Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2023) 15:98 https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-023-01790-9 RESEARCH Spatial analysis and site formation processes associated with the Middle Pleistocene hominid teeth from Q1/B waterhole, Boxgrove (West Sussex, UK) Laura Sánchez‑Romero1,2 · Alfonso Benito‑Calvo3 · Dimitri De Loecker4 · Matthew Pope5 Received: 9 February 2023 / Accepted: 12 May 2023 / Published online: 13 June 2023 © The Author(s) 2023 Abstract Boxgrove is a key locale for our understanding of Middle Pleistocene human behaviour in Northwestern Europe. It provides high-resolution evidence for behaviour at scale in fine-grained sediments, dating from the end of the MIS13 interglacial at around 480,000 years ago. Excavations at this site in the last quarter of the twentieth century have provided a large body of interdisciplinary data, comprising stone artefact assemblages, well-preserved faunal remains and paleoenvironmental archives, from over 100 test pits and larger excavation areas. The excavation area designated Q1/B was excavated between 1995 and 1996 and provided a particularly deep and complex record of early human activity centred upon a pond or waterhole within the wider landscape. In this work, we present a new analysis of spatial data from a single sedimentary unit (Unit 4u) at the Boxgrove Q1/B site. We consider the spatial disposition of lithic and faunal materials, fabric analysis and the role of the palaeotopography in their distribution. The results indicate that, although the dynamic fluvial depositional environment had an undeniable role in the distribution of materials, the scale and nature of post-depositional movement are consistent with the artefacts being preserved within an autochthonous depositional context, not reworked from an earlier sedimentary unit or subject to long-distance transportation. These results are consistent with previous analysis which suggests that the overall lithic assemblage can be directly compared with others from the wider landscape in compositional terms to interpret the behavioural controls over site formation behind the Q1/B archaeology. Keywords Formation processes · Palaeotopographic reconstruction · Spatial analysis · GIS · Open-air site · Middle Pleistocene Introduction Site formation processes are one of the most important subjects investigated in Palaeolithic archaeology and have gained more importance in the last few years thanks to the * Laura Sánchez‑Romero advances in research, new analysis techniques and ease of lausanrom@gmail.com access to GIS tools. These factors, together with the grow- 1 ing interest in understanding how the site was formed and Centre d’Estudis del Patrimoni Arqueològic, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain who was responsible for the accumulation of materials, 2 beyond directly attributing this responsibility to humans, Human Evolution Research Center, University of California, 3101 Valley Life Sciences Building, Berkeley, CA 94720, have produced a proliferation of spatial studies. Spatial USA analysis in the archaeological record of open-air sites has 3 Centro Nacional de Investigación sobre la Evolución traditionally been more considered because the environ- Humana, P Sierra de Atapuerca, 3, 09002 Burgos, Spain ment is usually more favourable, since the rapid sedimenta- 4 Faculty of Archaeology (Human Origins), Leiden University, tion and, therefore, the materials are buried more quickly. Einsteinweg 2, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands This means they are not exposed for a long time and are 5 UCL Institute of Archaeology, University College London, protected from post-depositional processes. The lacustrine 31‑34 Gordon Square, London WC1H 0PY, UK and palustrine environments allow this preservation, since 13 Vol.:(0123456789) 98 Page 2 of 24 Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2023) 15:98 the dynamics characterized by a low-very-low deposition Boxgrove site complex of sediments burying the archaeological assemblages, allowing their good preservation (Behrensmeyer 1988; The Boxgrove site complex (West Sussex, UK) is situated Conard et al. 2015). 50 m above sea level and about 10 km from the present- In this work, we present the spatial study of the open- day coastline of the English Channel (Fig. 1). The quarries air site of Q1/B, one of the Boxgrove localities. This Mid- at Boxgrove were first dug during the Second World War dle Pleistocene site can be compared with other open-air (Pope et al. 2020), but its archaeological importance was sites of similar chronology, such as Schöningen, Neu- not recognized until 1974, during sand and gravel extrac- mark-Nord 1 and Kärliche-Seeufer in Germany (Mania tion in a quarry called Amey’s Eartham Pit. During its dis- 1990, 2004; Gaudzinski et al. 1996; Thieme 1997; Fisher covery, particularly between 1982 and 1996, when exca- 2010; Böhner et al. 2015; Serangeli et al. 2015; Hutson vation was directed by Mark Roberts and Simon Parfitt et al. 2020; García-Moreno et al. 2021), Ambrona in of the University College of London (UCL) Institute of Spain (Pérez-González et al. 2005; Falguères et al. 2006; Archaeology, over 100 individual localities were exca- Sánchez-Romero et al. 2016), Castel di Guido and La vated, and a high-resolution record of lithic artefacts and Polledrara di Cecanibbio in Italy (Radmilli and Boschian fossilized mammal remains was recovered from a succes- 1996; Boschian and Saccà, 2010, 2015; Anzidei et al. sion of buried land surfaces (Roberts et al. 1986; Roberts 2012; Santucci et al. 2016) or Gesher Benot Ya’aqov and Parfitt 1999). (slightly older) and Revadim Quarry in Israel (Goren- Most of the high-resolution archaeological record Inbar et al. 1994; Alperson-Afil et al. 2009; Marder et al. comes from fine-grained intertidal and paleosol sedi- 2010; Malinsky-Buller et al. 2011), among many others. ments, attributed to the cold substages of the MIS13 All of these sites demonstrate how important it is to make interglacial at about 480 ka (Preece and Parfitt 2012; detailed studies that consider all of the aspects within Whittaker and Parfitt 2017). This record has been mapped an archaeological site, from stratigraphy to taphonomic across 26 km and includes locales such as Slindon and the studies of bones, analysis of lithic industry and bones, Valdoe, as well as the main Boxgrove site (Pope 2001; micromorphology or even the estimation of organic lay- Pope et al. 2009; Roberts and Pope 2009, 2018). The over- ers as in the case of Schöningen (Böhner et al. 2015). lying cold-stage deposits have been correlated with the All disciplines provide very useful data that converge in major glacial period of MIS12 (Preece and Parfitt 2012). spatial studies to work out what happened and what role The warm-stage interglacial deposits at the base of the the biotic and abiotic factors played in the formation of Boxgrove sequence have been dated primarily on the basis the site. of mammalian biostratigraphy (Roberts and Parfitt 1999). This work addresses the site formation processes from There is a combination of large and small mammals that the perspective of the information provided by the exca- went extinct at the end of the early Middle Pleistocene vated materials, together with the data provided by pre- (Roberts and Parfitt 1999), comprising Stephanorhinus vious stratigraphic studies. Through all this information hundesheimensis, Megaloceros verticornis, M. savini, brought together, we intend to understand the role that M. dawkinsi, Ursus deningeri and Pliomys episcopalis anthropological and natural factors may have played in (Roberts and Parfitt 1999). In addition, there are early the preservation of the deposit, as far as the distribution forms of the living water vole (Arvicola) and narrowed- of materials, so the affectation degree of such processes skulled vole (Microtus gregalis) that together characterize can be evaluated and, at the same time, to understand the latter part of the “Cromerian Complex” correlated the role of the human groups responsible for the pres- with MIS13. ence of archaeological materials in the site. Therefore, the In this work, we focus on one of the localities excavated distribution patterns, clusters and fabrics of the archaeo- in Boxgrove, the Q1/B site. This open-air site has provided paleontological materials have been analysed, and they many well-preserved lithic materials and bones, as well as have been cross-referenced with the characteristics of the an incomplete tibia and two lower front incisors broadly sedimentary deposit. Additionally, we will consider the ascribed to Homo heidelbergensis (Roberts et al. 1994; impact of the natural factors inherent in any site, even Stringer et al. 1998; Hillson et al. 2010). While previous more so in open-air sites, on the preservation of the mate- publications have considered aspects of the bifacial tech- rials. With this, we intend to address the history of the nology from the site (Stout et al. 2014; García-Medrano site itself and isolate those key elements that participated et al. 2019), as well as environmental context and over- in the formation of the site, with the aim to learn more view of site formation processes (Pope 2002; Preece and about the mobility patterns, functionality and intra-site Parfitt 2012; Whittaker and Parfitt 2017), this is the first dynamics of the past human groups that visited Boxgrove. detailed, standalone study focused exclusively on Q1/B 13 Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2023) 15:98 Page 3 of 24 98 Fig. 1  Location of the Pleistocene site of Boxgrove Q1/B in West Sussex, UK. Source of the LiDAR maps: UK Centre For Ecology & Hydrol- ogy Licence Agreement. Environment Agency. Open Government Licence v3.0 that considers the formation of the site, distinguishing 12,000 pieces of mammalian fauna preserved as part of a the role played by humans in the composition and spa- complex series of spring-fed, freshwater deposits. The Q1/B tial arrangement of lithic and bone assemblage from one location contains a spring-fed calcareous water body, reveal- of its depositional units. The spatial analysis presented ing a generally wetter depositional environment (Pope 2002). here aims to know the formation dynamics and occupation This is a complex horizon that extends across the site and patterns of the site, to shed more light on the settlement that Macphail described (Macphail 1996, 1999; Macphail models of these human groups. and Goldberg 2017; Pope et al. 2020) through sediment micromorphological analyses. In paleogeographic terms, The Boxgrove Q1/B site these deposits appear to represent a small freshwater lake within a grassland which formed after marine regression that The Q1/B excavation area is situated in the northwest corner led to the drying out of the intertidal silts (Unit 4b) and the of Quarry 1, the western-most of the quarries at Amey’s initiation of soil formation and pedogenesis across the land- Eartham Pit. While excavation was started in this area in scape (Roberts and Parfitt 1999). This grassland environ- the late 1980s, it was not until 1993 and the discovery of a ment occupied a larger, 26 km-wide synclinal basin, fringed human tibia associated with well-preserved mammal fauna by degraded chalk cliffs and rich in nodular flint, with spring and a stone artefact assemblage rich in mint-condition and lines at their base (Roberts and Pope 2018). Q1/B is situated refined handaxes that large-scale excavation was carried approximately 50 m to the south of the main west–east cliff out. Throughout 1995 and 1996, open-area excavation of line and consequently represents a location with affordances over 501 m­ 2 was undertaken through English Heritage fund- which may have been of value to the human groups using ing. The excavations recovered ca. 15,000 artefacts and ca. the landscape: fresh water, raw material for tools and cores, 13 98 Page 4 of 24 Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2023) 15:98 meat procurement, shelter from northern winds and slopes We applied a geostatistical procedure known as Kriging to with southerly aspects providing routeways to the chalk 21,812 points taken with a centimetre accuracy GPS, with escarpment to the north of the site. a constant distance between them of 0.15 m, and a radius Full analysis of the sedimentary profile, paleoenviron- of 8 sectors. Kriging is an interpolation method used for ment and human behaviour at the site has yet to be under- paleogeographic reconstructions (Oliver 1990), which has taken, but initial studies of site formation processes sug- turned out to be a very useful resource for estimating the pal- gested a dynamic sedimentary environment which, in aeosurface where materials were deposited and accumulated contrast to contemporary archaeological signatures from the (Sánchez-Romero et al. 2021). In order to understand the wider grassland, had rearranged artefacts and faunal mate- depositional dynamics of the Unit 4u materials, we recon- rial to some degree (Pope 2002). In this study, the main structed the top of Unit 3, which constitutes the palaeosur- freshwater units (Unit 3c, Unit 4/3, Unit 4u and Unit 4) were face where Unit 4u materials lay. all shown to indicate varying degrees of post-depositional modification, but Unit 4u stood out, on the basis of refit Data spatial analysis distances and localised dense clusters of material, to repre- sent a more minimally disturbed horizon with the possibility A range of statistical tests were applied to determine the dis- of the relatively high resolution of past human behaviour. tribution pattern. We applied both general tests to evaluate The stone artefact assemblage from Unit 4u, upon which the type of distribution, such as average nearest neighbours this study is focused, as with the other freshwater horizons, (ANN), Ripley’s K function or chi-squared and Kolmogo- shared features which were distinctive when compared to rov–Smirnov (K-S); and local tests to locate the clusters, the wider contemporary landscape signature, namely higher in case the pattern obtained in the previous tests indicated proportions of handaxes and flake tools (Pope 2002). Unit that the distribution is clustered. Regarding the general tests, 4u lays at the base of the freshwater deposits (Fig. 2) at ANN compared the observed and the expected mean dis- the site and has preserved 4653 stone artefacts > 10 mm in tances (Getis 1964), to discriminate dispersed from clus- maximum dimension and 3182 faunal remains > 10 mm. tered patterns. Ripley’s K function (Ripley 1976) calculates The level also produced the two human incisors found in the degree of clustering and how the dispersed or clustered 1995, which have now been shown to have a morphological elements vary in relation to the distance in the study area. affinity with a population described as early Neanderthal Lastly, chi-square and K-S statistical tests were applied from Sima de los Huesos (Atapuerca, Spain) (Lockey et al. through quadrat method (Lee and Wong 2000) with the aim 2022). This seems to be the only stratigraphic horizon where of identifying the clustered, dispersed or random nature of the stone artefacts appear associated with pre-MIS12 hominin whole assemblage. These tests were applied to a total of 1087 remains in northern Europe; therefore, it is important to test quadrats and 3549 points. The application of several tests in the integrity of that association. This study takes forward spatial and statistical studies reduces uncertainty, allowing our understanding of this key horizon in order to establish us to verify and confirm specific results (Sánchez-Romero the degree of post-depositional modification of the archaeo- et al. 2021). Because none of these tests indicates the actual logical signature within Unit 4u and to help develop a meth- location of the clusters, it was then necessary to apply other odological framework for taking forward the full analysis of local analytical methods. To locate these clusters, we applied this taphonomically complex but important locality of Q1/B. hotspots methods, such as Getis-Ord Gi* and Anselin Local Moran’s I, which have turned out to be the most useful tools for the identification of local spatial clusters according to Materials and methods a quantitative variable (Sánchez-Romero et al. 2016, 2020; Mora Torcal et al. 2020). The main difference between them The data used for this study comes from excavations car- is that Anselin Local Moran’s I identifies the atypical val- ried out between 1995 and 1996 in Unit 4u at the Q1/B ues, while Getis-Ord Gi* evaluates the degree of clustering site of Boxgrove (West Sussex, UK). The software used for according to the statistical significance of high/low values the geostatistical analysis and spatial distribution patterns excluding atypical values (Moran 1950; Getis and Ord 1992; is ArcGIS 10.5. The materials and methods used for each of Siabato and Guzmán-Manrique 2019; Sánchez-Romero et al. the variables are detailed below. 2021). In this study, we handled a large sample size, with a total of n = 4653 lithic pieces and n = 3182 faunal remains, Palaeotopographic reconstruction in which Getis-Ord Gi* and Anselin Local Moran’s I tests have been applied according to the variable of maximum The reconstruction of Unit 4u was carried out with the dimension (MD). All the spatial relationships (fixed, inverse aim of evaluating possible palaeotopographic constraints and inverse distance squared) showed similar results, but the in the distribution pattern (Sánchez-Romero et al. 2020). inverse distance squared made it possible to better appreciate 13 Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2023) 15:98 Page 5 of 24 98 Fig. 2  Stratigraphic relationship between the Boxgrove sequence and that recorded at the Q1/B site (above) (Pope et al. 2020). Section of Trench 23 of Q1/B with the sequence of units labelled (below) (Roberts and Pope 2018) 13 98 Page 6 of 24 Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2023) 15:98 the influence between neighbours. In the case of Anselin Archaeostratigraphy Local Moran’s I, 99 permutations were performed. In addition, Kernel density analysis (KDE) (Silverman The archaeoestratigraphic method was applied in order to 1986) was applied to obtain a simple and graphically analyse the vertical distribution of materials (Stein and Deo visual projection of the accumulation zones. The search 2003; Canals et al. 2003; Bargalló et al. 2016, 2020; Sánchez- radius selected was 1 m, due to the area of the site and Romero et al. 2017; Mora Torcal et al. 2020; Spagnolo et al. characteristics of the input data. The density map was 2020, inter alia). This makes it possible to observe vertical classified into two classes by the Jenks method (Jenks variations in the distribution of materials and detect possible 1967), to group similar values and maximize the dif- hiatuses, which could indicate the presence of several episodes ferences between specified classes through the elimina- of deposition of materials not identifiable in the stratigraphy. tion of intermediate values. This classification provides The archaeostratigraphic profiles were delimited every 2 m a high-resolution estimation of zones according to their and have enabled us to analyse the distribution pattern of the concentration of materials (Sánchez-Romero et al. 2016, materials, from the bottom to the top of Unit 4u. 2020). The characterization of the clusters and the materials Refitting analysis that compose them was analysed in different ways. On the one hand, orientation patterns and 3D-fabric analy- Refitting studies are not common in open-air deposits, since ses (Bertran and Texier 1995; Bertran and Lenoble 2002; most of them are in caves, with rare exceptions (Bourguignon Benito-Calvo et al. 2009; De la Torre and Wehr 2018) were et al. 2002; Clark 2017; Pope et al. 2020). Thus, the spatial performed with the orientation and dip data of long axis analysis of the Q1/B open-air site, considering and integrat- calculated with compass and clinometer in the field (Pope ing a large number of refits, makes it even more important to 2002), whose validity has been demonstrated to infer possi- address the formation processes discussed and understand the ble post-depositional disturbances and their impact degree complexity of this type of study in open-air sites. on the assemblage (Chu and Hosfield 2020). Thus, the A pilot system of refitting analysis was undertaken as part analysis of orientation and slope patterns was carried out of the analysis to date. It consisted of initial groupings of raw with those materials with the longest axis clearly identifi- material types for the whole site, to provide an initial indi- able (Lenoble and Bertran 2004), including both lithic and cation of refit distances and the presence and scale of refits faunal remains. The total sample size for lithic (n = 1294) between sedimentary units (using the “Cziesla approach”, and faunal (n = 772) remains is wide, which has provided cf. Cziesla 1986, 1990; De Loecker 2004). Compared to the reliable statistical results. The orientation patterns have focus and systemic refitting processes for the Boxgrove Horse been calculated through the analysis of the angular histo- Butchery Site (GTP17, Pope et al. 2020), the scope and scale grams together with different statistical tests, in this case of the refitting program are limited. This refitting analysis considering only azimuthal data (0–360°). The reason for was performed to control the most dynamic part of a spatial using only azimuth angles instead of axial (0–180°) and analysis (Romagnoli and Vaquero 2019), since it allows evalu- azimuth angles is because the materials were recorded ating of movements and displacements of the pieces, either by using a compass, which is aligned with the longest axis natural processes or by activities developed by humans. Thus, of the piece taking the azimuth in the direction marked a total of 206 refitted pieces and 198 refitting lines were used by the slope of the piece (Sánchez-Romero 2019). The to calculate the orientation patterns and 3D fabric analysis (De axial angles are useful when slope data are not available la Torre et al. 2018). Each refit comprises two conjoined flint and when only information about the orientation of the artefacts or fragments of flint artefacts, with a clear predomi- materials is available, such as drawings (Sánchez-Romero nance of flakes, almost 90% (89.86%, n = 186). The results et al. 2016). The statistical analysis has been performed have been compared with those obtained in the analysis of with the Rayleigh and Kuiper tests, which allow differ- lithic and faunal remains as independent assemblages. entiating isotropic distributions (uniform) from unimodal, bimodal or multimodal patterns (Benito-Calvo and De la Torre 2011; De la Torre and Benito-Calvo 2013; Sánchez- Results Romero et al. 2016). On the other hand, shape patterns (Sneed and Folk 1958; Benn 1994; Ringrose and Benn Palaeotopography 1997; Benn and Ringrose 2001) of lithic and fauna remains have been calculated (Roy Sunyer et al. 2014; Sánchez- The continuous high-resolution surface interpolated for the Romero et al. 2020, 2022; De la Torre et al. 2021), with base of Unit 4u is shown in Fig. 3. It is possible to observe the aim of knowing the cluster composition and to see if up to a metre of topographic variation between the highest any shape selection exists in the distribution of materials. and lowest parts of the underlying surface (profile A-A’). 13 Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2023) 15:98 Page 7 of 24 98 The total reconstructed area covers around 485.30 ­m2 and Table 1  Statistical results obtained from the application of ANN and shows two topographic lows, one to the south-west and the Ripley’s K function statistical methods other to the south-east, forming distinct basins a few metres Fauna Lithics across which appear to be confluent at the extreme south Average Nearest Neighbor (ANN) end of the excavation area (Fig. 3). The basin located at NN observed 0.12 0.11 the southeastern sector (SEB) shows a N-S direction and NN expected 0.21 0.36 an area of roughly 93 ­m2. In this basin is where most of the NN ratio 0.58 0.3 faunal and artefacts assemblages were concentrated. The NN z-score − 44.75 − 91.71 southwestern basin (SWB) covers around 122 m ­ 2 and has p-value 0 0 a NW–SE alignment. These basins are delimited by more Ripley’s K Function elevated areas (ridges), located at the northeastern (NER) Maximum difference observed-expected 2.63 10.85 and centre part (CR), and where Unit 4u was sparsely pre- sent or absent in these more elevated areas. of random chance. Ripley’s K function indicates more Cluster identification neighbours than could be expected in a random pattern, the empirical curve (observed) being higher than the theoretical The ANN results indicated, for both lithic and faunal dis- one (expected). This is consistent with a clustered pattern tributions, that the observed average distance of the pro- for both variables. These results have been ratified by the jected materials is clearly lower than we would expect in a application of chi-square and K-S tests by quadrats (Lee and hypothetical random distribution, indicating that the remains Wong 2000), which indicated a clustered pattern where both are clustered (Table 1). The z-scores show that there is less critical values are lower than the significance level (p = 0.95) than a 1% likelihood that this pattern could be the result (K-S = 0.404 > 0.032; X2 (25) = 2.81E + 22 > 37.652). These Fig. 3  3D and 2D palaeotopographic reconstruction of the Unit 4u tion barely reaches 0.5 m in profiles A-A’ and B-B’, and less than a base at the Boxgrove Q1/B site and morphological profiles. These metre in the longest profile (C–C’). The grey lines indicate the limits morphological profiles indicate the variations on the palaeotopogra- of the excavation phy at different parts of the reconstructed area. The variation in eleva- 13 98 Page 8 of 24 Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2023) 15:98 results allow us to reject the null hypothesis of a random dis- by KDE and Jenks in other sectors, like SWB, are classified tribution. The results obtained through KDE using the Jenks as coldspots, indicating lower values of nearest neighbours, classification show that materials, both lithic and fauna, are and hence less concentration of materials in these sectors of mainly accumulated in the southeastern part of the exca- the site. These clusters of hotspots according to the number vated area (Fig. 4), in the SEB sector, comprising an area of of nearest neighbours (or materials) were named NML and approximately 46 ­m2. However, towards the west of the main NMF, both for lithics and fauna respectively. accumulation, there are also some patches of accumulation In order to evaluate any pattern related to the material of material. dimensions, Getis-Ord Gi* and Anselin Local Moran’s I With the aim of determining the statistical significance stats were also applied according to the MD variable. Getis- of zones highlighted as being the densest, Getis-Ord Gi* Ord Gi* analysis showed that there are several clusters of (fixed) was applied to the variable of nearest neighbours. high and low MD values, which are mainly located in the This analysis indicated that the main accumulation zones extremes of the maximum concentration of materials (NML detected by KDE and classified by Jenks showed a 99% sta- and NMF). For the lithic industry, the main MD hotspot tistical significance. This classification showed that the zone cluster (HL1) is well-delimited at the southeast (Fig. 6) located in the SEB sector contains the largest concentration and constitutes 283 pieces, with 99% confidence, while the of remains (Fig. 5), indicated by the higher values of near- main MD coldspot cluster (CL3) is located at the north and est neighbours. However, other concentrations highlighted comprises 353 pieces, with 95–99% confidence. Apart from Fig. 4  A Ripley’s K function graphics confirming the clustered nature of the bone and lithic assemblages. KDE density map (B) and Jenks clas- sification (C) for lithic materials. KDE density map (D) and Jenks classification (E) of bones 13 Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2023) 15:98 Page 9 of 24 98 Fig. 5  Getis-Ord Gi* applied to the variable of nearest neigh- bours in lithics (A) and bones (B). The line (blue in A and red in B) indicates the limits marked by the Jenks classifica- tion density analysis (see Fig. 4) these clusters, there are other more dispersed and smaller allows evaluating of some details about the clustering and MD clusters, of both high and low values (Fig. 6). There are data. In the case of lithic materials, the main MD coldspot two more lithic clusters highlighted as hotspots and colds- cluster (CL3) is identified as a cluster mainly composed of pots towards the NER sector, with a scattered distribution low values, but there is a large number of atypical high val- and lower statistical significance (95–99% confidence). ues surrounded by low values (red). Likewise, the main MD The analysis of the bone assemblage has allowed the hotspot cluster (HL1) also shows many atypical low values identification of several MD hotspot and coldspot clusters. surrounded by high values (dark blue) (Fig. 6). Although The main MD bone hotspot cluster (HF1) is also located both tests usually identify the same clusters, Anselin Local at the southeast, like in the case of lithics (Fig. 6), and it is Moran’s I allows evaluating the percentage of atypical values formed by 725 remains. The main MD bone coldspot cluster in clusters mainly classified as hotspots or coldspots. (CF1) is more dispersed than the coldspot cluster identified When we turn to the orientation patterns and fabric for lithic materials (Fig. 6), but it is also in the northern part analysis for all items, the results obtained for the whole of the excavated area. This cluster comprises 703 remains, lithic assemblage (n = 1294) indicate low p-values for the very similar to the hotspot cluster. Rayleigh and Kuiper (Table 2), which clearly reject uni- In general, the same MD clusters are identified by Getis- formity, and point to a dominant unimodal pattern for this Ord Gi* and Anselin Local Moran’s I, but the latter test assemblage. The histogram shows a clear trend to the north, 13 98 Page 10 of 24 Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2023) 15:98 Fig. 6  Getis-Ord Gi* applied to lithics (A) and bones (B). Anselin Local Moran’s I applied to lithics (C) and bones (D) in a kind of fan-like shape graphic (Fig. 7), and a minor E-W fabrics (E = 0.032 for lithics and E = 0.098 for fauna), which mode. indicate that there does not seem to exist any shape pat- The data on the bone assemblage (n = 772) and the Ray- tern in the accumulation of these assemblages. The K index leigh and Kuiper p-values also point to a dominant unimodal (Woodcock 1977) allows the distinction planar (0 < K < 1) pattern (Fig. 7), indicating a main NNW alignment, besides from linear (1 < K < ∞) fabrics, and also shows low values other minor modes (Fig. 7). Additionally, 3D-fabric analysis for both variables (Table 3). The parameter to calculate the has allowed observation of differences between lithic and horizontal index (F) shows higher values, especially for lith- bone assemblages (Fig. 8, Table 3), with lithic materials ics, confirming this planar trend. showing a greater trend to isotropy than bones, whose trend is towards a planar fabric. Eigenvalues and Benn’s projec- Clusters description tion delve into the characteristics of the assemblages. Both variables are situated in the left side of the triangle, far Clusters by number of neighbours from isotropic and linear fabrics, suggesting a mostly pla- nar fabric for these assemblages. The features are coherent Clusters identified according to the number of nearest neigh- with the other values analysed for these groups, such as the bours are well delimited in the SEB sector for both variables, low values for the isotropy parameter (I = 0.476 for lithics remaining practically within the limits of this basin. The and I = 0.256 for fauna) and the very low elongation of the NML cluster is composed of 2328 lithic remains, although Table 2  Dispersion patterns and statistical tests of the lithic and fauna assemblages of Q1/B site Sample size Method Mean vector (°) Length of Concentration Circular stand- Rayleigh test Kuiper’s test mean vector ard deviation (°) n µ r k v Z p V p Lithics 1294 Azimuth 3.258° 0.191 0.388 104.322° 47.008 < 1E − 12 5.42 < 0.01 Fauna 772 Azimuth 20.053° 0.186 0.378 105.141° 26.616 2.76E − 12 3.974 < 0.01 13 Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2023) 15:98 Page 11 of 24 98 Fig. 7  Circular histograms of the orientation patterns of lithic and fauna assemblages of the Boxgrove Q1/B site only 644 items had orientation data. The mean size is concentrations of high and low values relating to the maxi- 38.07 mm, with 11 mm as the minimum and 190 mm as mum dimension of each item. In the case of lithic materials, the maximum length. In the case of NMF, it is composed of five MD clusters have been detected (Fig. 10), both hotspots 1943 faunal remains, although, as in the case of NML, 692 and coldspots. The main MD clusters partially coincide with had orientation data. The mean length for the bones of this the main accumulation defined by the number of materials cluster is 30.94 mm, varying between a minimum of 9 mm (NML), while the rest of the MD clusters are close or even and a maximum of 540 mm. The limits of both hotspots out of these limits (Fig. 10). The number of elements con- are circumscribed to those set by the Jenks classification, tained in each cluster varies, as well as the length accord- although with differences in the smaller accumulations. In ing to their classification as hotspot or coldspot. The mean terms of orientation patterns, both clusters have a similar length for hotspot clusters is 40–50 mm, with a minimum sample size, which enables a good comparison between length of 20 mm and maximum close to 200 mm. In the them. NML and NMF have identical data for Rayleigh and case of coldspot clusters, the mean is around 35 mm, while Kuiper’s tests, indicating very low p-values and pointing to the minimum is 20 mm and the maximum between 100 and a clear multimodal pattern (Table 4). These data are coherent 132 mm (Table 5). with the histogram obtained for them both. The shape seems Regarding orientation patterns, the number of pieces is to be homogeneous, but we can observe clear directional slightly lower than the actual number of pieces contained in trends towards NWN-W for NML and N-E for NMF (Fig. 9). each cluster, since not all have orientation data. The larger Both histograms are very similar to those obtained for the cluster is CL3 with 187 pieces (Table 6), while the rest of assemblages of lithics and fauna (Fig. 7). the sample sizes are too small to be considered when reach- ing any conclusion about orientation patterns (Ringrose and Clusters by maximum dimension (MD) Benn 1997; Benn and Ringrose 2001; McPherron 2018). Thus, only CL3 has been considered for the analysis of lithic Besides the clusters identified according to the number of assemblage. The results obtained indicate a clear orientation nearest neighbours, we have detected several significant of materials, with low p-values of both Rayleigh (p = 5.62E- 08) and Kuiper (p =  < 0.01) (Table 6). The histogram shows a mainly unimodal pattern that points in a NNE direction (Fig. 10), very similar to the graph obtained for the whole lithic assemblage. In relation to the fauna assemblage, fewer MD hotspot and coldspot clusters have been detected than in the case of the lithic industry. Only four MD clusters have been identified (Fig. 11), with CF1 (n = 703) and HF1 (main, n = 725) being the larger ones, and hence those selected for the study (Table 7). These clusters partially coincide with the NMF cluster, and the zones delimited by KDE and Jenks, but, in contrast to lithic assemblage, in this case, there are greater coincidences with the limits marked by KDE and Jenks. The mean length for hotspot clusters Fig. 8  Benn’s fabric diagram with the 3D-fabrics for lithics and bones is around 40 mm, with a minimum fixed of 5 mm and a 13 98 Page 12 of 24 Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2023) 15:98 Table 3  Eigenvalues with the 3D fabric indexes corresponding to lithic and bone assemblages according to the Benn (1994) method. K and C parameters have been calculated according to Sneed and Folk (1958). C.L. refers to the confidence level Lithics Fauna (n=1033) (n=770) E1 Azimuth 237.16 49.38 Plunge 9.36E+01 2.29 Eigenvalue 422,595 356,835 E2 Azimuth 327.16 319.34 Plunge 3.35 0.84 Eigenvalue 409,088 321,919 E3 Azimuth 147.00 209.17 Plunge 86.65 87.56 Eigenvalue 201,318 91,246 K C I E F C.L Lithics 0.046 0.742 0.476 0.032 0.492 >99% Fauna 0.082 1,364 0.256 0.098 0.283 >99% maximum between 190 and 200 mm (Table 7). The colds- There are large differences between hotspot and coldspot pot clusters show a mean length of 20–25 mm, with 1 mm clusters, not only in mean sizes but also in terms of mini- as minimum and 110 and 250 mm as maximum length. mum lengths. Table 4  Statistical tests and dispersion parameters of NML and NMF clusters Sample size Method Mean vector (°) Length of Concentration Circular stand- Rayleigh test Kuiper’s test mean vector ard deviation (°) n µ r k v Z p V p NML 644 Azimuth 3.046° 0.234 0.481 97.697° 35.171 < 1E − 12 4.23 < 0.01 NMF 692 Azimuth 13.385° 0.249 0.514 95.579° 42.81 < 1E − 12 4.769 < 0.01 Fig. 9  Circular histograms of the orientation patterns for NML and NMF clusters 13 Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2023) 15:98 Page 13 of 24 98 Fig. 10  Classification and delimitation of the clusters of lithic materi- the Jenks classification and the dashed line the limits marked by als identified by Getis-Ord Gi*, and the circular histograms associ- KDE, both for lithics (see Fig. 4) ated to these clusters. The solid line indicates the limits marked by The clusters with larger sample sizes are CF1 (n = 245) and refitting lines of 1–2 m in length, representing 20.20% HF1 (n = 195). In both clusters, p-values are low, indicating of the total. This implies that this distance is the most a clear preferred orientation pattern (Table 8). The histogram common among all the refitting lines for Q1/B. Experi- of CF1 shows a unimodal pattern towards the N, defined by mental studies indicate that the flakes produced by a a fan-like shape varying from NW to NE (Fig. 11), similar standing knapper hardly move more than 2 m (Schick to that observed in cluster CL1 for lithic materials. The his- 1986). The percentage of pieces moved more than 2 m togram obtained for the HF1 cluster tends towards the E or is low, but due to the fact that there are also very long ENE, a direction that has been also observed in HL1. refitting lines on the site, we cannot consider that some refitting sequences were not subject to the action of Refitting dynamics postdepositional processes. Several lines reach some metres in length, such as the longest line located at The total number of refitting lines is 198, of which the south of the site, which runs E-W and is 23.52 m 16.16 (n = 32) are shorter than 1 m in length and 9.09% (Fig. 12). Also, there is a refitting line of a NE direc- (n = 18) are longer than 7 m (Table 9). There are 40 tion, whose length (16.02 m) is similar to another long line located at the east (12.76 m), very close to the longest one. The 3D representation of palaeotopography Table 5  Number of lithic pieces n Mean Min Max together with refitting lines (Fig. 12) allows an appreci- contained in each cluster; mean, minimum and maximum length ation of how most refits are limited to the basin located HL1 283 42.5 20 197 for each of them (in millimetres) at the south of the excavated area, with a few refitting HL2 72 52.55 22 143 lines connecting to other areas. Any lines that extend CL1 130 32.2 18 102 outside of the basins show longer lengths. CL2 69 35.42 20 119 The distribution analysis of refitting lines indicates that CL3 353 35.88 18 132 most of them are concentrated in the SEB sector, where the 13 98 Page 14 of 24 Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2023) 15:98 Table 6  Statistical tests associated to the circular histograms of the identified clusters for lithic materials Sample size Method Mean vector (°) Length of Concentration Circular stand- Rayleigh test Kuiper’s test mean vector ard deviation (°) n µ r k v Z p V p HL1 20 Azimuth 243.502° 0.056 0.112 137.606° 0.063 0.941 1.092 > 0.15 HL2 13 Azimuth 210.73° 0.256 0.24 94.564° 0.853 0.434 1.341 > 0.15 CL1 21 Azimuth 159.285° 0.202 0.412 102.496° 0.856 0.43 1.055 > 0.15 CL2 34 Azimuth 4.005° 0.522 1.219 65.323° 9.267 5.25E − 05 2.462 < 0.01 CL3 187 Azimuth 12.637° 0.299 0.626 89.058° 16.694 5.62E − 08 2.977 < 0.01 main accumulations of materials are also located (Fig. 12). In terms of refitting orientation patterns, Rayleigh and Refitting density maps reflect that most of the refitting lines Kuiper’s statistical tests indicate a clear oriented pattern, join in a SE zone of the main accumulation area (SEB sector), with low p-values for both tests (Table 10). Besides, the showing an elongated distribution pattern for the maximum histograms show a pattern clustered to N and W directions density zone with a N-S axis, as well as an area of medium (Fig. 13, Table 10). The 3D-fabric analysis points to planar densities prorogued towards the W (Fig. 12). Apart from that fabric (Fig. 13), indicating that most of the refitting lines do main density area, there is a minor concentration of refitting not experience great variations in Z, but rather they remain lines at the centre-south, which coincide with the CL1 cluster mostly planar and without significant differences in their detected in the lithic assemblage according to the MD variable. slope. Fig. 11  Classification and delimitation of the clusters of bones identi- classification and the dashed line the limits marked by KDE, both for fied by of Getis-Ord Gi*, and the circular histograms associated to bones (see Fig. 4) these clusters. The solid line indicates the limits marked by the Jenks 13 Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2023) 15:98 Page 15 of 24 98 Table 7  Number of faunal n Mean Min Max localised scour hollows and larger basins. Consequently, the remains contained in each palaeotopography could be caused by erosional processes cluster; mean, minimum and HF1 725 38.4 5 200 maximum length for each of related to the erosion of the underlying Unit 3 surface, gen- HF2 159 39.96 5 190 erating scours that were subsequently filled by sediments them (in millimetres) CF1 703 21.69 1.2 250 and archaeological materials from Unit 4u. In this way, the CF2 203 24.93 1 110 low energy flow of Unit 4u could have followed the erosion affecting the top of Unit 3, adopting a similar morphology in the first stages. The Unit 4u is a deposit composed of fine Archaeostratigraphic analysis sediments, without channel facies, and with only occasional pebbles that do not point to any higher energy flow. The archaeostratigraphic analysis has allowed us to observe In searching for explanations to account for the movement that the materials are more densely concentrated at the base of material, we have not detected the presence of channels of Unit 4u (Fig. 14), while at the top they are more dis- which may have brought elements from the vicinity into the persed. In general terms, the presence of continuous hiatuses basins, as has been observed in other open-air sites, such as in the deposition of the archaeological material has not been Ambrona (Sánchez-Romero et al. 2016). Nevertheless, the possible to identify, except for the identification of a possible abundance of ostracods and fish remains indicates that Unit discontinuous hiatus in a certain sector of the site (Fig. 14). 4u is a freshwater deposit (Whittaker and Parfitt 2017), pos- The profiles where we detected a clearer identification of sibly fed by springs to the north of the site. Consequently, these hiatuses are D, E and F (Fig. 14), in which we can we might envisage either surface water flow or the rising identify an empty layer separating two moments of deposi- water levels in a freshwater body during rainy seasons. This tion of materials. It is also possible to observe a change in erosive episode could have been responsible for the denser the deposition dynamics as we analyse the profiles towards concentration of materials at the base of the unit, as we the north. The materials remain more concentrated both observed in the archaeostratigraphic profiles. In the case of in the base and in the upper part of profile D, but towards the lithic industry, the pieces do not show signs of roundness the north the materials appear dispersed, especially in the or alterations produced by high-energy processes, but rather upper part of the profile (see profile F). The profiles located they are exceptionally preserved (Roberts and Parfitt 1999; towards the south show that materials are more concentrated, García-Medrano et al. 2019), even the smallest remains, so we cannot make any distinction about hiatuses or differ- such as debitage, debris and < 1 cm flakes (Wenban-Smith ences in the deposition of materials. 1989; Roberts and Parfitt 1999; Stout et al. 2014). The spatial analysis performed has enabled us to observe that the materials are mainly distributed in the Discussion lower parts of the reconstructed palaeotopography related to the base of Unit 4u, which rests on Unit 3 through a The palaeotopographical reconstruction of the Boxgrove disconformity that could have redeposited Unit 3 and Q1/B Unit 4u floor offers an integrated approach to recon- eroded margins of intact intertidal Unit 4B into Unit 4u. structing the context of the archaeological materials associ- In the overall distribution, it is possible to distinguish the ated with this unit. The main accumulation is located in the concentrations highlighted by KDE analysis, as zones wider basin situated towards the SE of the reconstructed of maximum concentration of materials, and by hotspot area (SEB sector), which could suggest that the distribu- analyses, which indicate the clustering of low and high tion was constrained by the paleotopography of the unit. We values. The principal concentrations of lithics (NML) and interpret the topography of Unit 4u as the eroded surface of bones (NMF) are located in the SEB sector, where the Unit 3. Above this unconformity, the freshwater Unit 4u was main hot and cold spots according to the maximum length emplaced, along with archaeological materials, filling both variable are highlighted. The general trend for lithics and Table 8  Statistical tests associated to the circular histograms of the identified clusters for bones Sample size Method Mean vector (°) Length of Concentration Circular stand- Rayleigh test Kuiper’s test mean vector ard deviation (°) n µ r k v Z p V p HF1 195 Azimuth 58.277° 0.196 0.399 103.474° 7.475 5.67E − 04 2.308 < 0.01 HF2 46 Azimuth 92.169° 0.055 0.111 137.911° 0.14 0.87 0.872 > 0.15 CF1 245 Azimuth 358.36° 0.331 0.702 85.198° 26.847 2.19E − 12 4.143 < 0.01 CF2 43 Azimuth 24.249° 0.324 0.686 85.963° 4.528 0.01 1.93 < 0.025 13 98 Page 16 of 24 Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2023) 15:98 Table 9  Distance ranges of the Length (m) n % points from WNW to NNE, while HF1 clearly shows an E refitting lines (in metres) and main vector and a mode towards NE. number of refits in each range, < 0.5 13 6.57 as well as the percentage they The orientation patterns for refitting lines show two main 0.5–1 19 9.60 modes that point to the north and to the west (Fig. 13). In represent with respect to the total number or refits 1–2 40 20.20 this sense, the tendency is more similar than those observed 2–3 35 17.68 in the lithic clusters located at the south, something that 3–4 23 11.62 seems to match with the fact that part of the main concentra- 4–5 25 12.63 tion of refitted pieces partially coincides with the main hot- 5–6 14 7.07 spot cluster for lithic materials. Additionally, the 3D-fabric 6–7 11 5.56 analyses performed for these variables (lithic pieces, fauna 7–8 3 1.52 and refits) show that all have a mostly planar fabric, but with 8–9 5 2.53 differences between them. The fabric obtained for refitting 9–10 3 1.52 lines is clearly planar, located in the lower-left corner of the > 10 7 3.54 diagram (Fig. 13). However, and although fabrics of bones TOTAL 198 100 and lithics are also on the planar side, their trend points to certain isotropy, especially in the case of lithic materials (Fig. 8). Consequently, two clear trends differentiated by the posi- bones is to the north, with minor modes to the WNW and tion of the materials in the Boxgrove Q1/B area have been NEE in the case of the NML and NW-NE for NMF. How- detected. It is possible that the materials with a N-S trend in ever, when the clusters CL3, CF1 and HF1 are compared, their orientation pattern are influenced by the palaeosurface we can observe some differences. In the case of CL3, the morphology, as the azimuthal data of lithics and bones seem orientation pattern is very similar to NML, since the main to indicate. However, the materials that show an E-W trend, direction is NNE and a mode to E. On the other hand, located at the southern part of the reconstructed area, might in the case of CF1, the direction is a fan-like shape that have also been conditioned by the palaeorelief, but with the Fig. 12  A Map of refitting lines. B Distribution of refitting lines in the context of the palaeotopographic reconstruction of Unit 4u at Q1/B site. C KDE density map of refitting lines. D Getis-Ord Gi* plan of lithic materials and refitting lines 13 Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2023) 15:98 Page 17 of 24 98 Table 10  Statistical tests associated to the orientation patterns and eigenvalues with the 3D fabric results for the refitting lines of Q1/B site Refitting lines Sample size n 204 Refitting lines E1 Azimuth 35.16 Sample size n 204 Plunge 0.72 Method Azimuth Eigenvalue 99.224 Mean vector (°) µ 305.37° E2 Azimuth 305.13 Length of mean Plunge 2.53 r 0.344 Eigenvalue 97.899 vector Concentration k 0.732 E3 Azimuth 140.97 Plunge 87.37 Circular Eigenvalue 6.877 Standard v 83.748° Parameters K 0.005 Deviation (°) C 2.669 Rayleigh test Z 24.086 I 0,069 p 3.46E-11 E 0.013 Kuiper's test V 3.901 F 0.070 p < 0.01 C.L >99% influence of the ups and downs of the fluctuations of the fact that bones may have been transported more easily, due water level caused by seasonal moments. The lithic materials to their lower density, and they floated far away generating are, in general, more clustered than bones, something that this more dispersed distribution for this type of material. can be noticed in the identified clusters, especially in the This distribution of clusters, together with the differences in case of the coldspot cluster (Fig. 6). In the case of lithics, orientation patterns between zones, may suggest the direc- the MD hot and coldspot clusters partially coincide with the tion of the flow and the dispersion dynamics that affected cluster NML and the limits marked by KDE. However, the the distribution of the materials. Additionally, and consider- rest of the clusters located at the west are on the margins of ing that in some cases there are clusters that remain on the zones of maximum concentration delimited by KDE and edge of the basin, it is possible that fluctuations in the water Jenks (except the smaller cluster at the south). In this case, level sorted the materials in these margins. This indicates it seems that the accumulation patterns highlighted by KDE movements that had been mainly produced within the pond, and Jenks are not correlated with the dynamics of accumula- probably determined by the cliff located at the north and the tion according to the MD—beyond its coincidence because coastline, both running E-W and not far from the location it is the larger accumulation area and the coincidence like- of the site. In addition, the results obtained for the archae- lihood is high. In the case of bones, although the clusters ostratigraphic analysis show that the materials are more are more dispersed, they coincide with the limits marked densely concentrated at the base of Unit 4u, while those at by KDE and Jenks, both in the main accumulation and the the top seem to be more dispersed (Fig. 13). This could indi- western cluster. This distribution could correspond to the cate that the materials may have been concentrated by the Fig. 13  A Circular histogram of the orientation patterns and B Benn’s fabric diagram of refit- ting lines 13 98 Page 18 of 24 Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2023) 15:98 processes that followed the initial erosion event, but at lower sizes. Apart from this, it is important to remark that there is energy. This would help to explain the orientation patterns also a greater recurrence of refitting lines joining within the and the concentration of materials we find in the basins, and main hotspot cluster (HL1), which could indicate an area the differences that we observe between some parts. of activity. In the rest of the assemblage, the recurrence of The analysis of the orientation patterns of the refitting refitting lines is observed in those zones where clustering lines points to a movement mainly constrained to the basins. patterns according to MD were not detected, so it is pos- The fact that most of the distances are between 1 and 2 m sible that this recurrence could be because there is a greater could indicate that there were some displacements, and we exploitation of larger pieces. In this way, this part of the site can even infer some dynamics were as a result of the human could correspond to a central point where the main activities activities performed at the site. However, the orientation of knapping could have taken place, and from which other results indicate a clear homogeneous pattern: more than 63% activities could have been performed in other parts of the of the refitting lines are longer than 2 m (Table 8), which site. This dynamic in the movement of pieces can be appre- is too long to consider that they have not been affected by ciated through the refitting lines and could be like those postdepositional processes. The refitting lines are recurrent detected in the GTP17 site (Pope et al. 2020). However, this in the central zone of the main basin, where hot and cold could also be because of the methodology used to conjoin clusters have not been identified. This would indicate that, the pieces that form the refits. The pieces contained in the although this area has a higher density of refitting lines, and main cluster are larger and hence much easier to refit. It is presumably more movement of pieces, there is not a sorting also important to consider the combination of information of materials by size (length). Indeed, we do not find a lack provided by the refits and archaeostratigraphy when they are of pieces, but rather a concentration of materials of different projected together. The projection of refitting lines within Fig. 14  Plan and projection of the archaeostratigraphic profiles delimited for the Boxgrove Q1/B site 13 Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2023) 15:98 Page 19 of 24 98 Fig. 15  Projection of refitting lines within the archaeostrati- graphic profile B the archaeostratigraphic profiles provides relevant informa- a pristine and undisturbed site. However, if the assemblage tion about the degree of preservation of the archaeological had been strongly affected by post-depositional processes, levels. Figure 15 shows many refitting lines concentrated in the position of the materials had been largely altered, and a single archaeostratigraphic profile, most of them showing a we would find refitting lines less concentrated and not con- planar fabric (as also indicated by the 3D-fabric analysis for strained into specific zones (that is if refits were found). refits), and only a couple of lines crossing almost the verti- Our assessment of low-energy fluvial processes is consistent cal way of the profile. This evidence seems to support what with the presence of ostracods with united valves, one of the rest of the analyses also pointed out: that the deposit has the best indicators of such conditions (Holmes et al. 2010). been affected by some natural post-depositional processes Spatial studies in Palaeolithic archaeology have turned but that they have been of a grade so low that they have out to be a very interesting way to address and understand hardly affected the materials. the site formation processes, considering both natural and The results obtained from the 3D fabric patterns for refit human factors. This type of study is not centred on just one lines indicate a more planar result than when compared to sort of variable, but also considers that which is actually individual bones and lithics. In this case, it is necessary to extracted by spatial analysis itself in order to obtain a deep highlight that the refitting lines are being calculated, not just knowledge of the site that goes beyond the mere description isolated pieces. The pattern obtained for the lithic pieces of accumulation areas. The Boxgrove Q1/B site has been a themselves shows movement consistent with water flow and challenge when approaching this study, with a large database influence by the slope of the underlying palaeotopography. and a particular problem given the context and the evident Taken together, the analysis presented above is consistent presence and development of activities by human groups with the impression given by the general disposition and at the site. Other open-air sites of similar chronology show conditions of the materials and initial taphonomic study analogous characteristics, but not all of them have provided (Pope 2002). As it has been pointed out before, both stone deep spatial studies until now. artefacts and faunal specimens are fresh and unabraded but The sites of Neumark-Nord 1 (NN1) and Kärlich-Seeufer are neither clustered nor articulated in a way that suggests in Germany, Castel di Guido in Italy or Gesher Benot Ya’aqov 13 98 Page 20 of 24 Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2023) 15:98 and Revadim Quarry in Israel have a very similar context to Identifying and locating the principal areas where the Q1/B, with large and very interesting assemblages. In the case main behavioural activities took place is difficult, since a of NN1, elephant bones were found in lacustrine deposits large area has clearly been affected by low-energy water (Mania 1990; Fisher 2010; Palombo, 2010), which evidenced flow. However, considering the results of the analyses relat- successive episodes of rising and lowering of the lake level ing to the distributional pattern of the materials and its (Mania 2004). The remains were found in lakeside sediments, relationship with the reconstructed context, it is possible not far from the shore, resulting in an excellent environment for that most of the activities could have been carried out at the the preservation of assemblages (Palombo 2012). Something southern area of the excavated area. Considering the model similar happens with Kärlich-Seeufer, where human activity of occupation at the nearby site of GTP17 (Pope et al. 2020), took place in the vicinity of a small lake with prevailing oli- it is likely that the main activities were located on the shore gotrophic conditions (Gaudzinski et al. 1996). In the case of or in the immediate vicinity of the pond, where activities of Castel di Guido, geological and taphonomic studies suggest knapping and tool configuration and carcass processing were that the site is a palimpsest with several phases of frequenta- combined. This proximity to the pond would have facilitated tion by humans, with partial reworking and removal of the fine the identified movement of materials, due to water fluctua- fraction by low-energy flow (Saccà 2012a, b; Boschian and tions that could have caused the reorganization and this pat- Saccá, 2015). Although slightly older than Q1/B, the Middle tern in the concentration of materials. Pleistocene open-air site of Gesher Benot Ya’aqov is located on the shores of the paleo–Lake Hula in the northern Jordan Valley (Dead Sea Rift) (Alperson-Afil et al. 2009) and the Conclusions study of the spatial distribution of materials showed the pres- ence of dense concentrations of materials throughout the area The spatial study of Boxgrove Unit 4u has made it possible (Alperson-Afil et al. 2009). This site was interpreted as slow- to understand the succession of events involved in the for- accumulation palimpsests by both natural and human agents mation of the archaeological record at this level. The study (Goren-Inbar et al. 1992), like the site of Revadim Quarry considers the spatial disposition of bones and lithic materi- where the artefact-bearing horizons were formed by high and als, their fabrics and the role of palaeotopography in their low-energy hydraulic action (Malinsky-Buller et al. 2011). The distribution, as well as the degree of influence of postdepo- stratigraphic sequence of this site indicates contexts of channel sitional factors. There are several statistically significant beds (Levels III and IV) and flood plains (Levels I and II), with clusters, comprising both low and high values, according to large lithic and bone assemblages, which have served to provide the MD of bones and lithic materials. These clusters have information about the formation of the site and the distinction been analysed both individually and as a whole, inferring of several occupation levels (palimpsests) (Malinsky-Buller causes that could have generated these accumulations in the et al. 2011). context of the site. The spatial analysis has allowed us to All these sites are very good examples of open-air sites in put together all the elements and information relative to the similar contexts and with comparable problems like the ones spatial dispersion of materials, with the aim of unravelling we find in Q1/B. However, most of them focus primarily on the processes that took part in the accumulation of remains. the identification and description of accumulation areas. By The results show that active fluvial processes worked dur- contrast, the review and application of new analysis meth- ing the formation of Unit 4u. Consequently, it is unthinkable ods and techniques at sites like Neumark-Nord 2 (García- that materials would maintain their original position, just as Moreno et al. 2016) or the traditional sites of Schöningen they were abandoned by human groups, without undergoing (Böhner et al. 2015; García-Moreno et al. 2021) and Amb- any kind of spatial rearrangement. However, while a pristine rona (Sánchez-Romero et al. 2016) have demonstrated the or minimally altered signature can be ruled out, the scale importance of spatial analysis to understand the site forma- and nature of post-depositional movement determined in this tion processes. In Spain, the localities of Venta Micena 4 and study are consistent with artefacts being preserved within Barranco León, although older than Boxgrove, are examples a primary depositional context. The identified low-energy where spatial analyses and landscape reconstruction were post-depositional processes have not altered the condition performed to infer the formation and accumulation of mate- or composition of the assemblages. The artefacts are still rials in the deposits of both localities (Titton et al. 2021; razor sharp and show no macroscopic signs of abrasion, the Luzón et al. 2021). Thus, it is possible to unravel the degree presence of very small debris remains and abundant refit of influence and impact of natural factors on archaeological factors consistent with the scale and nature of rearrangement assemblages, the palaeotopography, context and, above all, identified in our spatial analysis. human activity and intra-site dynamics resulting from the We conclude that the Boxgrove Unit 4u assemblage can activities performed on the site and surroundings that have be taken to be a compositionally intact assemblage resulting remained to the present day. from human activity around a freshwater body with variable 13 Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2023) 15:98 Page 21 of 24 98 water levels during the period in which the archaeological L. S-R. and A. B-C. performed the spatial analysis. All authors com- signature was formed. A combination of movement due to mented, reviewed and edited on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. the rising and falling water levels, most likely from springs to the north, could account for the scale of rearrangement Funding Open Access Funding provided by Universitat Autonoma de determined by the analysis and is consistent with our cur- Barcelona. The Boxgrove Q1/B excavations ran from 1995 to 1996, rent understanding of the locality. All seem to indicate low- and these works and post-excavation analysis were generously funded by Historic England. energy activity that would have been delimited by the mor- phology of the pond, and therefore all activity is considered Declarations to have taken place within the limits of the pond, which may have varied in size with seasonal changes to the water table, Consent to participate All authors consent to participate in this pub- and on its margins. lication. Furthermore, this study has revealed aspects of patterning Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests. which might relate more to behavioural factors rather than post-depositional transformations. These include localised Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attri- concentrations that may have been primarily the product of bution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adapta- focused human activity in the South-Eastern Basin (SEB) tion, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long and apparent hiatuses in the deposition of materials which as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes might relate to interruptions in human activity for unknown were made. The images or other third party material in this article are periods of time. included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated This study will allow us to apply similar levels of spatial otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in analysis to the upper levels of the Q1/B site and understand the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will the entire sequence, and its archaeological record, together, need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a as part of a sedimentary system with unique affordances, copy of this licence, visit http://​creat​iveco​mmons.​org/​licen​ses/​by/4.​0/. such as freshwater, plant resources and game concentration, but also complex barriers to the simple analysis of the range of human behaviours giving rise to the record here. In the References short term, it gives us greater confidence that the distinc- tive, biface-rich signature of the Q1/B assemblage is due to Alperson-Afil N, Sharon G, Kislev M, Melamed Y, Zohar I, a higher proportion of bifaces being discarded at the site in Ashkenazi S, Rabinovich R, Biton R, Werker E, Hartman comparison to other Boxgrove locales, rather than a product G, Feibel C, Goren-Inbar N (2009) Spatial organization of hominin activities at Gesher Benot Ya’aqov, Israel. Science of post-depositional modification. It could also suggest that 326:1677–1680 the two human lower incisors, found close together in the Anzidei AP, Bulgarelli GM, Catalano P, Cerilli E, Gallotti R, Lemorini SEB basin, had not travelled far. C, Milli S, Palombo MR, Pantano W, Santucci E (2012) Ongo- This study also contributes to the emerging discussion ing research at the late Middle Pleistocene site of La Polledrara di Cecanibbio (central Italy), with emphasis on human-elephant on the origin, distribution, culture and settlement of early relationships. Quatern Int 255:171–187 Neanderthal populations in Europe. This work gives us the Arnold LJ, Demuro M, Pares JM, Arsuaga JL, Aranburu A, Ber- confidence that the Unit 4u horizon of Boxgrove Q1/B pre- múdez de Castro JM, Carbonell E (2014) Luminescence dat- serves the association of a bone and lithic assemblage, rich ing and palaeomagnetic age constraint on hominins from Sima de los Huesos, Atapuerca, Spain. J Hum Evol 67:85–107 in bifaces, with teeth comparable to those of the Sima de Bargalló A, Gabucio MJ, Rivals F (2016) Puzzling out the pal- los Huesos population. The teeth from both sites have been impsest: testing an interdisciplinary study in level O of Abric recently described as early Neanderthal (Lockey et al. 2022) Romaní. Quatern Int 417:51–65 and, while separated in time by over 50,000 years (Arnold Bargalló A, Gabucio MJ, Gómez de Soler B, Chacón MG, Vaquero M (2020) Rebuilding the daily scenario of Neanderthal settle- et al. 2014) and in space by almost 1000 km, they both sug- ment. J Archaeol Sci Rep 29:102139 gest the association of this population with a Late Acheulean Behrensmeyer AK (1988) Vertebrate preservation in fluvial channels. culture. Palaeogeogr Palaeoclimatol Palaeoecol 63:183–199 Benito-Calvo A, De la Torre I (2011) Analysis of orientation patterns Acknowledgements The excavations were directed by Mark Roberts in Olduvai Bed I assemblages using GIS techniques: implica- and Simon Parfitt of the UCL Institute of Archaeology. The stone arte- tions for site formation processes. 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