Teaching and Teacher Education 122 (2023) 103971 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Teaching and Teacher Education journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tate Research paper Visual metaphors and metonymies in pre-service teachers’ reflections: Beliefs and experiences in the learning and teaching of writing Marilisa Birello a, *, Joan-Toma s Pujola b a noma de Barcelona, Dept. de Dida Universitat Auto ctica de la Llengua i la Literatura i les Ci encies Socials, Facultat de Ci , Universitat encies de l’Educacio noma de Barcelona, Campus Bellaterra, Edifici G5, 08193, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain Auto b Universitat de Barcelona, Dept. d’Educacio ria, Facultat d'Educacio  Lingüística i Litera  - Campus Mundet, Edifici de Llevant - despatx 135, Passeig de la Vall d'Hebron, 171, Universitat de Barcelona, 08035, Barcelona, Spain h i g h l i g h t s g r a p h i c a l a b s t r a c t  Visual metaphors and metonymies are analysed to understand their function in pre-service teachers' reflective writing.  Visual metonymies have a decorative function and reveal affective attitudes.  Visual metaphors have an evocative power that pre-service teachers must develop in their written reflections.  Visual metonymies help to narrate learning experiences, while visual metaphors allow for deeper con- ceptualisation of beliefs. a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t Article history: This study focuses on visual metaphors and metonymies in a Catalan teacher education context and Received 28 September 2021 analyses how 143 pre-service teachers use them when reflecting on the learning and teaching of writing Received in revised form in a blog post. The results of a thematic analysis show that pre-service teachers use visual metonymies 28 November 2022 and metaphors to help them think metacognitively about their learning experiences and become aware Accepted 29 November 2022 Available online 13 December 2022 of their own beliefs. Visual metonymies are more frequent and are used as decorative illustrations in relation to the reflective text. In contrast, visual metaphors are less frequent but allow for deeper con- ceptualisation of pre-service teachers' beliefs. Keywords: Visual metaphor © 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND Visual metonymy license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). Teacher education Metacognitive reflection Teacher beliefs Teaching of writing 1. Introduction Visual information in diverse forms is ubiquitous in our contemporary lives, especially in digital environments where we * Corresponding author. can find a variety of multimodal texts. The increasing spread of E-mail addresses: marilisa.birello@uab.cat (M. Birello), jtpujola@ub.edu multimedia instant messaging tools such as WhatsApp and social ). (J.-T. Pujola https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2022.103971 0742-051X/© 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).  M. Birello and J.-T. Pujola Teaching and Teacher Education 122 (2023) 103971 media networks such as Instagram or TikTok have made visual a cognitive phenomenon. According to Conceptual Metaphor The- information an essential part of digital communication. In this ory (CMT), metaphor is primarily a mode of thought (Lakoff & context, images play an important role in strengthening the mes- Johnson, 2003) that connects two or more conceptual domains, sages. If they are used as visual metaphors or metonymies, they the concrete domain (source) onto the domain of experience even have the power to attract users’ attention by playing with (target). While metaphor functions by expanding our understand- different levels of meaning. ing, metonymy uses one entity to stand for another that belongs to The power of images in research studies permeates several areas the same conceptual domain. Forceville (2009, p.56) points out: “In of knowledge, such as anthropology, sociology, psychology, peda- short, in metaphor we get A-as-B; in metonymy B-for-A”. The visual gogy, and has gained ground in applied language studies. Language metaphors are those images that have no literal meaning, for teacher education is not exempt from the importance of the visual instance, learning (A) is represented as travelling (B) that is usually as we observe a steeply increasing number of research on the use of portrayed by roads, paths, road signs, etc. (Paiva & Gomes Junior, images to analyse various aspects, such as students' process of 2019). However, the metonymic image of a pen or pencil (B) language learning, teachers' process of teaching practice, teachers' stands for the act of writing (A). Metonymy is also an association beliefs and teachers’ identity (see the diversity of international created between meanings which are contiguous because it could studies in Kalaja & Melo-Pfeifer, 2019). Thus, the present study is indicate, among others: a) an effect for cause, b) an object for user, rooted in this field of research, in which the visual medium is the c) substance for form, or d) place for the event (Lakoff & Johnson, basis for eliciting beliefs and narrating experiences, and developed 2003, pp. 38e39). Metaphors and metonymies, either visual or in the context of teacher education in Catalonia (Spain). verbal, often overlap (Jime nez-Mun ~ oz & Lahuerta-Martínez, 2017; The primary educational context in Catalonia is based on a Urios-Aparisi, 2009). The metaphor “The pen is mightier than the multilingual curriculum that has been implemented since the sword”, coined by Edward Bulwer-Lytton in 1839 for his historical 1990s. In primary school, the majority of subjects are taught in play Cardinal Richelieu, emphasises that writing has more influence Catalan (see Act no. 1, of 7th of January, on linguistic policy, on people and events than the use of violence. This metaphor in- Generalitat de Catalunya, 1998; Llei 12/2009, del 10 de juliol, d'edu- cludes two metonymies: the pen and the sword, respectively cacio, Generalitat de Catalunya, 2009). Current legislation stipulates associated with writing and violence. that students have to master the two official languages (Catalan and Lakoff (1993) argued that a metaphor is not mainly a figure of Spanish), and a third language (mainly English). Primary teachers language; thus, it is not solely restricted to the verbal domain. must study a four-year university degree in primary education in Metaphors can be expressed in diverse representational systems or order to access the Catalan education system. Some subjects are modes, such as the visual mode (Forceville, 2009; Müller & Cienki, taught primarily in Catalan, and some in Spanish and English. Pre- 2009). Visual metaphors are commonly studied in advertising service primary teachers receive the basic training needed to teach (Forceville, 2008; Phillips & McQuarrie, 2004; Urios-Aparisi, 2009), 6 to 12-year-olds, including theoretical and practical knowledge cartoons or comic books (El Refaie, 2003), films (Coe €gnarts & following a reflective practice approach. Kravanja, 2014) and even in fashion (Uno et al., 2019). In compar- This study addresses the issue of how reflective practice is ison, visual metonymies have attracted less attention but some fostered in teacher education in a Catalan University. The objective researchers have started to explore their visual mechanisms (Feng, of this study is to analyse how pre-service teachers (PSTs) use visual 2017; Forceville, 2009; Moya, 2013). Others have even explored the metaphors or metonymies when writing a blog post to reflect upon multimodal interactions of both visual tropes (Kashanizadeh & their experience of learning how to write and their conception of Forceville, 2020; Perez-Sobrino, 2017; Urios-Aparisi, 2009). how to teach the writing skill. The following questions guided the Studies on visual metaphor and metonymy in advertising have research study to achieve this objective: 1) What kind of visual yielded insights into key concepts relevant for our research study. metaphors and metonymies do PSTs use with the images they One relevant issue discussed in the literature is the complexity of include in their blog posts? 2) What beliefs and experiences do the interpreting visual metaphors (Spooren, 2018) and how people different types of visual metaphors and metonymies portray? 3)  process them (Forceville, 1996; Phillips, 2003; Sorm & Steen, 2013). How do visual metaphors and metonymies contribute to express- The familiarity of a visual metaphor is a key part of how the mes- ing emotions in relation to their beliefs and experiences on the sage is understood and how well it gets across to the audience. “The learning and teaching of writing? more frequently someone has encountered a metaphor in which a Before presenting the results and discussion, three areas of certain source domain is used to communicate a certain charac- relevant literature are presented to help us delineate the method- teristic, the more conventional this metaphor becomes” ology, analyse the collected data, and to connect previous research (Hodiamont et al., 2018, p. 169). Certain visual metaphors are used with our findings. relatively frequently, but some which are novel require an effort to identify the characteristics of the source domain to be mapped onto 2. Literature review the target domain. The information that is implicitly communicated by the visual metaphor to an audience is an implicature (Phillips, This section provides the theoretical background of this study by 1997) which can be weak or strong depending on the degree of discussing assumptions about: (1) the use of metaphors and me- cognitive processing required to understand the amount of implicit tonymies and their visual counterparts, (2) the use of images and information. When the visual metaphor is strong, it has an obvious visual metaphors in teacher education, and (3) teachers’ beliefs meaning, and when weak, it is less obvious (Callow & Schiffman, about the teaching of writing. 2002; Forceville & Clark, 2014). In those cases, some verbal anchoring is necessary for full interpretation. In our study, both 2.1. The use of metaphors and metonymies and their visual types of visual metaphors were identified to understand how the counterparts PSTs reflect on the written text in their blog posts to interpret them. Visual metaphors in media are usually monomodal (Forceville, Cognitive linguists understand metaphors not just as a part of 2008): their target and source are entirely rendered in visual language and communication but as a fundamental part of the way terms. However, in our data, the source domain is visual, through people think, reason, and imagine (Gibbs, 2006; Steen, 2007). This an image, whereas the target is written, and both provide the view of metaphor goes beyond its literary use as it is understood as conceptual message (the learning and teaching of writing skills). 2  M. Birello and J.-T. Pujola Teaching and Teacher Education 122 (2023) 103971 One relevant aspect of the data of this study is how the visual data, namely teacher and teaching as guide and guiding, teacher element can interact with the written element in the multimodal dispositions, and the multiplicity of teaching. Visual metaphors text of the blog post, which expands the information of the written could introduce different degrees of implicit information and text (Catalano & Waugh, 2013). expand complex and opaque meanings. That is the reason why when working with images in teacher education, many authors 2.2. The use of images and visual metaphors in teacher education (Bessette & Paris, 2020; Ribas & Perine, 2018) combine visual and textual data, which help to deepen PSTs' and in-service teachers’ In language teacher education, written forms of reflection like reflection. From our research perspective, working with images narratives, journals, and portfolios (Mann & Walsh, 2017) have also helps to clarify the interpretation of visual metaphors and often been used to help improve PSTs' critical reflection (Pedro, metonymies and foster visual literacy. Some research has focused 2005). Nonetheless, Kalaja and Pitka €nen-Huhta (2018) point out on the study of metaphors and metonymies in multimodal lan- the phenomenon of the visual turn in recent applied language guage learning histories (Paiva, 2011; Paiva & Gomes Junior, 2016, studies in which different types of visual data complement verbal 2019). However, to our knowledge, no research has been found data. In language teacher education, images have an enormous which studies the affordances of visual metonymies for teacher potential to explore iconic and semiotic information, and possible education purposes. metaphorical meanings for teachers’ reflection (Bessette & Paris, 2020). 2.3. Teachers’ beliefs about the teaching of writing Metaphors provide insight into teachers' conceptions and as- sumptions about teaching and teaching practice. Metaphors have The research on teachers' beliefs about teaching writing shows long been used as an instructional device in PST education to that their beliefs can hinder or favour writing instruction (Graham, describe teachers' beliefs about learning and teaching, to reflect on 2018) by influencing decision-making and teaching practice (Fives teachers' roles, to foster reflective practice and to raise PSTs' and in- & Buehl, 2012, 2014; Pajares, 1992). Teachers' beliefs about how service teachers' awareness of professional practice (Alger, 2009; students learn to write directly influence their practice (Graham, Mahlios et al., 2010; Massengill Shaw et al., 2008). In addition, other 2019) and impact on the time that teachers dedicate to writing in research studies examine mentor teachers' and PSTs' pre- class and the efforts and the resources that they use to teach conceptions of mentoring relationships (Izadinia, 2017) or focus on writing (Graham, 2018). These beliefs include judgments about the in-service teachers’ self-constructed metaphors about teaching and worth and utility of writing, whether writing is an enjoyable ac- their schooling experiences (Erickson & Pinnegar, 2016; Massengill tivity, and whether students are competent and effective writers et al., 2005). (Graham, 2019). In the school stage, students acquire knowledge The use of images in teacher education is a device used to reveal and also develop certain beliefs about how to write through in- beliefs about teaching and teacher identity (Bessette & Paris, 2020; structions, collaboration, feedback and mentoring (Graham, 2019). Pujola & Gonz alez, 2022; Saban et al., 2007). Language teacher They are building a set of beliefs about what, how and when to education is not an exception, although research in this field is less teach writing based on their own learning experiences, such as frequent and relatively new in comparison to research based on what they saw in the classroom as students at different school data collected with written or oral texts produced by teachers (for a stages and the various methods their teachers used. This affects review, see Basturkmen, 2012 and Barcelos & Kalaja, 2013). There their ideas of good practice and has been described as the has been a recent increase in studies using visual methodologies to “apprenticeship of observation” (Lortie, 1975, p.61). PSTs enter reconstruct beliefs about language learning and teaching in initial university with their personal beliefs and attitudes, negative in teacher education (Birello & Pujol a, 2020; Kalaja & Melo-Pfeifer, many cases due to the prescriptive ways in which writing is taught 2019; Melo-Pfeifer & Chik, 2020). They include the use of draw- at school (Hall & Grisham-Brown, 2011). Three main strategies are ings to elicit teachers' beliefs about language teaching (Borg et al., key to changing a negative attitude: the importance of teachers’ 2014; Branda ~o, 2018; Kalaja et al., 2013), the use of images in an self-reflection, the university instruction strategy and the new online language teacher education context (Ribas & Perine, 2018; writing experiences, which can help to shift to positive beliefs and Chik & Breidbach, 2011a & 2011b) and the use of images and attitudes (Zimmermann et al., 2014) and can enhance their confi- multimedia data to explore teachers’ self-concept as a second dence in the teaching of writing (Hall et al., 2020). language learner (Mercer, 2014). Birello & Pujola  (2020) have used In the case of in-service teachers, some studies carried out in images in blogs in a previous study to explore the beliefs of PSTs different educational contexts have revealed that many teachers about writing, exploring the relationship between the images and consider the initial preparation they received at university to be their reflective text. In this study, they conclude that PSTs establish inadequate (De Smedt et al., 2016; Parr & Jesson, 2016; Veiga Sima ~o varied relationships but only in a very limited number of instances et al., 2016). However, they also point out that those teachers who do they use visual metaphors. However, in those cases, it was seen report feeling more prepared use more effective teaching practices that the visual metaphors allowed them to deepen their reflections (Brindle et al., 2016; De Smedt et al., 2016; Gilbert & Graham, 2010). conceptually. Likewise, Branda ~o (2021) argued that visual narra- At the same time, studies with PSTs at university in Spain have tives articulated through metaphors capture how PSTs “imagine, shown that they believe that they receive little feedback on their live out and re-imagine teaching” (p.10). Thus, using visual meta- work and that the content of the text is more highly valued than the phors and metonymies allows PSTs to explore their communicative discursive aspects, although they value academic writing assign- potential and can be a helpful strategy to foster metacognitive ments very positively (Castello et al., 2012; Castello  & Mateos, 2015; reflection. Corcelles et al., 2015). Thus, they do not consider themselves Visual metaphors have also been used to articulate teachers' confident writers who are prepared to teach writing skills. conceptions of learning and teaching in teacher education (Hamilton, 2016; Johnson, 2001). Hamilton (2016) researched how 3. Methodology PSTs selected digital images as metaphors to represent teacher identity and teaching. In her study, student teachers were required This study followed a qualitative approach (Creswell & Poth, to label each of their metaphorical images and produced short 2017) to identify the type of images used, the concepts conveyed written abstracts for each image. She identified three themes in her through the images, and how PSTs' metacognitive reflections are 3  M. Birello and J.-T. Pujola Teaching and Teacher Education 122 (2023) 103971 made explicit. There are several ways of researching visual data, researchers to categorise data from the meanings set forth by the depending on the focus of analysis: compositional interpretation, PSTs in each metaphorical and metonymical relationship with the content analysis, semiotics, psychoanalysis, discourse analysis, written text of their reflections. The two researchers compared critical discourse analysis, ethnography, and digital method (Rose, their results and reached an agreement. All the examples of 2016). Our study analysed images for their content, focusing on reflective text included in the findings section were translated into what the images depicted (Kalaja & Pitka €nen-Huhta, 2018; Rose, English from Catalan by the authors. 2016). This was complemented with the written data to clarify the interpretation of the visual metaphors and metonymies. 4. Findings 3.1. Data collection This section is divided into three subsections: the first one fo- cuses on the use of metonymies, the second one on the use of The data were collected during the academic years 2018e2019 metaphors, both in relation to the PSTs' beliefs about the teaching and 2019e2020 with third-year PSTs from a Faculty of Education in and learning of writing. The last subsection presents how meta- Catalonia (Spain). They participated in a methodology course on phors and metonymies emphasise PSTs’ affective attitudes towards language teaching, delivered in Catalan, with special emphasis on the teaching and learning of writing. the teaching of writing at the Elementary school stage. In total, 143 students (115 females and 28 males) between 20 and 21 years old 4.1. The use of visual metonymies to reflect on writing participated. Each PST was asked to write a reflective blog about the main topics tackled in the subject. One of the researchers is also the Out of the 99 images that form the corpus of the study, 63 im- tutor of this course. All PSTs in the study have signed an informed ages are classified as visual metonymies. Visual metonymies consent and permission to publish captures from their blog posts directly illustrate one of the central themes of the PSTs’ reflection, that portray written text and images taken by themselves or from in our case, their experience of learning how to write, i.e. they free stock media websites. The study analyses the first task of the portray either the literal meaning of the act of writing or their course, called “A picture and 1000 words”. The PSTs were advised particular experience of writing (Fig. 1). firstly to choose an image and then to write a text in Catalan of a Regarding visual metonymies, PSTs chose different images that maximum of 1000 words. They had to explain the meaning of the can be classified in the following groups: Handwriting sheets image, to discuss its selection and to reflect upon their concept of (N ¼ 21), Children while writing (N ¼ 20), Others' written texts how to teach the writing skill and their experience of learning how (N ¼ 7), Writing objects (N ¼ 6), People writing (N ¼ 5), and Own to write. The PSTs had one week to complete the task. They did not written productions (N ¼ 4). The act of writing is metonymically receive any previous preparation about how to create and use a depicted by images of pens, pencils, written texts, notebooks, blog but were provided with video tutorials and a guide by the computers, typewriting machines (Fig. 1 bottom left), or images of tutor. They were free to choose the content management system to children while writing (Fig. 1 top left) which can be understood as build their blogs. metonymy of writing as an action. In Fig. 1 top left, the pen and paper in the child's hands stand for the writing process and the 3.2. Data analysis expression on his face stands for boredom of the repetitive writing activities they had to do in formal education. In Fig. 1 bottom left, The analysis protocol for coding followed an inductive approach the typewriter, the notebook and the pens metonymically stand for and adopted the following successive steps (Saban et al., 2007; Wan the different actions of writing (typing and handwriting). In those et al., 2011): (a) naming/labelling, (b) sorting (clarification and cases, images have a purely decorative effect since they could well elimination), (c) categorisation, and (d) analysing the visual me- be replaced by similar ones without changing the actual reflection tonymies and metaphors from the data. In the first stage, each blog of the accompanying text. On the other hand, there are some visual post was assigned a code to ensure its anonymity. In the second metonymies that depict their own written productions (Fig. 1 stage, we eliminated the blog posts that did not contain images and bottom right) or images portraying themselves. They illustrate then we selected only the images with the photo format. Finally, 45 PSTs' experience of writing and particularly refer to their personal images were discarded in the sorting stage based on the following childhood learning experience developed in their written text. In criteria: a) photos referring to reading and not writing, and b) comic those cases, these images help PSTs to recover their memory of strips. As a result, the corpus of analysis consisted of 89 blog posts their learning process as if it were a stimulated recall. Likewise, the and a total of 99 images. In the third stage, the images were clas- visual metonymies that portray handwriting worksheets (Fig. 1 top sified into metonymies and metaphors, taking into account the right), which represent one of the most frequent activities in the literal meanings (metonymies) and non-literal meanings (meta- Primary school stage, allow PSTs to recover an experience they phors) they portray based on Forceville's (2009) definitions. The reinterpret from their current informed perspective as PSTs in their group of metaphors was subclassified into two groups, with strong university education. PSTs use these visual metonymies to express and weak implicature by the two researchers independently. their beliefs about writing and how to teach to write, emphasising Moreover, two independent coders were also asked to classify vi- the communicative aspect of writing and the fact that writing must sual metaphors into these two categories, according to the be learned in a context with a meaningful purpose. Some visual following definitions: “Weak implicatures require a greater degree metonymies (26 images) reflect their past experience and serve as of cognitive processing compared to strong implicatures, since the counterpoints to their current beliefs. metaphor that is created requires a higher amount of implicit in- In contrast, there are six visual metonymies using images of formation” (Callow & Schiffman, 2002, p. 41). The inter-rater reli- themselves or other people that relate to PSTs' positive experience ability rate was estimated with the formula “Agreement/ of learning how to write outside school (i.e. learning with parents, Agreement þ Disagreement” (Miles & Huberman, 1994) and the with grandparents or writing a personal diary). They show a level of agreement reached between the individual ratings of the contrast between the formal school instruction that was compul- independent raters and the ratings of the researchers was high: 37/ sory, with the freedom and creativity of the writing practices 37 þ 3 ¼ 0.92. outside the school that they considered more meaningful (e.g. A thematic analysis (Moser, 2000) was followed, which helped writing a personal diary). 4  M. Birello and J.-T. Pujola Teaching and Teacher Education 122 (2023) 103971 Fig. 1. Examples of visual metonymies. With regards to the image-text relationship in visual meton- are considered as having a weak implicature (Fig. 2 right), whose ymies, four different approaches are identified depending on how text is needed to disambiguate the possible diverse meanings of the the reflections are articulated in the text. Regarding the visual images in relation to the core theme the PSTs want to reflect upon. metonymies as the act of writing (Fig. 1), two types of approaches The visual metaphors that the PSTs used are very heteroge- are established. In the first approach, images contain a direct neous. The metaphors that have a strong implicature show proto- message and do not need any explanation to understand the key typical leitmotifs that allow the meaning of the metaphor to be concept of writing; for example, the objects shown in Fig. 1, bottom understood easily through the image. The metaphors that have a left. In this case, the function of the image is decorative, as if it was a weak implicature refer to concepts which are not so transparent pure illustration, and does not provide much more information. The and one needs the written text to clarify the message the PSTs want second approach is the case of images that provide a little more to convey. In this case, the lock (Fig. 2 right) may suggest that information such as the affective state of boredom (Fig. 1, top left). learning how to write opens learners to new spaces for creation and In this case, it also illustrates a very clear message (notebook and development. Instead, the PST uses this image as a metaphor to pen ¼ writing and child with a bored expression ¼ boredom) to describe an experience of a teacher-centred methodology in which understand the key concepts. In these cases, the written texts the Primary teacher was the only person who had the key, i. e. the accompanying the image narrate the learning activities in which only person who could decide how and what to write. On most the PSTs do not position themselves critically but include an af- occasions, all types of metaphors convey more than one concept fective element. that the PSTs develop in the written text accompanying the image. In the case of visual metonymies as the experience of writing, This text provides the key to understanding the metaphorical the affective element is central in the personalisation of the mes- meaning that conceptualises their beliefs on the teaching of sage and two different approaches are also identified. The first one writing. Table 1 summarises the conceptual representations of the refers to those images that illustrate the handwriting sheets that visual metaphors used by the PSTs in two large groups: the con- collect their own writing experiences using that specific mean- ceptualisation of writing as a cognitive process and as a social ingful material. These are memories that are not very positive as the activity. PSTs describe these activities as mechanical and monotonous, When writing is conceptualised as a cognitive process, among although sometimes they justify their use. The second type, on the the visual metaphors that are summarised in Table 1, both with other hand, includes images that illustrate the students' writings in strong and weak implicature, the most frequent ones refer to the which the emotional and affective element is more prominent since concept of learning to write as a process. This conception of process they help them to personalise their reflective text. Although the is related to varied visual metaphors which emphasise actions in texts that accompany these images continue to be a narration of progress such as the development of a person as a literate indi- what happened in their learning process, a feeling of pride emerges vidual or the process of composing a text, and even the effort that to show what has been achieved by portraying their own written these processes imply. production. In both cases, these visual metonymies have been With reference to visual metaphors with strong implicature, personalised and help them to expand the message of their images portray the prototypical belief that writing is a process, reflections. using mountains, pyramids, ladders, stairs, and roads. For instance, in Fig. 2 (left) the student addresses the concept of writing as an 4.2. The use of visual metaphors to reflect on writing unfinished process in one's lifelong learning, reaffirming the concept of the image with the word “Unfinished” at the beginning In the cases of the 36 visual metaphors, 27 images are consid- of her text. On other occasions, the portrayed process reflects ered as having a strong implicature (Fig. 2 left) since the message directly on the phases of the act of writing: planning, translating provided by the visual metaphor is conventionally accepted and and revising. This is the case of Fig. 3 (left), in which the image of coincides with the concepts outlined in the written text. Only nine knitting a glove serves as a simile to help the student to compare 5  M. Birello and J.-T. Pujola Teaching and Teacher Education 122 (2023) 103971 Fig. 2. Types of visual metaphors. Table 1 Visual metaphors: Key concepts and their visual representation. Writing skill Key concept Visual metaphors representation Strong Weak Writing as a Process Road/A man climbing a mountain/Mountain/Staircases/Ladders/ Letters connected with a chaotic tangle of black lines from which cognitive process Knitting a glove/Boat with someone fishing for letters/Sketches of the word “interest” appears/Watermill/Umbrella/Hummingbird a building/Puzzle/Hands of a child and an older person playing flying/Image of cubes in formation (bottom in chaos, top well- the piano/Tightrope walker's feet walking on a rope/Handwritten ordered)/Watercolour with circles with straight lines from the names from different periods/Pyramid bottom connecting them Effort A man climbing a mountain/Human tower/Pyramid/Staircase with an arrow/Notebook with crumpled paper balls Composing Human tower/Sketches of a building/Knitting a glove Watermill Growing Staircase with an arrow/Tree Image of cubes in formation (bottom in chaos, top well-ordered) Emotions Explosion of colours on the head of a person/Letters coming out of Blood transfusion connected to a pen/Letters connected with a an open book chaotic tangle of black lines from which the word “interest” appears. Creativity Window/Boat with someone fishing letters/Objects out of a child's head/Sketches of a building/Hands of a child and an older person playing the piano/Letters coming out of an open book Writing as a social Opening Door(s)/Ladder on a wall to help to jump to the other side/ activity Explosion of colours on the head of a person/Eyes closed-Eyes open/Window Freedom Road/Boat with someone fishing for letters/Girl with a butterfly Door lock/Colour points with threads shadow Collaboration Mountain/Letters emerging from an open book Interconnection Explosion of colours on the head of a person Colour points with lots of ravelled lines connecting them Fig. 3. Visual metaphors to convey the writing process. the process of knitting to those writing phases. The third reference as in the case of Fig. 3 (right), such as time, concentration, reflec- to a process refers to aspects that go beyond the technicalities of tion, organisation, and research. writing to achieve a feeling of satisfaction in the process of writing, The images portraying a process metaphor are also related to 6  M. Birello and J.-T. Pujola Teaching and Teacher Education 122 (2023) 103971 other concepts such as a pyramid with the concept of effort, climbing a mountain with the concept of collaboration to reach the top, a road with the idea of freedom and a staircase with the ideas of growing and effort (see Table 1). The PSTs also conceptualise writing with the most intimate sphere of the person, emphasising the concept of creativity and indicating it as a means to express feelings and different moods. These are represented, for instance, by coloured images or coloured objects that come out of a person's head, and an open window or coloured letters that come out of a book (see Fig. 6). This complexity of meanings that PSTs attribute to their visual metaphors allows a complete and articulated vision of their interconnected conceptions, which cannot be pigeonholed into a single one. In relation to writing as a social activity, the PSTs also concep- tualise writing, although to a lesser extent, with the idea of freedom and openness to the world: a way to empower people and an insight into the literate society that provides PSTs with the neces- sary tools to interact in society. Only a few instances refer to the writing objective of collaborating and interconnecting with other people. In the case of visual metaphors with weak implicature, the written texts that refer to them are more complex conceptually as they need to establish a clear relationship between their experi- ence, their beliefs and the image they have selected. For example, in Fig. 4, the image could imply an interpretation of a Spanish idio- Fig. 5. Example of visual metaphor with expanded meaning. matic expression “la letra con sangre entra” (literally translated as “writing goes in with blood”, meaning “no pain, no gain”) which branches come out when we already know the spelling system of emphasises the effort in the process of learning. However, the the language, how to say sentences, how to conjugate verbs and to written text helps us to understand the meaning that the PST wants understand the grammatical structures", that is to say, to have the to portray, that is to say, her belief that writing, represented by the command of the linguistic knowledge to be able to write a text. blood, is an essential part of her life as it allows her to express her Finally, the leaves of the tree represent the final written products. In feelings and positive past experiences outside school. those cases, there is a powerful bidirectional link between the text Visual metaphors, either with strong or weak implicature, and the visual metaphor. convey a complexity of meanings. They help to trigger the PSTs' The expansion effect prompts the PST to provide meaning to the core concept of teaching the writing skill and, together with the component parts of the metaphor so as to make it more transparent written text, help them expand the concept by refining their and allows them to delve into their core beliefs. Similarly, in two metaphorical reflection. For example, in the case of the prototypical cases, PSTs resort to the multimodal strategy of editing the image to metaphor of the tree that represents growth (Fig. 5) the PST ex- reflect their learning experience with a visual metaphor that is pands the metaphor in which writing is the seed “that we plant so more meaningful and to deepen a visual conceptualisation of their that it can grow when we water it as we learn how to write”. learning experience. In Fig. 6, the PST includes an edited photo that Planting and watering the seeds represents the process of learning she considers representative of her learning process. This image to write, the parents and teachers who accompany the student in allows her to show her positive attitude that goes beyond the book, this process are the water, the sun and the nutrients. “Then the beyond the boundaries of formal training. The image as a whole Fig. 4. Visual Metaphor expressing emotion. 7  M. Birello and J.-T. Pujola Teaching and Teacher Education 122 (2023) 103971 selected mainly have a negative implication of dissatisfaction. Only a few cases report a positive past experience, mainly at home with family members. However, when images refer to their present and future vision as teachers and how they intend to teach writing in their prospective school career, these images mostly portray a positive message. Regarding visual metonymies, most images have a neutral emphasis (n ¼ 28) illustrating a mere description of the process that they experienced in learning how to write, which coincides with images with a more decorative function. They are followed by images that shadow a reflective text which reports disillusionment in their experiences (n ¼ 23). In the written text, adjectives such as “traumatic, mechanical, boring, repetitive”, or “not very moti- vating” are used, and nouns such as “frustration” or “loss of inter- est” to describe that upsetting school experience. Only 12 metonymies are used to emphasise a positive experience. When the PSTs use more than one image, the written text is more articulated since they distinguish different moments of their lived experience. For example, there is one case in which a PST first presents an image showing a handwriting worksheet, implying a negative school experience of mechanical and rote learning. She then uses another image showing her as a child sitting in front of a computer, an aspect that she relates to the social and communicative function of the act of writing which she values positively. Another example is the case of a blog post with three images that represent three types of writing activities. The first one is a handwriting worksheet with the same negative emphasis. The second image portrays a text that has a communicative objective and represents what the PST con- siders to be a good way to teach the writing skill at school. The third image shows a shopping list which represents the use of writing in real life and also implies the involvement of families in the school learning process. PSTs also use visual metaphors to portray their emotions. Nineteen metaphorical images help them trigger a reflective text that reports their beliefs on the importance of the teaching of writing as an essential skill in the children's individual develop- ment and their conceptual views on how to teach writing as pro- spective teachers (Fig. 7). There are only four cases where they take Fig. 6. Visual metaphor of an edited photo. creates a metaphor but if the different elements of the image are analysed, some visual metonymies can be identified: a book ¼ writing and reading, some letters in different colours emerging from the book ¼ creativity of writing, and a smiling girl ¼ positive experience. The image composition of different vi- sual metonymies creates a visual metaphor, referring to the key concepts of creativity and passion for writing, which help her to deepen her reflection. This is a clear example of a metaphor composed by several metonymies. The edited image and the written text are intertwined in a way that helps to develop her reflection in a more personal creative manner. The image-text relationship in visual metaphors is usually complex so it is necessary to read the text accompanying the image to understand the meaning that the PST wants to convey. The discourse of the written text is also more articulated than in the case of visual metonymies. The text is not just a summary of their experiences; it also usually explains key ideas that help show their thoughts about how writing should be taught and learned. 4.3. Affective relationship between visual metaphors and metonymies and the written text Both visual metonymies and metaphors help PSTs express emotions and feelings concerning their learning experience in writing. When talking about past experiences at school, the images Fig. 7. Metaphor with positive emphasis. 8  M. Birello and J.-T. Pujola Teaching and Teacher Education 122 (2023) 103971 a more neutral perspective in expressing their beliefs. In contrast, beliefs, and they focus on a single concept or experience. However, some PSTs use visual metaphors to highlight their experiences in some visual metonymies (Fig. 1 top right) express a conceptual the past, either positive (n ¼ 9) or negative (n ¼ 4). Out of the nine change in how PSTs perceive their learning experience from a new, images that show positive emotions, five help them to recall informed perspective as PSTs that reflect their actual beliefs of how different enjoyable moments of their learning experience. When writing should be taught in children's education. The relation of the emphasis is positive, the PSTs in our data use nouns such as image-text regarding visual metonymies shows four different ap- ‘interest’, ‘passion’, ‘curiosity’, ‘imagination’, ‘creativity’, 'happi- proaches which, in fewer cases, expand the meaning of the text by ness', ‘motivation’, ‘desire’, ‘autonomy’, ‘independence’; verbs such adding little information or display an affective attitude (Fig. 1 top as ‘love’, ‘have fun’, ‘like’, ‘discover’; and adjectives such as ‘free’ (I left). Visual metonymies provide a simple association of contiguous feel free) and ‘autonomous’. These concepts relate closely to the meanings. The written text does not deepen in conceptual knowl- metaphorical meanings of the images. edge but stays on the surface of the narration of their positive or In Fig. 7, the PST expresses a positive vision of the concept of negative learning experiences. writing (“I have metaphorically represented writing as a watermill, The PSTs describe their negative experiences visually and because I see it is an essential and vital activity for the human through the written text, revealing their conceptions of the writing being, same as harnessing water”). She also establishes the rela- skill (Fig. 1). This result is in line with studies on negative beliefs tionship between different parts of the watermill and different and attitudes of future teachers about writing (Hall et al., 2020). aspects of the process of writing. For example, the purpose of the However, in our data, the PSTs also show their intention to change watermill construction (“the need to bring hydraulic energy to the this teaching dynamic in the cases where the image prompts a city”) is related to the communicative goals of the written text. The positive attitude. This conceptual change is induced by what they place where it is constructed (“a watermill in a place where there is have already learned about the teaching of writing in their studies no river has no reason to exist”) refers to the communicative sit- at university. In line with what Zimmermann et al. (2014) affirm, uation that should be always considered when writing a text. the actual change of attitude from their negative experience at In contrast, Fig. 2 (right) is an interesting example of a metaphor school is derived from a teacher education program that takes into that accompanies a text expressing a negative school experience. account both conceptual and pedagogical tools. In our study, the The type of teaching she came across was teacher-centred and her program engages PSTs in a practice of prompting a metacognitive teachers were the only ones “with the key to open that door lock”. reflection with visual metaphors or metonymies that confronts In her text, she values her past learning experience negatively as their conceptions with their experiences to start this process of she did not feel free to write whatever she wanted or even commit change. errors. She was not allowed to correct herself, and thus did not have Unlike visual metonymies, visual metaphors, both with a strong room for improvement. This weak visual metaphor also allows her and weak implicature, are mostly used to express positive feelings to point out that she did not have the opportunity “to have the key and attitudes towards writing. There are some exceptions such as in to open the door of knowledge”. Although, in principle, the image of the door lock example (Fig. 2, right). In this case, the PST establishes the door lock could suggest a positive emphasis with the idea of a relationship of contradiction between the image and the written writing as an act to open doors, the PST turns the idea around to text (No €th, 2001), thus making the message that she wants to express the limitations and the closeness of traditional teaching. convey even more powerful. Visual metaphors, although less used Among the cases when PSTs use visual metonymies and meta- in our data (1/3 of the total), are an effective communicative means phors with a negative emphasis, we found a couple of examples of for the development of PSTs' metacognitive reflection. In fact, they reflecting on learning difficulties (dyslexia, dysgraphia, etc.) and help teachers to elaborate their conceptions deeply, revealing their how their teachers were not able to deal with them properly; thus, innermost beliefs, which are the most influential in shaping they did not take into account the emotional impact on their teachers “instructional decisions” (Phipps & Borg, 2009, p. 380). learning processes. Moreover, visual metaphors are employed to represent the PSTs’ root metaphors that help their core beliefs to emerge, which ac- 5. Discussion cording to Borg are the more stable and powerful (Birello, 2012). Visual metaphors in our data portray two main basic concepts of Using images as visual metaphors or metonymies to conceptu- the learning and teaching of writing as a cognitive process or as a alise any aspect of teaching is a useful communicative resource that social activity. The most frequent and prototypical visual meta- allows PSTs to express ideas beyond the written text. Adding this phors are related to the key concepts of writing as a cognitive multimodal resource helps them to prompt their ideas and connect process, and they are interpreted in three different ways. The first thoughts and reflections to better understand teaching (Hamilton, one relates to the conception that writing is considered a recursive 2016). As this study has shown, PSTs can articulate their thinking process in three phases: planning, translating and revising (Hayes in different ways through the use of multimodal modes. They can & Flower, 1980). The second one refers to the common belief that exploit the affordances of these visual tropes to express their beliefs writing is a very long and complex process that involves effort. The and to describe their experiences with different levels of last one sees the process as an essential part of growing as a literate complexity. In our data, the PSTs use them in their blog posts to individual. This concept of process has been represented with make associations between contiguous meanings of an “A for B” in different metaphorical images and with different meanings (see metonymies, as in images in Fig. 1, or expanding meanings of an “A Table 1), which demonstrates the multiple affordances of visual as B” in metaphors (Forceville, 2009), as in Figs. 2e7. metaphors to reflect upon the same concept. There is also evidence Visual metonymies, in most cases, refer to a specific technique of the idea of writing as a social activity (Bazerman, 2016) and the or procedure of learning and teaching writing. They are the visual metaphors that represent this conception are mainly with a preferred visual tropes chosen by PSTs in our data (2/3 of the total) strong implicature. The social conception of writing relies on im- to describe their learning experience. The majority of these images ages that highlight the advantages of collaborative writing that have a decorative effect (Fig. 1 top and bottom left), do not provide helps one to learn with others (Storch, 2019), considering teachers much extra information in their reflective process and are mainly and families as facilitators (Leavy et al., 2007). It also provides used as a prompt to stimulate their memories. The use of visual students resources and skills to reflect upon and learn from the metonymies does not allow PSTs to elicit their complex system of world around them (Massengill Shaw et al., 2008) which, in our 9  M. Birello and J.-T. Pujola Teaching and Teacher Education 122 (2023) 103971 data, is related to the idea of writing as a way to unlock opportu- 6. Conclusions nities represented with a core metaphor of “doors” that lead to freedom within a literate society. The implications of this study are twofold. On the one hand, it The complexity of visual metaphors sometimes occurs when the delves into the use of visual metonymies and metaphors that PSTs metaphors include one or more visual metonymies and they use when asked about their experience of learning to write. On the overlap (Jime nez-Mun ~ oz & Lahuerta-Martínez, 2017; Urios- other hand, it delves into beliefs about the learning and teaching of Aparisi, 2009) as in Fig. 6. The process of composing and editing writing. the image implies that the PST has purposefully planned it before so Both visual metonymies and metaphors within the blog posts as to conceptualise the meaning she wants to convey in her become essential components that convey the core meaning of reflection. In this regard, editing images instead of downloading reflection, and determine the tone of the written text, its structure them directly from the internet engages PSTs in a deeper process of and the selection of the ideas to be developed. In particular, visual conceptualisation by personalising a metaphor. metaphors have the affordance to help PSTs to go beyond the literal Regarding the text-image relationship, the visual metaphors meaning of the images, thus creating new conceptual relations and add a level of abstraction and complexity to the reflective thought new meanings, which allow them to deepen their reflective pro- to a greater extent than visual metonymies. The metaphorical cesses. The use of visual metaphors and metonymies in the training message is always more complex than the metonymic one. Using of PSTs encourages their reflection on their own learning processes these metaphorical images helps account for the complexity of the and helps them relate teaching issues. It also helps them to become teacher's thinking (Pajares, 1992) and highlights relationships that aware of the beliefs and concepts that will determine their future may be difficult to explain only through a verbal code. Visual teaching practices. Not only does the innovative experience pre- metaphors can help PSTs deepen the written reflection expanding sented in this study provide insights into the use of visual meton- new meanings from what they express in their written text. In all ymies and metaphors as an aid for the development of PSTs’ the cases in our data when a visual metaphor is introduced, both metacognitive reflection but it also shows its full potential for the visual metaphors and the written text are intertwined in teacher education. complex conceptual connections that reflect the complexity of the The beliefs about the learning and teaching of writing that teacher's thinking. Visual metaphors have a complex evocative emerge in activities of this type allow PSTs to be aware of the power that PSTs need to develop in their writing to personalise changes that are taking place in their training process. They collect their reflection and clarify their conceptual connections. In the case their ideas, experiences, and doubts, which testify to the progress of visual metaphors with strong implicature, the message that the they are experiencing and of the new concepts and practices that image portrays makes it easier to relate it to their written reflection. allow them to modify their ways of thinking and conceiving the Notwithstanding, this message should be still clarified as the visual teaching of writing. The use of images, especially when including metaphor may have different core meanings. In contrast, the visual metaphors, adds an added value to this reflection process. evocative power of visual metaphors with weak implicature should Although this study was conducted with two cohorts of PSTs in always be unpacked with the written text to clarify the multiplicity one university, it has potentially far-reaching implications for of potential meanings (Fig. 7). This clarification process obliges PSTs teacher education. It offers an insight into how multimodal texts to conceptualise the components that form the visual metaphor increase the opportunities to reflect on what PSTs think and believe. and to detail the personal interpretation of the image in the text. In In addition, the task of developing multimodal texts with visual those cases, the reflective process that the PSTs have to go through metaphors or metonymies allows PSTs to develop their digital lit- is a conceptual exercise of a deeper awareness of their beliefs eracy. Further research is needed in this specific area of using visual (Farrell, 2006). metaphors as tools for teachers’ metacognitive reflection and According to Saban et al. (2007) and Bessette and Paris (2020), should consider a comparison of the PSTs' posts written in different images are a very useful means to elicit students’ beliefs and con- moments of the course or even along their degree. This longitudinal ceptions and in combination with the written reflection are research can help understand how visual metaphors change fundamental for their professional development as future teachers throughout their process of learning and how these help them to (Kalaja et al., 2008, 2013; Ribas & Perine, 2018). Unlike the results of express their beliefs when configuring their professional Birello & Pujol a, 2020, in which PSTs rarely used visual metaphors, development. this study, in which PSTs were asked to search for an image first, has The findings of this study delineate some fundamental ideas and revealed more frequent use of metaphorical images. This fosters a implications for future teacher education when using digital envi- more well-structured discourse that reveals their initial processes ronments for reflection. The use of blogs to collect the visual and of becoming mature professionals, trying to apply what they are written reflections of PSTs helps them to visualise ideas and to learning in their degree. By using an image with a visual metaphor represent a further step in their reflection process. Teacher edu- first, our PSTs were prompted to argue the meaning attributed to cation in our present digital context must combine multimodal the image to a greater degree, especially when they used visual discourses to connect knowledge from theoretical concepts, new metaphors with a weak implicature. writing experiences and new pedagogical approaches. Thus, PSTs’ Visual metaphors have formative, empirical and analytical value awareness of tensions and doubts about their belief systems (Brand~ ao, 2021) because they provide a space for reflection and regarding teaching, which is the first step in their professional help PSTs to make sense of their process of becoming a teacher. In development, is fostered beyond the written word. While visual our data both visual metonymies and metaphors provide those metonymies have the potential to be a possible starting point for a essential values for teacher education. They are a source for reflection in which experiences are narrated and their beliefs narrating teaching experiences and snapshots of PST development. emerge, visual metaphors allow for a deeper conceptualisation of However, visual metaphors add a creative value that helps PSTs to their beliefs and help them to broaden their understanding of their deepen their thinking process, connecting concepts, beliefs and experiences. learning experiences, together with the emerging beliefs prompted from their teacher education at university (Borg, 2003). 10  M. Birello and J.-T. Pujola Teaching and Teacher Education 122 (2023) 103971 Funding doi.org/10.1080/11356405.2015.1072357 Castello , M., Mateos, M., Castells, N., In ~ esta, A., Cuevas, I., & Sole , I. (2012). Academic writing practices in Spanish universities. Electronic Journal of Research in This research did not receive any specific grant from funding Educational Psychology, 10, 569e590. https://doi.org/10.25115/ejrep.v10i27.1517 agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. Catalano, T., & Waugh, L. R. (2013). The language of money: How verbal and visual metonymy shapes public opinion about financial events. International Journal of Language Studies, 7(2), 31e60. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/ Author statement teachlearnfacpub/130. Chik, A., & Breidbach, S. (2011a). Identity, motivation and autonomy: A tale of two cities. In G. Murray, X. Gao, & T. Lamb (Eds.), Identity, motivation and autonomy I hereby declare that the manuscript “Visual metaphors and in language learning (pp. 145e159). Multilingual Matters. https://bit.ly/3yx7obP. metonymies in pre-service teachers’ reflections: beliefs and expe- Chik, A., & Breidbach, S. (2011b). Online language learning histories exchange: Hong riences in the learning and teaching of writing” submitted as a Kong and German perspectives. Tesol Quarterly, 45(3), 553e564. https://doi.org/ research paper to Teaching and Teacher Education is entirely our 10.5054/tq.2011.256795 Coe€gnarts, M., & Kravanja, P. (2014). A study in cinematic subjectivity. Metaphor and work and we performed all the analysis. We both were responsible the Social World, 4(2), 149e173. https://doi.org/10.1075/msw.4.2.01coe for the following roles: Conceptualisation; Formal analysis; Inves-  Castello Corcelles, M., Oliva, A., , M., & Milian, M. (2015). Writing at university: Are we on the same page? Cultura Y Educacio n, 27(3), 534e568. https://doi.org/ tigation; Methodology; Writing - original draft; Writing - review & 10.1080/11356405.2015.1072359 editing. Marilisa Birello was responsible for Data collection and Creswell, J. W., & Poth, C. N. (2017). 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