricity and scientists, as described previously by participants (Leach and Fairhead 2002). This can be for citizen science conducted in similar contexts (Requier et tackled by recentring initiatives around communities’ ways al. 2020). Although in most WEIRD contexts, internet and of knowing, and facilitating spaces and methods that allow technology access is normally granted, it comes with an community expression in their own ways, as described by environmental and economic cost (Plepys 2002). Thus, the other projects in the Global North (Sorensen et al. 2019). use of low-tech and de-centralised solutions (with reduced Also, it is important to enforce codes of conduct and data reliance on the presence of researchers and technology/ management protocols that avoid reproducing colonial travel costs) could be applied elsewhere, and help support practices in which Western ways of knowing and doing are lower-carbon citizen science. considered superior—for example, enforcing Indigenous Working with people in low-income and underserved Data Sovereignty (Reyes-García et al. 2022). Although efforts communities reportedly had an effect on participant to be epistemologically inclusive are especially relevant engagement and motivation in our work. Some strategies when working with Indigenous peoples in the Global South to address this were paying for participation and materials, (Johnson et al. 2021), they might also be so in Western and finding flexible funding sources that allow for these contexts of the Global North. For instance, in Western expenditures—a strategy previously reported (Khoi et contexts, certain methods and frameworks systematically al. 2018). Indeed, paid participation can bring gender or exclude or marginalise people based on their knowledge racial diversity into projects (Fiske, Prainsack, and Buyx status (lay knowledge) or their ethnic and gender identity, 2019). Given the intersectionality of poverty and the thus limiting the diversity of epistemological standpoints in demonstrated impact that payment for participation has Western science (Dawson 2019). Indeed, the issue has been as a way towards equitable collective action (Soleri et al. extensively theorised by authors such as Tengö et al. (2014), 2016), this is a strategy that is also valid in WEIRD contexts. who highlight the need for a multiple evidence–based However, these strategies challenge the common idea approach, or Harding (1995), who proposes that research of citizen science participants’ as unpaid volunteers projects should overcome the idea of neutrality and embrace (Vohland, Weißpflug, and Pettibone 2019), and providing instead strong objectivity—or the idea that the diversity of compensation for participating can be also problematic standpoints is positive for the project. after external funding is over (see, for example, Funder Benyei et al. Citizen Science: Theory and Practice DOI: 10.5334/cstp.514 10 et al. 2013). Indeed, some argue that compensation is that value the non-scientific knowledge systems that not as significant a success factor as having a community communities share, rather than a focus on Western initiate and design project activities and agendas, therefore scientific literacy building. Moreover, we mostly work with responding to their own needs (Turreira-García et al. 2018b). communities that are already highly connected and aware Finally, given our work in settings where democracy is of their environments, and thus measuring environmental fragile and political context unstable, with constant risks of behavioural impacts is less relevant in our contexts. human rights violations, a major common challenge was Finally, looking at the impacts reported by the analysed maintaining participant safety and well-being. These issues initiatives, one might conclude that doing citizen science have not been very well described in the citizen science with marginalised and Indigenous communities has a literature before (although they have been a major focus of greater impact for participants than for science per se. This the environmental justice literature; see Temper, Bene, and is especially true in situations in which the data obtained Martinez-Alier 2015). In response, strategies mentioned mainly serves the purpose of empowering communities include strengthening local and global networks and and conquering/maintaining their control over resources partnerships for human-rights advocacy work, and using or advancing human-rights issues. However, for these citizen science project results to enforce policies that important impacts to materialise, several systemic barriers protect participants (see Danielsen et al. 2022). These need to be addressed. strategies are also relevant in democratic countries, because sometimes the pressure of corporations or other agents can also put at risk communities engaging with CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS citizen science in the Global North (Kinchy 2016). In this piece, we present barriers and opportunities IMPACT OF CITIZEN SCIENCE WITH for conducting citizen science with Indigenous and MARGINALISED AND INDIGENOUS marginalised communities. Our results have to be COMMUNITIES understood as a first, potentially biased, attempt to study One of the most striking results in terms of impacts was the issue, since we examined only 15 initiatives, which are that scientific achievements, although still valuable, were mostly technological and environmental projects, and did not among the most important impacts highlighted. so through the eyes of project coordinators rather than This contrasts with most citizen science literature, which those of participants. Even so, our work points out several highlights the scientific impacts of citizen science initiatives in important issues. terms of advancing research agendas, making new scientific Doing citizen science with marginalised and Indigenous discoveries, or generating new knowledge (Theobald et al. communities in non-WEIRD contexts is very important, 2015). The difference might be because most initiatives especially for the communities, given that it can empower working with marginalised and Indigenous communities them by helping gather data to fight legal battles and have a human-rights advocacy approach, for which they reconquer a community’s rights/access to resources. focus more on stimulating local action, empowering However, several issues must first be addressed, including communities, or improving local livelihoods and capacities. guaranteeing participants’ safety and human-rights; Indeed, even if most of the analysed initiatives included ensuring methodological and technological appropriateness, scientists and a scientific objective, they actually aimed to tackling data privacy, ownership, and access; and considering advance local agendas through the generation of diverse the systemic socioeconomic aspects such as income, types of knowledge. Thus, the initiatives described in this gender, and race that impact participant’s motivations and study counteract the ongoing criticism that citizen science engagement. and participatory environmental monitoring often engage In order to do so, here we present several specific local communities only to advance an externally predefined recommendations. agenda (Turreira-García et al. 2018a). Likewise, changes in environmental perceptions or 1. Dedicate time and resources to strengthening local behaviours were not mentioned as impacts in the analysed and global networks. These can use gathered data in initiatives, although these are frequently described in human rights advocacy work to enforce policies that studies on the benefits for citizen science participants protect participants and provide a voice to Indigenous (Chase et al. 2018). In the same line, increasing scientific and local communities in national and international literacy was not at all discussed, in contrast to other citizen policy fora. A concrete example would be the work science literature (Aristeidou and Herodotou 2020). This by the International Work Group for Indigenous difference could be explained by our focus on initiatives Affairs (IWGIA, https://www.iwgia.org), which has Benyei et al. Citizen Science: Theory and Practice DOI: 10.5334/cstp.514 11 strengthened communities’ participation in high level DATA ACCESSIBILITY STATEMENT international fora, such as the United Nations (UN) High Level Political Forum on the Sustainable Development The data in which this manuscript is based can be found Goals or the UN Permanent Forum for Indigenous as a supplemental file to this article (Supplemental Issues, among others. File 2). 2. Re-centre projects around communities’ ways of knowing and participants’ needs by establishing open contact and co-creating the project in terms of design, SUPPLEMENTAL FILES implementation, dissemination, and evaluation. An example would be to use platforms such as AGU’s The supplemental files for this article can be found as Thriving Earth Exchange (https://thrivingearthexchange. follows: org/) to contact communities that are calling for experts to explore certain issues, which can become • Supplemental File 1. Data set. DOI: https://doi. central to researchers’ funding applications. More org/10.5334/cstp.514.s1 examples can be found in the work of the Participatory • Supplemental File 2. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5334/ Monitoring and Management Parthership (PMMP 2015). cstp.514.s2 3. Enforce codes of conduct, protocols, and data- -- Appendix A. Supplemental methodological management practices that enable communities to clarifications be heard while at the same time avoiding reproducing -- Appendix B. Questionnaire template colonial science practices (Johnson et al. 2021). A -- Appendix C. Workshop templates concrete example would be incorporating frameworks and tools as the ones described by Reyes-García and colleagues (2022) and by the Citizen Science ETHICS AND CONSENT Association Data Ethics Toolkit (https://citizenscience. org/data-ethics/). All participants in this study are co-authors of this 4. Use adaptive and low-tech methods and tools manuscript and thus have read and consent to the that fit the local context, and coordinate with local publishing of their data. organizations and intermediary/proxy participants that serve as local coordinators and can decentralize project management. Examples of how to do this can be found ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS in the work of the Extreme Citizen Science group of the UCL (see Skarlatidou and Haklay 2021b), which has We would like to acknowledge all the communities developed tools such as Sapelli (https://www.sapelli. and organizations we have worked with over the org/), Community maps or GeoKey. years. Specifically, ‘Remote Access’ acknowledges ECA 5. Pay for participation and find flexible funding sources Amarakaeri, PUINAMUDT, Alianza Ceibo & SRDC (South that allow for this type of expenditure and that value Rupununi Development Council). ‘Green Care’ acknowledges the diversity of non-scientific outputs of a project. An Gilbert Njodzeka. ‘BES’ thanks SEEDAct, EIAR/NARF/RCBP, example would be applying to non-scientific funds such EWCA/BES. ‘Serra do Mar’ thanks the inhabitants of the as proof-of-concept funds (e.g., ERC-PoC), development Quilombo da Fazenda and Quilombo do Cambury. ‘PPG’ aid funds (e.g., EuropeAid, USAid), and private acknowledges the participation of South Hampstead foundations (e.g., DiCaprio Foundation). More examples High School, particularly of Prof. Juliette Massey Smith about funding strategies can be found in the work of (co-creator of the project) and Prof. Arsheen Aneja. We Doering and colleagues (2022). would also like to thank the anonymous reviewers and the editor, Michael Pocock, who so thoroughly reviewed the As the citizen science community increasingly questions manuscript and made it shine. the diversity, inclusiveness, and equity of the field (see, for example, the recent Inclusive, Diverse, Equitable, Accessible, Large-scale (IDEAL) Citizen Science initiative in FUNDING INFORMATION the United States), we hope our work providing stories from the field in a structured way can directly guide and inform Remote Access acknowledges the Knight Foundation, future work, and open discussions about best practices in the Leonardo DiCaprio Foundation, the Abundance citizen science. Foundation, the Good Energies Foundation and All Eyes Benyei et al. Citizen Science: Theory and Practice DOI: 10.5334/cstp.514 12 on the Amazon. Our Forest acknowledges EuropeAid Artemis Skarlatidou orcid.org/0000-0003-1171-5709 CSO-LA/2019/161819-3/7 and Bruno Manser Fund. University College London, GB BBI acknowledges support from “RMI-The Indonesian Dimitris Argyriou orcid.org/0000-0001-7543-6958 Institute of Forests and Environment” and funding from Forest & Peoples Organization, DK Voice. BES thanks WSD who provided financial, material Rick Hall and technical support. LICCION acknowledges funding Ignite Futures, GB through an ERC-PoC grant (ERC-2019-PoC-899209) and Ida Theilade orcid.org/0000-0003-3502-1277 an ERC-Consolidator grant (771056-LICCI-ERC-2017-COG) University of Copenhagen, DK to Reyes-García. CONECT-e acknowledges funding from Nerea Turreira-García orcid.org/0000-0002-7746-3922 the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness University of Copenhagen, DK (CSO2014-59704-P). Serra do Mar acknowledges the Danielle Latreche support given by FAPESP – BIOTA PROGRAM (process University of Edinburgh, GB numbers 2015/12046-0 and 2019/19313-5) and CNPq – Alexandra Albert orcid.org/0000-0001-5838-675X Universal 2016 (process number 400802/2016-3). ‘PPG’ University College London, GB acknowledges the support of the 27 donations through David Berger orcid.org/0009-0005-7753-7994 their gofundme project (https://www.gofundme.com/f/ International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs, DK constelao-educao). Indigenous Navigator is supported by Mar Cartró-Sabaté orcid.org/0000-0002-7902-9345 the European Commission under INTPA.G.1. Night Walks Digital Democracy, US was supported by a grant from the Wesleyan Foundation. Jessie Chang FD was supported by the EC H2020 projects INTAROS Bethlehem University, PS and CAPARDUS (grants 727890 and 869673). PIBS would Rafael Chiaravalloti like to acknowledge funding from The European Union Imperial College London, GB Peace-Building Initiative. ActEarly is supported by the UK Arianna Cortesi orcid.org/0000-0002-0620-136X Prevention Research Partnership, an initiative funded by CBPF, BR UK Research and Innovation Councils, the Department Finn Danielsen orcid.org/0000-0003-0229-2847 of Health and Social Care (England) and the UK devolved Nordic Foundation for Development and Ecology (NORDECO), DK administrations, and leading health research charities. Muki (Mordechai) Haklay orcid.org/0000-0001-6117-3026 Pantanal was partly funded by Science Without Borders UCL, GB CNPq/Cape. And finally Extreme Citizen Science projects Emily Jacobi and team are funded by the ERC Advanced Grant Extreme Digital Democracy, US Citizen Science: Analysis and Visualisation under (Grant Asaye Nigussie Agreement No. 694767). SEEDAct, ET Victoria Reyes-García orcid.org/0000-0002-2914-8055 ICREA, ES COMPETING INTERESTS Eliana Rodrigues orcid.org/0000-0001-8847-6676 Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), BR The authors have no competing interests to declare. Thamara Sauini orcid.org/0000-0003-0398-1038 Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), BR Vyacheslav Shadrin AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS Republic Indigenous Peoples’ Organisation of Sakha Republic, RU Andre Siqueira PB, AS, DA, RH, IT, NTG, and DFL contributed to this study’s Ecoa – Ecologia e Ação, BR conception and design, and to data analysis. All authors Mr. Supriadi contributed data. PB and AS wrote the first draft of the RMI-The Indonesian Institute for Forest and Environment, ID manuscript and all authors contributed to reviewing and Mardha Tillah editing the manuscript. 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Citizen Science: Theory and Practice DOI: 10.5334/cstp.514 15 TO CITE THIS ARTICLE: Benyei, P, Skarlatidou, A, Argyriou, D, Hall, R, Theilade, I, Turreira-García, N, Latreche, D, Albert, A, Berger, D, Cartró-Sabaté, M, Chang, J, Chiaravalloti, R, Cortesi, A, Danielsen, F, Haklay, M, Jacobi, E, Nigussie, A, Reyes-García, V, Rodrigues, E, Sauini, T, Shadrin, V, Siqueira, A, Supriadi, Mr, Tillah, M, Tofighi-Niaki, A, Vronski, N and Woods, T. 2023. Challenges, Strategies, and Impacts of Doing Citizen Science with Marginalised and Indigenous Communities: Reflections from Project Coordinators. Citizen Science: Theory and Practice, 8(1): 21, pp. 1–15. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5334/cstp.514 Submitted: 28 April 2022 Accepted: 23 March 2023 Published: 15 May 2023 COPYRIGHT: © 2023 The Author(s). This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC-BY 4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. See http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Citizen Science: Theory and Practice is a peer-reviewed open access journal published by Ubiquity Press.