Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 85 (2023) 127966 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Urban Forestry & Urban Greening journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ufug Stakeholder perceptions of the socio-ecological role of nature-based solutions in the Les Glòries Park, Barcelona Andrea Nóblega-Carriquiry a, *, Hug March b, c, David Sauri a a Department of Geography, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain b Estudis d′ Economia i Empresa, Universitat Oberta de Catalunya (UOC), 08035 Barcelona, Spain c Internet Interdisciplinary Institute (IN3), Universitat Oberta de Catalunya (UOC), 08035 Barcelona, Spain A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T Handling Editor: Dr Cecil Konijnendijk van den The ongoing effects of the climate emergency and the recognition of the need to redesign cities to cope with Bosch future socio-environmental changes and increase the quality of life of urban inhabitants has pushed many cities to embrace the ‘re-naturalization’ of public space through Nature-based Solutions (NbS). Les Glòries park Keywords: (Barcelona) is an ongoing massive urban transformation project that incorporates NbS as a multifunctional tool. Nature-based Solutions It attempts to respond to complex environmental, social, and economic urban problems while at the same time Politics of parks mitigating and adapting to hazards, such as floods and droughts, both predicted to increase in the Mediterranean Socio-ecological relationships Les Glòries Park, Barcelona region due to climate change. While NbS are also expected to improve environmental quality, not much attention Stakeholder perceptions has been given to how those strategies would intersect with citizens’ expectations and visions of public space and the uneven socio-environmental relations they can enforce. Through a case of urban development of a new large green area in Barcelona, this article aims to discern different perceptions by the local community and planners on the socio-ecological role of NbS and the implications this has for sustainable urban transitions. In-depth in­ terviews were held with 25 key stakeholders and users, complemented by the analysis of secondary data from the town council of Barcelona about the perception of the space by residents living in the surrounding neighborhoods of the park. The results of this paper show that perceptions around NbS are strongly divided into three groups: the believers, the opposers and the skepticals. These results contribute to nuance NbS, as they do not provide universal benefits, neither for nature nor for society, and that they are subject to urban tensions derived from inequities, conflicts, tradeoffs, and particularly from divided visions of what the ‘re-naturalization’ of cities should look like. 1. Introduction NbS are defined by the International Union for Conservation of Na­ ture (IUCN) as “actions to protect, sustainably manage and restore By 2030, it is forecasted that at least 60 % of the world population natural or modified ecosystems, which address societal challenges (e.g., will live in urban areas (UN, 2018), putting cities at the center of the climate change, food and water security or natural disasters) effectively debates around sustainable transitions (Millington, 2016; Mahmoud and adaptively, while simultaneously providing human well-being and et al., 2022) and more extensively relationships with non-human nature biodiversity benefits” (Cohen-Shacham et al., 2016, p. xii). These sys­ (Dignum et al., 2020; Hodson and Marvin, 2010). Both the climate crisis tems constitute the modification of the environment through natural (IPCC, 2018) and the global pandemic of COVID-19 (Honey-Rosés et al., processes, such as capture, filtration, retention, and infiltration that 2021) have accelerated sustainable urban transition processes. In this govern stormwater (Karvonen, 2011; Meilinger and Monstadt, 2022) context, policymakers and planners are interested in ‘re-naturing’ cities and foster urban biodiversity (EC, 2015; Noiva et al., 2016). NbS emerge (Keeler et al., 2019), through Nature-based Solutions (NbS) following as socio-ecological interventions that may foster social cohesion (EC, urban regeneration, rehabilitation, and sustainable development 2019) –specially in parks (Peters et al., 2010)–, while providing multiple agendas (Haase, 2017; Wolch et al., 2014) that create livable and Ecosystem Services to citizens including esthetics, recreation, and sense healthier cities (Wu et al., 2022). of place (Kabisch et al., 2016; McCormick and Kiss, 2019). * Corresponding author. E-mail address: andrea.noblega@uab.cat (A. Nóblega-Carriquiry). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2023.127966 Received 7 February 2023; Received in revised form 27 April 2023; Accepted 9 May 2023 Available online 10 May 2023 1618-8667/© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier GmbH. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). A. Nóblega-Carriquiry et al. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 85 (2023) 127966 However, while new, horizontally driven governance schemes status of sustainability inserted in a market-led political economy (Kabisch et al., 2016; Nóblega-Carriquiry et al., 2020) tend to charac­ (Kotsila et al., 2021). Re-naturing of cities might not entail an urban terize NbS projects, little attention has been paid to the unequal out­ paradigm change but rather a sign of urban neoliberal environmen­ comes of NbS, in the greening of cities (Haase, 2017; talism whereby nature is commodified through ‘sustainability fixes’ Nóblega-Carriquiry, 2022; Turnhout et al., 2021) and in the prospects (Keil, 2007; Nemes et al., 2022; Cook and Swyngedouw, 2012; Pirro and toward transformations of the public space. This article contributes to Anguelovski, 2017). existing literature on the politics of urban public parks, as it attempts to The relationships between NbS and society have been understudied, critically engage a discussion about how human-nature relationships specifically when considering governance and the impacts of human- differ in public space and the implications of this for sustainable urban nature interactions with direct consequences on lifestyles and beliefs transitions. This is performed by studying the diverse perceptions of the (Kabisch et al., 2016), or examining the changes NbS produce in insti­ socio-ecological role that NbS play for different stakeholders. We depart tutional practices and in imaginaries of nature (Kull et al., 2015). Taking from the premise that public space is the product of social relations, and this into consideration, it can be noted that transdisciplinary in sus­ that these are always uneven (Massey, 2005; Millington, 2016). Hence, tainability (Hirsch Hadorn et al., 2006) and environmental (Kim et al., arguments praising NbS as an ideal outcome for the reconciliation be­ 2022) research has become more common and opened new horizons tween humans and nature with benefits for all should be seriously put to into how social sciences may provide play important insights in envi­ scrutiny. This article explores the following research questions: ronmental research (Strang, 2009) as reflected in their methods, and particularly in their holistic approach to understanding of i. What types of human-nature relationships do NbS foster in public socio-ecological relations. space and how do these relate (or not) to each other? ii. How do the different perceptions of the NbS condition their imple­ 2.2. Understanding stakeholders’ perceptions of NbS mentation in cities? Based on the aforementioned observations, there is still a need to The case study of Les Glòries (Glòries) park in Barcelona, as a major relate NbS debates on inequalities and injustices (Haase, 2017; van der infrastructural ongoing project that incorporates NbS through biodi­ Jagt et al., 2021) specifically in the urban context, where NbS acts as versity nodes, green roof, water retention gardens, and a significant both, enablers and constrainers of the urban form (Monstadt, 2019) and central pervious green area, is used to understand the stakeholders’ affect directly socio-ecological relations, resulting in unequal tradeoffs perception of NbS. Our fieldwork includes an assessment of surveys and outcomes (Kabisch et al., 2016; Nóblega-Carriquiry et al., 2022; undertaken by the City Council of Barcelona between 2015 and 2021 on Cousins, 2017; 2021; Karvonen, 2011). the perceptions of urban environmental changes in the area, site visits to Shedding light on how communities of stakeholders perceive the the park, and structured interviews to different stakeholders involved in impacts on NbS and their preferred urban futures offers a possibility to or affected by the project. study this issue from a critical perspective. Linking greening in cities as a This first section sets the research objectives. In the second section, response to sustainable urban transitions with perception studies has the theoretical framework is covered, exploring literature on the un­ been approached from diverse angles, for example, by looking into equally shifting socio-ecological relationships and stakeholders’ per­ public perception of spontaneous vegetation in brownfields (Mathey ceptions of NbS. The third section discusses the methods, followed by et al., 2018), biodiversity perception in cities (Botzat et al., 2016), public the background information of the case study of Glòries. The fifth sec­ preferences for river restoration (Chen et al., 2017), or by analyzing tion presents the findings and discussion, with three distinctive un­ perceptions of parks and urban derelict land (Hofmann et al., 2012). derstandings of the socio-ecological role of NbS. The final section With some exceptions (Bernello et al., 2022; Chen and Hua, 2017; Han presents conclusions and policy implications. and Kuhlicke, 2019; Yuen and Hien, 2005), there is limited research specifically on the social perceptions of NbS or umbrella terms such as 2. Socio-ecological relationships in NbS and stakeholders’ Blue-Green Infrastructures or Green Infrastructures, among others. perceptions Little is known regarding how different stakeholders perceive the socio-ecological role of NbS in cities. As socio-ecological interventions 2.1. NbS unequally shifting socio-ecological relationships produce uneven outcomes (Cousins, 2017; 2021; Karvonen, 2011), it is likely that perceptions of NbS in green public spaces may diverge among From an academic and research perspective, NbS are typically stakeholders (Hofmann et al., 2012). Understanding perceptions of NbS included in the literature on socio-ecological transformations (Westley in public spaces is critical to understanding how these spaces are and et al., 2011) that situates these strategies as a sustainable tool to trans­ will be conceptualized, used, and experienced by diverse stakeholders form social, ecological, and technological relationships. However, this (Yuen and Hien, 2005). These include actors that share the management literature tends to downplay the social, political, and economic aspects and/or use of NbS in public space, from government officials, technical that produce inequalities and unevenness in the urban environment and academic spheres to citizens and NGOs. (Cousins, 2021; Haase, 2017; Kabisch et al., 2022; Nóblega-Carriquiry, Our paper contributes to this regard by eliciting collective under­ 2022). Questions around social justice and socio-spatial inequality may standing of NbS development in the most important recent green be overlooked in NbS (Cousins, 2021; van der Jagt et al., 2021). development project in the city of Barcelona, Glòries park. This case It is assumed that NbS may lead to socially just results (Haase, 2017) deals with sustainable inner city regeneration projects that, due to its and to ‘safe spaces’ that ensure reflexivity, co-create knowledge, and urban complexity, involve numerous stakeholders with conflicting per­ transform learning, acting as boosters for more just cities (Andersson ceptions on sustainable urban transitions through the implementation of et al., 2015; Amorim Maia et al., 2020). However, what actually emerges NbS. The results in this research may be scaled out to similar NbS urban is the ‘urban green space paradox’ (Wolch et al., 2014), where renewal projects that follow horizontal governance processes which aim place-specific impacts such as displacement and gentrification (Angue­ for more socially inclusive and just urban transformations (Zanoni and lovski et al., 2018; Kabisch et al., 2016), social segregation, inequality in Jassens, 2009). access to green space (Cousins, 2021; Wolch et al., 2014; Wu et al., 2020), and unequal distribution of benefits and tradeoffs (Haase, 2017; 3. Methodology Nóblega-Carriquiry et al., 2022), create uneven public spaces. On the other hand, NbS are usually portrayed as politically neutral, thus mis­ The methodology used in this study involves a triangulation representing the different social values appearing in the contradictory approach, where qualitative and quantitative methods are 2 A. Nóblega-Carriquiry et al. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 85 (2023) 127966 complementary to each other, bringing more robust insights into issues Huberman (1994), were developed. First, open coding took out the first being examined (Ali et al.,2020; Lynam et al., 2007; Plieninger et al., aggrupation of similar patterns and thoughts shared by participants by 2013). analyzing snippets and labeling them as codes (Glaser and Strauss, The central empirical work to elucidate perceptions around the 1967). We obtained 40 codes such as participation process and futures of deployment of NbS in the public space of Glòries park was developed NbS in cities, among others. In this round, several codes were manually through in-depth interviews held with 25 key stakeholders and users merged due to conceptual repetition, resulting in the final 31 codes. (see Table 1) between September and November 2022, in person and Second, codes were compared with each other in the linking or axial online, lasting approximately 45 min each and audio-recorded with the coding through the constant comparison method that finds connections consent of the participants. The interview sample is constituted by key and distinctions from which category codes are created (Smit, 2002; actors in the development of Glòries park. These actors were selected Friese, 2019). After numerous rounds of coding and interpretation of the according to different views and perspectives on the project and its transcripts, in the axial coding phase, three extra codes were created to process of development. To do so, we created a stakeholder map, built find direct relations between all codes: these codes were named following gradually a snowball method. The first interviewees identified respectively positive, negative, and neutral aspects. Transcripts were were mainly stakeholders linked to the mote technical areas of the City analyzed once more, coding then positive, negative, and neutral aspects Council of Barcelona and academics, who recommended specialists from that were mentioned in the interview’s transcripts. the private sector, government officials, and neighborhood associations Limitations of the methodology selected include the unequal that were involved in the project since the beginning. Neighborhood involvement of participants, even though qualitative saturation was associations were vital for selecting the last participants (park users), as achieved (Hennink and Kaiser,2022; Glaser and Strauss, 1967). A larger they could better identify different demographic profiles of park users part of the interviewees belonged to the government, academia, and and had a greater understanding of who would have the time and technical sectors, while neighboring communities were underrepre­ motivation to participate in our research. When the saturation of data sented. For this reason, interviews were complemented by the analysis was achieved and no new insights were brought into discussions (Hen­ of secondary data about the perception of the space by inhabitants living nink and Kaiser,2022; Glaser and Strauss, 1967), the interview phase in the surrounding neighborhoods of the park. After the interviews were was finalized. held, we analyzed an existing dataset from surveys on citizen perception We asked participants 17 questions through the interview, around developed by the Opinion Research Center of the City Council of Bar­ the topics of sense of place, socio-natural interactions, public space and celona from 2015 to 2021 with the participation of 670 citizens (Ajun­ stormwater management, and the preferred vision of the park and its tament de Barcelona, 2015; 2016a; 2017b; 2019b; 2022). These surveys surroundings. These topics and questions were chosen from the litera­ accommodate to a stratified random sampling procedure, following the ture review in Section 2, and, while emphasis on the blue-green di­ census tracts of the surrounding neighborhoods of the park (Ajuntament chotomy of NbS and its multifunctionality was implicit, questions de Barcelona, 2015; 2016a; 2017b; 2019b; 2022). In the years in which focused mainly on the blue-green aspects of NbS, such as stormwater the survey was conducted, the sampling error had the same confidence management due to the design of the park (see Section 4). Although level = 95.5 % (2σ), under the assumption of maximum indeterminacy several topics regarding the multifunctionality of NbS, such as its ca­ (P = 50 % and Q= 50 %); however, the entire sample error slightly pacity to deal with heatwaves were not explicitly mentioned during the differed each year. Thus, it was ± 3.8 % in 2015 and 2016, ± 3.9 in 2017 interviews, the strong connection between these two (blue-greening and and 2022, and ± 4.0 in 2019 (Ajuntament de Barcelona, 2015; 2016a; heatwaves) was not ignored and needs to be further researched in the 2017b; 2019b; 2022). The analysis of the surveys consisted of the future. To avoid leading questions and wording bias (Gendall and Hoek, evaluation of the change in response patterns from 2015 to 2021 in 1990), the guideline was refined after one round of testing to achieve the questions related to perceptions of the social improvements of the area, adequacy, transparency, and balance of the fieldwork, intending to the use of the different areas in the park, ecological aspects, opinions on remain objective as possible as advised in qualitative research (Zahle, the project outcomes, and expected future dynamics. This step was 2021). developed manually by entering the data included in the annual surveys Interviews were systematically and manually transcribed, and con­ for each relevant category. Microsoft’s Excel software was used to tent analysis was examined using the ATLAS.ti software. This tool identify statistically relevant changes in patterns. allowed to explore qualitative outputs through coding (Smit, 2002; Woolf and Silver, 2017), by taking elicit qualitative meaning from the 4. Background: NbS in Glòries park, Barcelona data rather than looking into the quantitative aspects. Only phrases and paragraphs that made sense on their own were coded (Kuckartz, 2013; 4.1. Glòries park project in transition Friese, 2019). We acknowledge that in the analysis with ATLAS.ti, researcher bias was still existent, but we made every effort to be the less In the city expansion and modernization plan of 1856 (Pla Cerdà), biased as possible. engineer and planner Cerdà designed Glòries square as the central node Two different coding phases or categorizations based on Miles and in Barcelona, where three main avenues acting as city axes converged: Diagonal, Gran Via, and Meridiana (Cerdà, 1991) (Fig. 1). However, the Table 1 square failed as the central reference of Cerda’s plan due to complex Total number of interviewees and its identity numbers by stakeholder type. mobility dynamics, poor connection with the rest of the city, and the Type of stakeholder Nº of Identity numbers per interviewees existence of a railroad that physically divided the surrounding neigh­ Participants borhoods (Roca Blanch et al., 2011). To promote fast mobility in the city Government 2 #6; #8 for the Olympic Games of 1992, two rings were created surrounding the Public entity 8 #2; #3; #10; #14; #15; #17; #18; square, aiming to facilitate rapid transit entrance and exit (Roca Blanch (technician) #20 et al., 2011). The two levels of highway rings created an unused center Private sector 4 #4; #5; #7; #13; space, which became a brownfield frequented by informal vendors (technician) (Xalabarder, 2007). Academia 3 #1; #12; #16 NGOs / Schools 1 #19 Glòries renewed project was born after the demonstrations that Neighborhood 2 #9; #11 started in the early 2000 s, forcing a dialog between the city council and associations the neighbors. This resulted in the signature of a document called Park users 5 #21; #22; #23; #24; #25 Compromís per Glòries (Ajuntament de Barcelona, 2007). In 2013, the Total n 25 city council of Barcelona called for an international competition for the 3 A. Nóblega-Carriquiry et al. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 85 (2023) 127966 Fig. 1. Location of Glòries and connections to green corridors. Source: adapted from ©L′ Institut. Cartogràfic i Geològic de Catalunya (https://visors.icgc.cat/contextmaps/#11.26/41.4009/2.1123 accessed. on July 5, 2022). design of the park, choosing 10 finalists and creating afterwards the Finally, in 2014, the project Canòpia Urbana was chosen through a jury Jornades ciutadanes where open debates and workshops were held to by 11 architects and 2 members of the neighborhood associations, and obtain input from residents (Baró-Planella, 2019). Sustainability was a later, participatory sessions ensued the refinement of the project core concept residents advocated for, asking for more blue-green and (Baró-Planella, 2019). less gray infrastructure and terms such as natural infiltration and The project for Glòries entailed a major modification of the General stormwater management emerged (Ajuntament de Barcelona, 2013). Metropolitan Plan of Barcelona, as it involved large transport Fig. 2. NbS in Glòries. Source: adapted from ©Agence Ter – Ana Coello (reproduced with permission). 4 A. Nóblega-Carriquiry et al. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 85 (2023) 127966 infrastructure, alterations in the urban form, and the creation of new Table 2 residential areas (Roca Blanch et al., 2011). The project started in 2014 Cooccurrence table. Adapted from ATLAS.ti. and is expected to be finished in 2025. It is sequenced in 4 stages: stage 1 Positive Negative Neutral (2014): demolition of the two rings; stage 2 (2014–2015): construction aspects aspects aspects of provisional urban infrastructure; stage 3 (2014–2019): construction Complexity in Glòries case n/a 8 – 0.09 * 5 – 0.06 * of a park and surrounding housing areas, and stage 4 (2017–2025): Dichotomy of park or dry plaza 1 – 0.01 * n/a 3 – 0.04 * construction of road tunnels underneath the park (Ajuntament de Bar­ Ecological design aligned to Med. 7 – 0.09 * n/a 1 – 0.01 * celona, 2021). Given our interest in the green dimension of the project Climate Ecological consequences of NbS 8 – 0.11 * n/a n/a and the subsequent implementation of NbS, this paper only focuses on Futures of NbS in cities 2 – 0.02 * 4 – 0.04 * 6 – 0.07 * the development of the park in stage 3. The park was partly finished in Existence of green corridors 10 – 0.13 * 2 – 0.02 * 1 – 0.01 * 2019, consisting of a clear green core (called Gran Clariana) combined Green gentrification n/a 9 – 0.1 * 2 – 0.02 * with surrounding program nodes, including a playground, a sports area, Greening public spaces as a trend 3 – 0.03 11 – 0.11 8 – 0.09 Need to green Barcelona 8 – 0.10 5 – 0.05 2 – 0.02 and a dog park, as well as NbS such as stormwater retention gardens, a Glòries as a pioneer in NbS 14 – 0.18 3 – 0.03 4 – 0.04 green roof, and biodiversity nodes (Fig. 2) (Agence ter, 2017; Ajunta­ Local vs. city scale of NbS 6 – 0.08 * 9 – 0.10 * 5 – 0.06 * ment de Barcelona, 2017a). Maintenance of NbS 2 – 0.02 * 9 – 0.10 * n/a The project for Glòries consists of a 130,000 m2 green park housing Multifunctionality of NbS 3 – 0.03 12 – 0.13 * 3 – 0.03 different uses and activities, and prioritizing natural atmosphere Nature-city relationship 8 – 0.09 7 – 0.07 6 – 0.06 Nature-people relationship 9 – 0.11 4 – 0.04 5 – 0.05 through pedestrian paths, bike lanes, and NbS (Ajuntament de Barce­ NbS and gray infrastructures as 1 – 0.01 * 2 – 0.02 * 3 – 0.04 * lona, 2019a). Les Glòries is part of the Green and Biodiversity Plan for complementary Barcelona 2020, as a green corridor that connects the Colserolla Park –in New governance models through 4 – 0.05 * 2 – 0.02 * 2 – 0.02 * the North of Barcelona–, to three main points: the Ciutadella Park NbS Participation process of Glòries 4 – 0.05 11 – 0.11 4 – 0.04 through Meridiana Avenue and Passeig Sant Joan; the linear park of La People’s reaction to ‘ugly’ natures 1 – 0.01 1 – 0.01 * 11 – 0.13 * Sagrera –under construction–; and with the Diagonal Mar Park through Public space design in Glòries n/a 10 – 0.11 * n/a Diagonal Avenue (Fig. 1). Public space: space for nature vs. 3 – 0.03 12 – 0.13 4 – 0.04 The project was conceived as a massive empty green core, sur­ people rounded by biodiversity nodes with tree-based vegetation adapted to the Sense of belonging 5 – 0.06 * 1 – 0.01 * 5 – 0.06 * Sensitivity toward stormwater 9 – 0.11 n/a 5 – 0.06 * climatic and environmental conditions of the Mediterranean, such as Shortage of rains in the 1 – 0.01 * 4 – 0.04 * 3 – 0.04 * Pinus halepensis and Celtis australis (Ajuntament de Barcelona, 2019c). Mediterranean climate Biodiversity nodes, including a vast tree and bush-based vegetation, are Skepticism on the final image of n/a 1 – 0.01 * 5 – 0.06 * conceived as ‘steppingstones’ in the network of biodiversity linking Glòries Stormwater management and 18 – 0.23 2 – 0.02 6 – 0.06 Glòries, with other green parks of the city (Ajuntament de Barcelona, public space 2019c). Even the Superblock project has found synergies with Glòries Tradeoffs n/a 21 – 0.24 1 – 0.01 through its green corridors in the l′ Eixample district (Ajuntament de Visual impact of stormwater 2 – 0.02 1 – 0.01 * 13 – 0.16 Barcelona, 2016b). The project also follows the Urban Green Infra­ through NbS structure Action Plan, which aims to add 1 m2 of green area/resident Notes: the first number (whole number) in each cell indicates the number of cites and sustains that citizens play a major role in the management of the shared by both codes. The c-coefficient c (decimal number from 0 to 1) specifies city’s NbS (Ajuntament de Barcelona, 2017a). the strength of the relationship between the codes. c is based on quantitative In Glòries, the Gran Clariana allows for evapotranspiration of water, content analysis: c = n12 / (n1 + n2 - n12); where n12 = number of co- whereas the biodiversity nodes and stormwater gardens were designed occurrences for code n1 and n2. n/a= no relation found. The color of the cells to provide infiltration, drainage, and lamination of runoff as well as illustrates the relation among codes (the darker, the higher relation it presents). producing thermal comfort and reducing air and noise pollution (Agence The * in c represents unequal quotation frequencies, meaning that the ration ter, 2017; Ajuntament de Barcelona, 2019a). While the green grass area between the frequencies of the code and row code exceeds the threshold of 5 (Friese, 2019). of the Gran Clariana –with very few shade– demands large quantities of water for irrigation, the park contains an underground groundwater deposit –the biggest built so far in Barcelona (Ajuntament de Barcelona, 5.1. The believers: NbS will bring humans and nature together 2019a)– which is connected to the local aquifer, serving as a natural storage for irrigation (Agence ter, 2017). The first group acknowledged that NbS are already interacting syn­ ergistically with the more environmentally friendly urban features 5. Results and discussion around the city. This promising success opens the possibilities for a more sustainable future. Proof is provided by the 96.6 % of the population After coding the interviews to key stakeholders and park users with valuing the new park as satisfactory (Ajuntament de Barcelona, 2022). ATLAS.ti, we created a co-occurrence table analysis (Table 2) that allows Proponents of this view sustain that NbS are of vital need in a city such as to graphically understand the relationship between codes (Friese, 2019). Barcelona, where green is in short supply (Interviewees #5; #7; #10; While some codes specifically fitted one category, e.g., Tradeoffs found #14; #15; #19; #20). In 2013, 56.3 % of the citizens who participated strong associations with negative aspects, others shared positive and on the City Council’s surveys argued that the main positive aspect of negative aspects e.g., NbS and gray infrastructures as complementary, and Glòries project was that it will provide a significant green area for citi­ these were associated with neutral aspects. zens (Ajuntament de Barcelona, 2015); this same answer for 2021 when When analyzing the results from ATLAS.ti complemented by the the park had already opened for partial use, rose to 69.4 % (Ajuntament analysis of the surveys run by the City Council of Barcelona, three de Barcelona, 2022). different political understandings of the socio-ecological role of NbS Regarding the social impacts of NbS (Peters et al., 2010), for the based on what stakeholders consider as probable and preferable for NbS believers, the park already promotes social interaction by offering social in public space became evident: the believers; the opposers, and the and cultural activities that create a more just city (Interviewees #7; skepticals. #10): “this park is already a magnet for people, it promises a space where people can develop activities while enjoying the outdoors” (Interviewee #24). In the report of the urban improvement plan for the Glòries planning sector, the City Council of Barcelona sustains that 5 A. Nóblega-Carriquiry et al. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 85 (2023) 127966 Glòries follows the Urban Law, which states that sustainable urban de­ #7; #10; #15). In sum, for the believers, NbS elements bring nature and velopments must favor social cohesion –as aligned to the European people closer in urban environments through a change of paradigm. Commission (2019)– and urban rehabilitation by bringing a wider and more efficient land management approach (Ajuntament de Barcelona, 5.2. The opposers: There is and will not be space for NbS developments in 2021). People now actually choose to go to the park, contrarily to what the city happened previously, where citizens avoided passing through it (In­ terviewees #9; #21). If we analyze the perceptions on social improve­ On the opposite side, the second group believes that the socio- ments through the years, percentages are stable in general (between 63 ecological role NbS can play and will play in the future is conditioned % and 71 %) and expected to remain so in the future (64.4 % in 2021) by existing urban pressures. To begin with, they argue that the urban (Ajuntament de Barcelona, 2015; 2016a; 2017b; 2019b; 2022). context in which NbS are implemented can overshadow positive im­ Additionally, the group considers that Glòries will have a major pacts. Interviewees highlighted that the urban regeneration project socio-ecological impact in the neighborhood due to its connection with should have focused mainly on urban mobility, conceiving Glòries as a diverse green corridors (Interviewees #5; #9; #10; #12; #15; #17; city node where multiple avenues converge, although these are by no #19). In 2021, 43.5 % believed that once the park is finished, the urban means green corridors (Interviewees #4; #6). With this perspective, the environment will improve (Ajuntament de Barcelona, 2022). From an design of Glòries would not be related to NbS or greening, but to rapid ecological perspective, several interviewees highlighted the benefits of transit as a roundabout that improves mobility (Interviewee #4). Ac­ the biodiversity nodes (Interviewees #7; #10; #11) as enhancers of cording to this group, the new park deflects attention toward an urban biodiversity (EC, 2015; Noiva et al., 2016). “If there is something ecological discourse, putting aside the problems that the park entails, of Les Glòries that I find to be absolutely in point, it is the serious and especially its failure as an unsolved urban mobility node adding more rigorous tone that the ecological elements have in this square with the pressure to traffic flows in the surrounding areas (Interviewee #4). In problems that we are obviously facing in cities (…) around 25 species of fact, several interviewees argued that “this is a great, remarkable proj­ birds are nesting in the park and a vast number of insects around the ect, but located in the wrong place” (Interviewee #1; also #2; #5; #8; stormwater gardens and biodiversity nodes have been identified, and so #17). This brings the question: what is nature the solution to? (Cousins, on. This is something new for a central area in the city” (Interviewee 2021; Kotsila et al., 2021). #14). Proponents of this view believe that the negotiation process and the This group sees that the construction of the tunnels was a key point tradeoffs (Haase, 2017; Nóblega-Carriquiry et al., 2022) that resulted for bringing beneficial socio-ecological consequences in terms of trans­ and will result from this project are very imbalanced (Interviewees #1; port, noise, and pollution (Interviewees #9; #11; #22), as an extra ES #3; #6; #17). Although public participation in Glòries was a very that NbS can offer (McCormick and Kiss, 2019). This was also supported extensive and integral process, the Compromís per Glòries was negotiated by a 48.4 % of citizens that participated in the surveys in 2021 (Ajun­ 12 years before the park was conceived, encompassing therefore a long tament de Barcelona, 2022). The perspectives on future environmental period of urban evolution (Interviewees #1; #2; #3; #7; #8; #12; #15): improvements have increased since 2015. In that year, 71.6 % of re­ “This means that several agreements such as the construction of the spondents believed that Glòries would bring mainly positive environ­ tunnel do not make much sense today. Due to its complexity, consisting mental changes, while in 2021, these expectations were shared by 78.2 of 4 levels, including metro and train tunnels at a cost for the city the city % of respondents (Ajuntament de Barcelona, 2022). of 200 million of euros… in the end, the real cost of the park was 200 When describing the park, interviewees acknowledged that the million euros plus the cost of the park project. It was way too costly for vegetation conformed to Mediterranean climate patterns (Interviewees whatever social and environmental advantages it might bring” (Inter­ #7; #10; #15), demanding less water, which calls for unchanging na­ viewee #6). ture (Kull et al., 2015) and is more resilient to climate change. Pro­ Also, issues of green gentrification (Anguelovski et al., 2018; Kabisch ponents of this view argue that building the park under sustainability et al., 2016) were often mentioned when expressing future negative criteria was very innovative for the time when it was planned (In­ challenges for the area. According to some, processes of green gentrifi­ terviewees #14; #20) as NbS were not well-known by then. In this cation have already affected the surrounding neighborhoods with the aspect, sensitivity toward stormwater management and its introduction development of the 22 @ project (Interviewees #16). While some in­ in public space design are valued to be positive for a large part of par­ terviewees believed that gentrification was an issue beyond greening ticipants (Interviewees #1; #4; #7; #10; #13; #14; #15; #16; #17; cities (Interviewees #7; #10; #15), the vast majority showed concerns #18; #19; #25). They valued the direct connection between water and on the actual socio-economic changes that Glòries will bring to the area greening as elements displaying life (Interviewees #7; #9; #17). Some (Interviewees #9; #11; #14; #16; #18; #19; #23; #24). As part of the respondents pointed out that already Cerdà in the mid-19th century project, new residential housing is under construction, 80% of which, manifested a compelling interest in collecting stormwater on site to be according to the demands of neighborhood groups, needs to be rent reused for watering trees (Interviewee #6). controlled. However, negotiation processes are still going on with the These actions demonstrate the importance of ‘going back’ to our City Council of Barcelona (Interviewees #9; #11). From the surveys, origins and reconciliate city with nature (Interviewees #4; #10; #14; 27.9% believe that housing will be one of the most contested issues once #18; #20; #25): as one person said, “we need to ‘re-nature’ the city in the park is finished (Ajuntament de Barcelona, 2022). And who will ways where we can breathe and develop a healthy life” (Interviewee make use of the park and might afford to live nearby is yet to be seen #9). The city is conceived as a living system that needs more natural (Interviewees #16; #19; #25). elements to survive (Interviewees #10; 14): “We [the firm] understand Second, the multifunctional and ambitious character of NbS over­ that the city is a type of ecosystem and that humans are animals and I shadows their capacity to tackle the problem that Glòries was intended mean…we don’t even understand that the city is something else or to solve, namely mobility (Interviewees #3; #8). Many remained separated from nature, but we understand that the city is a type of pessimistic about the impact that NbS in Glòries will have, as they ecosystem with very peculiar characteristics” (Interviewee #10). thought that the only real innovation the park can bring is esthetic This group pointed out that by introducing NbS in public spaces, a (Interviewees #3; #6; #14), with no real incidence on human-nature sense of curiosity emerges from visitors that are not used to have direct interactions, biodiversity enhancement, or climate change mitigation. connections with nature through water retention gardens or biodiversity In terms of biodiversity, it was argued that these types of systems are nodes (Interviewees #7; #14). Facilitating educational information as in only successful when conceived at a bigger scale (Interviewees #1; #2; the existing signs that explain how and why these elements were chosen #4), questioning the paradigm shift that this type of intervention can and the natural processes behind them were well received (Interviewee bring (Kotsila et al., 2021). Regarding climate change mitigation, the 6 A. Nóblega-Carriquiry et al. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 85 (2023) 127966 development of NbS to manage stormwater in a Mediterranean climate (Interviewee #2). And, while Barcelona is one of the main cities in is questioned since annual episodes of extreme rainfall concentrate in Europe that follows this regime, these norms are imposed by the EU and just a few days (Interviewees #8; #14). Furthermore, the amount of the city never actually pioneered the incubation of such concepts stormwater that can be collected at the scale of projects such as Glòries is (Interviewee #20; #25). insignificant in comparison with the needs of Barcelona in this regard In comparison to the first group, this group argues that the sense of (Interviewees #8; #16; 20). belonging in public space is created by other elements rather than just by Third, in this view, it is understood that public space design in the nature and NbS at the disposal of citizens (Interviewee #5). In Glòries park prioritizes nature, reducing recreational areas for people (In­ case, the sense of belonging is to be seen as most buildings (residential terviewees #2; #3; #6; #16; #17; #19), something very common in and services) are yet to be built (Interviewee #8; #9; #11). Regarding new urban developments that should make room for nature to grow new governance models that NbS entail (Haase, 2017; Kull et al., 2015), (Randrup et al., 2020). The result is a fractured park where ‘nature’ is visions are very unclear: some might argue that the case of Glòries is a designed in a controlled way through fences surrounding the biodiver­ remarkable example of a participatory process where citizens had a say sity nodes, enclosed stormwater retention gardens, and regulated en­ in the topic, and actually support the preservation of green areas within trances to La Clariana. All these restrictions not only set rules on how to the park (Interviewees #12; #19), but others believe that still most of interact with nature, but also limit its relationship with people (In­ the technical and actual decisions were made by the City Council, terviewees #6; #14). This is what Monstadt (2019) will refer to with bringing no significantly new perspectives on governance schemes (In­ ‘nature as a constrainer’ of the urban form. “With its restricted use, La terviewees #15; #16; #20). Clariana represents the opposite of public space in the 21st Century. The Last, this group also remains skeptical on the influence that the very same happens with all natural elements that the park has, being un­ first images of the project will have on the perceptions of the socio- touchable and unapproachable” (Interviewee #6). Introducing nature ecological role of Glòries. This means that the skepticals question the also involves high maintenance costs, considering in addition that the different imaginaries of esthetics in nature (Kull et al., 2015). At first, the city is developing more NbS and expanding its green areas, but with the images of the park included mass vegetation of trees and very green same resources than before (Interviewees #5; #9; #10; #11; #17; #25). areas that were not conceived as such (Interviewees #6; #16): “Perhaps A 41.3 % of neighbors understand that the cleanliness of public space is there is too much marketing around it, too much desire to prove one of the main topics where the neighborhood has worsened (Ajunta­ something that in the end will fail. The whole series of slogans and of ment de Barcelona, 2022). statements around eco-green are intended to be true, but in the end, Last, in this category prevails the view that city and nature are what we [citizens] want, is to understand the resulting space and not separate from each other. Some believe that nature in cities does not raise false expectations” (Interviewee #8). Most likely, green vegetation exist (Interviewees #1; #3); that the integration of natural elements will change to yellowish and brownish with the current dry periods that such as stormwater reuse in public space depends too much on human the city of Barcelona is facing, and it is yet to be determined how much beings (Interviewee #2), justifying the need to speak about an people accept this type of ‘ugliness’ or natural environments that escape anthropized nature (Interviewees #5; #13); that the idea that nature from unrealistic images (Interviewees #15; #16; #20). “In the less will guide our future cities is unreal “it is just utopic to believe that the bright, less colored, and dark places of the city is where conflict and Collserola park will take through Barcelona” (Interviewee #11). Others, security issues are prone to arise, as less people usually pick these places finally, sustain that the only way to become more ‘natural’ is by using to go to. I still have my doubts on how people will react to a less green more natural materials to build new developments, but not through pure and poorly maintained Les Glòries” (Interviewee #5). nature or natural processes per se (Interviewee #13). Stakeholder perceptions conditioning NbS implementation. Considering these three discording visions and the political aspects 5.3. The skepticals: NbS might pursue the statu quo in NbS portrayed in Section 2, several reflections can be highlighted regarding how perception studies might contribute to critically under­ The third group appears to have a more skeptical position of the role standing NbS practices. of NbS. One of the main claims of this group was the need to go back to First, far from enhancing social cohesion and place attachment the debate occurring in Barcelona in the 1970s about the design of (Noiva et al., 2016), the implementation of NbS in Glòries case has public space and plazas and whether these spaces should be deprived of evidenced that a divided community of stakeholders differently un­ green areas (Interviewees #3; #15). According to some, the very first derstands the needs of the area, the demands and values of nature, and concept to be discussed in planning concerns ‘green’ features. They the preferable urban futures. Different social values toward how NbS argue that the city was conceived prioritizing very solid gray infra­ may represent a shift in sustainable urban transformations (Kotsila et al., structure, and that, therefore, it is contradictory to follow a transition 2021) are prominent in Glòries. Debates on which is the most sustain­ toward more ‘sustainable’ futures by implementing NbS if the process of able way to design parks in Barcelona from an environmental perspec­ renaturing the city involves a high expenditure of natural and socio- tive are not new (Parés-Franzi et al., 2006), but still part of the economic resources (Interviewees #3; #13), what some call ‘sustain­ discussions. Furthermore, perceptions on the different imaginaries of ability fixes’ (Keil, 2007; Pirro and Anguelovski, 2017). As an example nature (Kull et al., 2015) represented a constraint, as a divided com­ of this, the contradictions between the construction of a tunnel under­ munity was identified regarding the final public image of the park. For neath the park requiring the pumping of millions of cubic meters of some, the nature of the park will respond positively to climate change groundwater and the park philosophy of implementing NbS to reuse trends, while for others, non-green nature will condition its future water were highlighted (Interviewees #6; #8). success. Proponents contend that a combination of gray-blue-green in­ Second, the different perceptions of the socio-ecological roles of NbS frastructures might be the more sensitive one (Interviewee #4), and that in Glòries were highly influenced by issues of social justice and spatial even public entities and professionals within the local administration are inequalities (Cook and Swyngedouw, 2012; Cousins, 2021; Wolch et al., technically supporting this idea (Interviewee #15). Systems that 2014). As new schemes of socio-natural assets are reconfigured in space, manage stormwater in a city such as Barcelona make sense when con­ some stakeholders lose, while others succeed in defending their own nected to each other, as a network of NbS and gray infrastructures rather interests (Guerrin, et al., 2021; March and Swyngedouw, 2022; than isolated stormwater projects (Interviewees #8; #16; 20). They Nóblega-Carriquiry et al., 2022). In Glòries, tradeoffs were a concern for understand that too much pressure is put to follow more ‘sustainable’ stakeholders, exposing the negative consequences that NbS might bring and ‘green’ urban developments introducing NbS to solve all problems through the ‘green paradox’ (Wolch et al., 2014), such as how the related to mobility, climate change, and socio-economic aspects housing market will respond once the park is finished. Moreover, and 7 A. Nóblega-Carriquiry et al. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 85 (2023) 127966 building on Randrup et al. (2020), reflecting on whether urban nature in 2. Acknowledge tradeoffs and provide redeeming or regulatory mea­ Glòries should be given space to expand or not, represents a political sures to address them. decision, as there is limited room to grow, and numerous interests are Some authors have already questioned if ES are reaching its limits confronted through the high demand on space in contemporary cities. in the urban world and how compatible they are to each other Considering that there is still uncharted territory about how NbS (Beichler et al., 2017), as the ‘urbanization’ of nature involves a relates to issues of politics and conflict, studying perceptions of the socio-physical process characterized by environmental (in)justice socio-ecological role of NbS may be of special interest, since there is yet and socio-environmental inequalities (Cook and Swyngedouw, too much pressure on nature as a solution, when it may, somehow 2012). It is important to understand who will lose and who will win paradoxically, be part of the problem if NbS are “too narrowly and as NbS guide future urbanization processes, and who is willing to apolitically defined – or made invisible” (Kotsila et al., 2021, p. 256). cede public space for nature at the cost of recreational activities for Interactions with NbS in space shape individual perceptions of NbS (Han humans. Given that NbS are still associated with the green paradox and Kuhliche, 2019), unveiling the different wants and needs of stake­ and gentrification issues, several measures such as the creation of holders for current and future problematic scenarios related to climate housing policies with nature-based urban development projects change. Integrating the debate of NbS perceptions with the debate on should be considered to bring more just outcomes. park policies that investigate diversity, inequalities, capabilities, and 3. Avoid the commodification of nature injustices may bring important political insights (Haase, 2017) as to how human-nature relationships can be reformulated in more just and sus­ NbS follows neoliberal ‘sustainability fixes’ that respond to private tainable ways. and privileged interest at the cost of natural resource exploitation (Kotsila et al., 2021). This implies that NbS follows a market-led political 6. Conclusions economy and that, therefore, new urban regeneration projects do not create a paradigm shift in existing governance structures and NbS currently guides the design of numerous urban public spaces, human-nature relationships, but rather follow the statu quo. NbS might which may not benefit all users or stakeholders equally, but, contrary, point at new governance models (Kull et al., 2015), but still in these may expose unexpected and uneven outcomes (Beichler et al., 2017) cases, technology and techno managerial actors are the ultimate arbiters because of existing uneven social relations (Massey, 2005; Millington, of human-nature relationships (Karvonen, 2011). Also, unrealistic vi­ 2016). By applying a critical perspective on discerning and destabilizing sions of NbS greening the city circumvent the fact that human-nature hegemonic visions of NbS in the public space and bring stakeholder relationships will not always be straightforward. Nature will become voices to the discussions, it becomes explicit that divergent views clash brownish and yellowish, will be costly to maintain, will captivate new and question NbS implementation in cities. Glòries park represents a forms of unwanted biodiversity in the city such as insects or plagues and clear example of an integral urban regeneration process that introduced capture exclusive public space, as opposed to the idealized views of NbS in a critical urban central area. The study has shown how three nature as unchangeable and manipulable. stakeholder groups named the believers, the opposers, and the skeptikals, By analyzing through a transdisciplinary lens the case study of perceive the socio-ecological role of NbS very distinctively. When Glòries, the paper has attempted to reflect on the complexity that urban analyzing the reasons for such discrepancies, it became evident that the regeneration projects entail when including numerous stakeholders in different understanding of the existing urban tensions in the context the topic of NbS and blue-greening cities. While more integral research is where the park was developed, the divided visions on tradeoffs and needed in terms of how people perceive NbS contribution to reduce imbalances, and the diverse opinions on the real purpose and impact of heatwaves, our research offered empirical evidence that perception implementing NbS conditioned perceptions on NbS in public space. studies provide useful information of different understanding of stake­ holders, bringing greater sensitivities toward cultural issues (Chan et al., 2011) as well as toward spatial inequities regarding tradeoffs and ben­ 6.1. Embracing divergent and legitimate stakeholder visions for NbS in efits (Plieninger et al., 2013). Only when these three previously cities mentioned arguments are fully considered, a more real, just, and prag­ matic NbS prospective may be achieved. From these three views, we conclude that NbS produces different types of socio-ecological interactions, which can compromise sustain­ Funding able urban transitions. While NbS implementation will continue to grow like the believers long for, so will the high expectations placed on these This work was supported by the Secretaria d′ Universitats i Recerca, solutions to face multiple urban constraints and uncertainties associated del Departament d′ Empresa i Coneixement de la Generalitat de Cata­ with the coexistence with existing gray infrastructures, as the opposers lunya, grant number 2020FI_B 00160 for the first author. This publica­ and skepticals claim. Therefore, how can we reconcile such divided tion is also part of the 2021 SGR 00975 and 2021 SGR 00214 projects perceptions toward a realistic paradigm shift with NbS? funded by the Departament de Recerca i Universitats de Catalunya. Open Access Funding was provided by Universitat Autònoma de 1. Be cautious on raising expectations that nature will solve existing Barcelona. urban tensions. Usually, NbS in urban contexts imply complex processes of urban CRediT authorship contribution statement development that aim to bring improvements to the urban environ­ ment, but, in the end, tend to be over-ambitious obscuring the real Andrea Nóblega: conceptualization, methodology, software, vali­ improvements that NbS may bring to cities. In this way, questions dation, formal analysis, investigation, resources, data curation, writing - regarding how much are we asking NbS to solve result critical, which original draft, visualization, funding acquisition, project administration. makes us reflect on this statement: “Wind turbulence and excessive Hug March: conceptualization, writing - review and editing, supervi­ heat can be moderated by vegetation, but the basic perspective is sion project administration. David Sauri: conceptualization, writing - that nature is being used to alleviate planning mistakes” (Randrup review and editing, supervision project administration. et al., 2020, p. 923). Existing urban tensions are present in cities, and the multifunctional character of NbS might not be the ultimate quick Declaration of Competing Interest fix to such problems that may be the result of many years of ur­ banization dynamics. The authors declare that they have no known competing financial 8 A. Nóblega-Carriquiry et al. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 85 (2023) 127966 interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence Cohen-Shacham, E., Walters, G., Janzen, C., Maginnis, S., 2016. Nature-based solutions to address global societal challenges. IUCN 97, 2016–2036. the work reported in this paper. Cook, I.R., Swyngedouw, E., 2012. Cities, social cohesion and the environment: towards a future research agenda. 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