energies Perspective Exploring the Potential of Green Hydrogen Production and Application in the Antofagasta Region of Chile Emigdio Chavez-Angel 1 , Alejandro Castro-Alvarez 2 , Nicolas Sapunar 3 , Francisco Henríquez 3 , Javier Saavedra 3 , Sebastián Rodríguez 4 , Iván Cornejo 5 and Lindley Maxwell 3, * 1 Catalan Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (ICN2), CSIC and BIST, Campus UAB, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain 2 Laboratorio de Bioproductos Farmacéuticos y Cosméticos, Centro de Excelencia en Medicina Traslacional, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco 4780000, Chile 3 Centro de Investigación Científico y Tecnológico de la Región de Antofagasta, Antofagasta 1240000, Chile 4 Hoyka Energia, Antofagasta 1240000, Chile 5 Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Universidad Técnica Federico Santa María, Valparaíso 2390123, Chile * Correspondence: lindley.maxwell@cicitem.cl Abstract: Green hydrogen is gaining increasing attention as a key component of the global energy transition towards a more sustainable industry. Chile, with its vast renewable energy potential, is well positioned to become a major producer and exporter of green hydrogen. In this context, this paper explores the prospects for green hydrogen production and use in Chile. The perspectives presented in this study are primarily based on a compilation of government reports and data from the scientific literature, which primarily offer a theoretical perspective on the efficiency and cost of hydrogen production. To address the need for experimental data, an ongoing experimental project was initiated in March 2023. This project aims to assess the efficiency of hydrogen production and consumption in the Atacama Desert through the deployment of a mobile on-site laboratory for hydrogen generation. Citation: Chavez-Angel, E.; The facility is mainly composed by solar panels, electrolyzers, fuel cells, and a battery bank, and it Castro-Alvarez, A.; Sapunar, N.; moves through the Atacama Desert in Chile at different altitudes, from the sea level, to measure the Henríquez, F.; Saavedra, J.; efficiency of hydrogen generation through the energy approach. The challenges and opportunities Rodríguez, S.; Cornejo, I.; Maxwell, L. in Chile for developing a robust green hydrogen economy are also analyzed. According to the Exploring the Potential of Green results, Chile has remarkable renewable energy resources, particularly in solar and wind power, Hydrogen Production and that could be harnessed to produce green hydrogen. Chile has also established a supportive policy Application in the Antofagasta framework that promotes the development of renewable energy and the adoption of green hydrogen Region of Chile. Energies 2023, 16, technologies. However, there are challenges that need to be addressed, such as the high capital costs 4509. https://doi.org/10.3390/ en16114509 of green hydrogen production and the need for supportive infrastructure. Despite these challenges, we argue that Chile has the potential to become a leading producer and exporter of green hydrogen Academic Editor: Giovanni or derivatives such as ammonia or methanol. The country’s strategic location, political stability, and Esposito strong commitment to renewable energy provide a favorable environment for the development of Received: 13 April 2023 a green hydrogen industry. The growing demand for clean energy and the increasing interest in Revised: 25 May 2023 decarbonization present significant opportunities for Chile to capitalize on its renewable energy Accepted: 1 June 2023 resources and become a major player in the global green hydrogen market. Published: 3 June 2023 Keywords: green hydrogen; Chile; Antofagasta desert; Electrolyzer; green ammonia; carbon neutrality Copyright: © 2023 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. 1. Introduction This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and Green hydrogen (GH) is a clean energy carrier that can be produced by splitting water conditions of the Creative Commons molecules into hydrogen and oxygen using renewable energy sources, such as solar, wind, Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// or hydro power. The hydrogen produced in this way has no carbon footprint and can creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ be used in several industries, including transport [1], manufacturing [2,3], and power 4.0/). generation [4–6]. In addition to its direct application as a fuel source, GH plays a vital Energies 2023, 16, 4509. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16114509 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies 1. Introduction Green hydrogen (GH) is a clean energy carrier that can be produced by splitting wa- ter molecules into hydrogen and oxygen using renewable energy sources, such as solar, wind, or hydro power. The hydrogen produced in this way has no carbon footprint and Energies 2023, 16, 4509 can be used in several industries, including transport [1], manufacturing [2,3], and power 2 of 12 generation [4–6]. In addition to its direct application as a fuel source, GH plays a vital role as a versatile raw material to produce various synthetic hydrocarbon fuels. These syn- thetic fuels, commonly referred to as “electro fuels” or “E-fuels,” are derived from the role as a versatile raw material to produce various synthetic hydrocarbon fuels. These utilization of captured carbon dioxide or the separation of nitrogen from the atmosphere synthetic fuels, commonly referred to as “electro fuels” or “E-fuels,” are derived from the through a reaction with GH. Some examples of e-fuels include E-methanol, E-methane, utilization of captured carbon dioxide or the separation of nitrogen from the atmosphere and E-ammonium [7–9]. Chile is a country with a tremendous potential for renewable through a reaction with GH. Some examples of e-fuels include E-methanol, E-methane, and energy, particularly in solar, tidal, and wind power [10,11]. As such, the country has es- E-ammonium [7–9]. Chile is a country with a tremendous potential for renewable energy, tablished a goal of attaining carbon neutrality by 2050 [12]. The production of green hy- particularly in solar, tidal, and wind power [10,11]. As such, the country has established a drogen is seen goal of as a key attaining carbonelement to accomplish neutrality thisThe by 2050 [12]. target [12,13]. Figure production 1 shows of green a visual hydrogen is seen representation of thetomain as a key element energy this accomplish projects currently target [12,13]. in progress Figure [14].aComprehensive 1 shows in- visual representation formation about these initiatives is available in Table S1 in the supporting information. of the main energy projects currently in progress [14]. Comprehensive information about In addition, the country is also aiming to reduce its reliance on fossil fuels, especially these initiatives is available in Table S1 in the supporting information. In addition, the in the mining andistransportation country also aiming tosectors. reduce its reliance on fossil fuels, especially in the mining and transportation sectors. Figure 1. A list of projects currently declared under construction in 2021. The colorbar illustrates the Figure 1. A list of projects distribution currently solar plants acrossdeclared under construction various regions in 2021. The in Chile, representing thecolorbar illustrates respective percentages. the distribution of solar plants across various regions in Chile, representing the respective percent- ages. In addition to its abundant renewable energy sources, Chile is well positioned to development a green hydrogen industry, including its advantages for accessing export In addition markets, to its abundant including those in Asia renewable and Europeenergy sources, [15,16], andChile is well location its strategic positioned as atohub de-for velopment a green energy trade hydrogen between industry, and the Americas including its advantages the Pacific for the [10]. In 2020, accessing Chilean export mar- Government released kets, the national including GH strategy, those in Asia and Europe which is a long-term [15,16], plan to location and its strategic establishasa acompetitive hub for hydrogen industry based on renewable resources, with the goal energy trade between the Americas and the Pacific [10]. In 2020, the Chilean Government of becoming the world’s most cost-effective released the national GH GH strategy, producerwhich by 2030, is atogether long-term with planpositioning to establish Chile as one of the a competitive leadingindustry hydrogen exporters of hydrogen based on renewable by 2040 [13]. The resources, with strategy the goalentails a three-stage of becoming plan to the world’s mostaccelerate the deployment cost-effective GH producer of GH-based technologies by 2030, together in multiple Chile with positioning economic as one sectors of theand critical leading applications exporters within the of hydrogen country by 2040 [13].[17]. The firstentails The strategy stage aofthree-stage the strategy planfocuses to ac- on celerate the deployment of GH-based technologies in multiple economic sectors andprimary tapping the domestic market and proposes the implementation of GH in six crit- icalapplications: applications (i) refineries, within (ii) ammonia, the country [17]. The (iii) firstmining stage ofhaul trucks, (iv) the strategy long-range focuses on tappingbuses, (v) heavy-duty trucks, and (vi) blending GH into the gas network the domestic market and proposes the implementation of GH in six primary applications: [12,13]. The second stage involves the (i) refineries, (ii)expansion ammonia, of (iii)green mining ammonia production haul trucks, on a larger (iv) long-range scale, buses, (v) promoting heavy-dutythe entry of the country into international markets through the establishment of commercial agreements. This strategic approach aims to enhance the economic viability of the green hydrogen market. In the third and final stage, Chile seeks to become a leading global supplier of clean energy by expanding and diversifying green ammonia exports into new applications, such as maritime transport, as well as synthetic fuels for the aviation industry [18]. Notably, three of the six applications of the first stage are directly associated with mining activities, namely, mining haul trucks, long-range buses, and heavy-duty trucks. Energies 2023, 16, 4509 3 of 12 The mining industry is a significant contributor to the country’s economy and plays a crucial role in promoting the use of GH. Copper, being a well-known commodity, is a key driver of this growth. Figure 2 shows the approximate location of GH projects across various regions of the country, organized by their corresponding application sectors. Further details of these projects are listed in Table 1. It is worth noting that a significant portion of these projects are concentrated in the Antofagasta region, which is located at the central part of the Atacama Desert. This location has been chosen strategically due to two primary reasons: firstly, the significant availability of renewable resources in the area (especially sunlight), and, secondly, the well-established and thriving mining industry in the region. As a result, the Antofagasta region offers a highly favorable location for the successful implementation of GH projects [19]. Table 1. List of H2 projects along of Chile showed in Figure 2. Hydrogen Projects in Antofagasta Region 1 Amer H2 (Methanol) 11 Hydra (H2 : LD) 2 Cerro Pabellón (H2 : LD *) 12 Tren a hidrogeno (H2 : LD) 3 Planta Movil H2V (H2 : LD) 13 HyEx (NH3 : LD Ex) 4 Pauna Greener Future (H2 , HN3 : LD, Ex † ) 14 Tango (NH3 : Ex) 5 San Pedro de Atacama (H2 : LD) 15 Proyecto H2V GNA (H2 : LD) 6 Power to ammonia AES Andes (NH3 : Ex) 16 Proyecto H2V Inversiones Farias (H2 ) 7 HOASIS (NH3 : LD, Ex) 17 Genesis (H2 : LD) 8 Faraday (NH3 : Ex) 18 Paracelsus (H2 : LD) 9 H2 solar projects (H2 : LD) 19 METH2 Atacama (E-Methanol: LD, Ex) 10 Cerro Dominador (H2 : LD) Hydrogen projects in other Regions (F) Aysen Region (LD) (B) Coquimbo Region (LD): - Mowl (H2 ) - H2GN (H2 ) - Renewsatable Koste Alke (H2 ) (G) Magellan Region (Ex) - Llaquedona (NH3 ) (C) Valparaiso Region (LD): - Pionero (NH3 ) - H2 Magallanes (H2 and NH3 ) - San Antonio Port (H2 ) - Proyecto HIF and Haru Oni (E-Methanol and e-gas) - HyPro Aconcagua (H2 ) - Vientos Magallanicos (NH3 ) - Bahía Quinteros (H2 ) - H1 Magallanes (NH3 ) - HNH (NH3 ) - Cabeza de Mar (NH3 ) Gente Grande (NH3 ) (D) Metropolitan Region (LD): - Gruas Horquillas FC (H2 ) - Estación hidrogeno Aeropuerto (H2 ) - Hydrogen Generator Unit (H2 ) - Proyecto Minera San Pedro (H2 ) (E) Biobio Region (LD) - Green Steel project (H2 ) - Zorzal (H2 ) - HVallesur (H2 ) - Kallsaya (H2 ) Proyecto USCS (H2 ) * LD: Local demand, † Ex: Export. (E) Biobio Region (LD) - Green Steel project (H2) - Zorzal (H2) - HVallesur (H2) - Kallsaya (H2) Energies 2023, 16, 4509 4 of 12 Proyecto USCS (H2) * LD: Local demand, † Ex: Export. Figure Figure2.2.Map Mapofof undergoing undergoing HH 2 projects 2 projectsalong ofof along Chile and Chile zoom and around zoom Antofagasta around region. Antofagasta The region. The black blackdots dotsrepresent representthe thecapital capitalcity cityofofeach eachregion. region. Thiswork This workprovides providesaacomprehensive comprehensive and brief overview overview of ofthe thepotential potentialfor forhydrogen hydro- generation gen in the generation diverse in the locations diverse of the locations Antofagasta of the region Antofagasta by synthesizing region relevant by synthesizing data relevant from several reports. Moreover, the study introduces a novel Green Hydrogen data from several reports. Moreover, the study introduces a novel Green Hydrogen Mobile Pilot Plant dedicated to mapping the real GH generation potential across the Atacama Desert. The mobile facility traversed the region, using sunlight to produce hydrogen, and simultaneously measuring efficiency and other crucial factors under realistic field conditions. The results of this approach reinforce the potential of the Antofagasta region for hydrogen generation. Furthermore, the paper reports on a forthcoming measuring campaign, which aims to offer policymakers and industry stakeholders valuable field data. This data will be vital for promoting the development of the hydrogen industry in the region, and, consequently, aid in meeting global climate targets. field conditions. The results of this approach reinforce the potential of the Antofagasta region for hydrogen generation. Furthermore, the paper reports on a forthcoming meas- uring campaign, which aims to offer policymakers and industry stakeholders valuable field data. This data will be vital for promoting the development of the hydrogen industry in the region, and, consequently, aid in meeting global climate targets. Energies 2023, 16, 4509 5 of 12 2. Antofagasta as a HUB of Green Hydrogen 2. Antofagasta as a HUB of Green Hydrogen The National Energy Commission of Chile (Comisión nacional de Energía de Chile, CNE)ThehasNational Energy Commission recently released the preliminaryof Chile demand(Comisión nacional report for de Energía the period de Chile, of 2021–2041 in CNE) the has recently country, releasedathe which projects preliminary progressive rise demand of energyreport demand forfor thethe period of 2021–2041 production of GH in the country, during which that period. Theprojects a progressive report indicates riseenergy that the of energy demand demand for the production is expected to increase of GH during that period. The report indicates that the energy from 199 GWh in 2023 to 40,636 GWh in 2041 in order to achieve global carbon demand is expected to neutrality increase from 199 GWh in 2023 to 40,636 GWh in 2041 in order to achieve [20]. To meet this demand, a gradual integration of operational projects is necessary. Inglobal carbon neutrality this scenario,[20]. theTo meet this Atacama demand, Desert a gradual becomes integration a key location of operational for the developmentprojects of large-is necessary. In this scenario, the Atacama Desert becomes a key location for the development scale PV and CSP systems, owing to its status as one of the regions with the highest levels of solar of large-scale PV and radiation CSP systems, worldwide owing3). (see Figure to its status as one of the regions with the highest levels of solar radiation worldwide (see Figure 3). Figure 3. Figure Long term 3. Long term average average solar solar potential potential of of part of Chile between 1999–2018: (a) (a) direct normal normal radiation, (b) Global horizontal radiation and (c) photovoltaic power[21]. radiation, power [21]. The project The project map map released releasedby bythe theChilean Chileanassociation associationofofrenewable renewable energies energiesand andstorage stor- (ACERA, Asociación Chilena de Energías Renovables y Almacenamiento) age (ACERA, Asociación Chilena de Energías Renovables y Almacenamiento) reveals that reveals that the Antofagasta region will witness a significant influx of 123 photovoltaic solar the Antofagasta region will witness a significant influx of 123 photovoltaic solar projectsprojects in thethe in near future. near AA future. detailed breakdown detailed breakdown of of thethe number number of of projects and projects their and corresponding their correspond- power output for each stage is provided in Table 2. Furthermore, the geographical ing power output for each stage is provided in Table 2. Furthermore, the geographical locations (approximately) of the solar photovoltaic projects are displayed in Figure 4. locations (approximately) of the solar photovoltaic projects are displayed in Figure 4. Table 2. List of energy projects under development in Antofagasta and total power (MW). Status of the Project Under Under Total Technology Approved Testing Operational Construction Classification #† MW # MW # MW # MW # MW # MW Solar photovoltaic 56 8120 21 1366 7 2802 9 755 30 1669 123 15,012 Solar photovoltaic 2 235 3 259 1 85 0 0 0 0 6 579 + BESS * Thermosolar 7 1687 0 0 1 300 0 0 1 108 9 2045 Geothermal 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 33 1 39 2 72 Eolic 10 2645 3 280 4 2055 1 12 6 793 24 5785 BESS 2 168 1 2 1 57 0 0 3 52 7 279 Carnot battery 0 0 0 0 1 560 0 0 0 0 1 560 Biomass 1 322 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 322 † * BESS: Battery Energy Storage Systems; #: number of projects. Geothermal 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 33 1 39 2 72 Eolic 10 2645 3 280 4 2055 1 12 6 793 24 5785 BESS 2 168 1 2 1 57 0 0 3 52 7 279 Carnot battery 0 0 0 0 1 560 0 0 0 0 1 560 EnergiesBiomass 2023, 16, 4509 1 322 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 3226 of 12 * BESS: Battery Energy Storage Systems; † #: number of projects. Figure 4. Photovoltaic solar energy projects in the Antofagasta region. Figure 4. Photovoltaic solar energy projects in the Antofagasta region. Having an understanding of the solar spectrum is critical in designing and studying Having numerous an understanding technologies [22]. It of the solar spectrum is important is critical to investigate in designing and the performance studying of photovoltaic numerous modules aftertechnologies [22]. It is important their manufacture. Accordingto investigate the performance to the literature, of photovoltaic it is mentioned that there modules after their manufacture. According to the literature, it is mentioned are two methods to evaluate the performance of PV modules: power analysis and energy that there are two methods to evaluate the performance of PV modules: power analysis and analysis [23]. Generally, the power is measured under standard test conditions (STC), that energy anal- ysis [23]. Generally, is, spectral the with distribution power AM is measured 1.5 air massunder standard testofconditions at a temperature 25 ◦ C and(STC), that is,of an intensity − 2 1000 Wm . This approach makes necessary to assume that the modules are installed in places where STC conditions are unlikely to occur. Therefore, evaluating the performance of PV modules by power may not be a suitable option if the STC conditions are not met. On the other hand, the energy rating of the module plays a fundamental role to measure the performance in field conditions [24]. In the latter, the energy rating of the module is determined by measuring its characteristics along with the corresponding data on environ- mental conditions. In this regard, the in situ measurement of PV modules is imperative to accurately evaluate their operational performance under realistic environments. The adoption of such a measurement process has become a prerequisite for ensuring the reliable assessment of PV modules. Green Hydrogen Mobile Pilot Plant Numerous research centers are dedicated to exploring the potential applications of green hydrogen in Chile. Among these institutions, the “Centro de Investigación Científica y Tecnológica de la Minería” (CICITEM) focuses on developing innovative solutions and technologies for the mining industry. CICITEM has recently undertaken a project named the “Green Hydrogen Mobile Pilot Plant (Planta Piloto Portable de Hidrógeno Verde, P3H2V)”. The aim of this project is to assess and delineate the efficiencies of the production and Energies 2023, 16, 4509 7 of 12 use of hydrogen within the context of the Atacama Desert, particularly in proximity to mining operations located in the region. These mining activities represent a significant potential market for hydrogen as an energy carrier or renewable fuel. This mobile pilot plant employs an electrolysis process to divide water into hydrogen and oxygen, storing the hydrogen in high-pressure tanks for later use. The P3H2V plant is designed to evaluate the feasibility and effectiveness of green hydrogen production under different environmental conditions and scenarios. It boasts a production capacity of up to 0.5 Nm3 of hydrogen per hour. The main objective of this initiative is to demonstrate the viability of producing green hydrogen using renewable energy sources in a variety of settings, with a specific focus on its potential application in the mining sector. This pilot plant is part of a broader effort by CICITEM to promote the use of green hydrogen as a sustainable and clean alternative to fossil fuels. The lack of empirical investigations related to hydrogen production in the Antofagasta region has generated considerable uncertainty regarding the development of this nascent industry. To address this knowledge gap, the P3H2V plant will facilitate a comprehensive investigation into the feasibility and sustainability of hydrogen production in this region. Figure 5 displays a schematic representation (Figure 5a) and a corresponding pho- tograph (Figure 5b) of the P3H2V during its initial measurements conducted within the Atacama Desert. The sequence of elements showed in a, arranged from left to right, comprises photovoltaic panels, a hydrogen storage tank, a fire wall to mitigate potential flammability hazards associated with hydrogen, a rack containing three fuel cells, a water purification system, and a reverse osmosis system. Additionally, the facility also includes two racks with four electrolyzers and a hydrogen purification unit each. Auxiliary systems Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW such as a water storage tank and a battery bank will be located outside of the 8 ofcontainer 13 to complement the P3H2V plant. (a) (b) Figure 5. (a) Schematic representation of the Green Hydrogen Mobile Pilot Plant (Planta Piloto Figure 5. (a) Schematic representation of the Green Hydrogen Mobile Pilot Plant (Planta Piloto Móvil de Móvil de Hidrógeno Verde, P3H2V) (b) Photograph of P3H2V conducting measurements in the Hidrógeno Atacama Verde, P3H2V) (b) Photograph of P3H2V conducting measurements in the Atacama Desert. Desert. The production of GH with the P3HV plant is expected to yield a daily output rang- ing from 2.0 to 2.5 kg H2. The operation of the P3HV system is composed by three primary subsystems, illustrated in the flowchart shown in Figure 6. Firstly, the photovoltaic panels, with a total installed power of 31.8 kW, are set at the beginning of each measurement “campaign” for photovoltaic energy generation. 27.2 kW of them are allocated for the elec- Energies 2023, 16, 4509 8 of 12 The production of GH with the P3HV plant is expected to yield a daily output ranging from 2.0 to 2.5 kg H2 . The operation of the P3HV system is composed by three primary sub- systems, illustrated in the flowchart shown in Figure 6. Firstly, the photovoltaic panels, with a total installed power of 31.8 kW, are set at the beginning of each measurement “campaign” for photovoltaic energy generation. 27.2 kW of them are allocated for the electrolyzers in the hydrogen production system, and 5.4 kW are used for the auxiliary equipment of the plant. The production of H2 by electrolyzers is the second subsystem, which uses water fed from the WTM-01 tank. The water in the tank has been conditioned beforehand in the reverse osmosis and deionization units, to decrease its electrical conductivity to 20 mS/cm or less (tolerance accepted by electrolyzers). The production system comprises eight anion exchange membrane (AEM) electrolyzers with a total installed capacity of 20 kW, marked EZ-01 to EZ-08. In them, the water is dissociated into hydrogen and oxygen inside of two separate chambers. While sunlight is available, the electrolyzers are powered by the photovoltaic panels. The H2 produced contains a small fraction of water vapor, so that, it is sent to H2 dryer-type purifiers, HPS-01 and HPS-02. This achieves a purity level of 99.999% because water is the main impurity the outcome from the electrolyzers of the facility. The H2 is then stored in a type IV tank at 35 bar pf pressure or used directly in the fuel cell bank. The O2 produced in the process is vented out of the container. Lastly, the H2 fuel cells for power generation constitute the third subsystem. It is composed of proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell bank, FC-01, FC-02, and FC-03, totalizing a maximum capacity Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 13 of 3.3 kWp. The fuel cells are fed by H2 coming from either the production system or from H2 storage area, through compressors integrated inside the fuel cells. The subsystems enable a catalytic electrochemical reaction that generates useful electricity, which can be either stored electricity, in a can which battery bankstored be either or usedin as backupbank a battery power to power or used the electrolyzers as backup power to powerwith electricity the when solar electrolyzers with radiation electricityiswhen intermittent, as well is solar radiation asintermittent, for the plant’s as utilities well as such as for the lighting, plant’s screen,such utilities and ascomputers, among and lighting, screen, others. computers, among others. Figure 6. Figure Simplified Flowsheet 6. Simplified Flowsheet of of Green Green Hydrogen Hydrogen Mobile Mobile Pilot Pilot Plant Plant (Planta (Planta Piloto Piloto Portable Portable de de Hidrógeno Verde, Hidrógeno Verde, P3H2V). The P3H2V The P3H2V facility facility operates operates by by supplying supplying solar solar electric electric power power and and desalinated desalinated water water to the electrolyzers during daylight hours, resulting in the production of H , which to the electrolyzers during daylight hours, resulting in the production of H22, which is then is then stored in a type IV gaseous storage tank. During periods of limited solar resources, stored in a type IV gaseous storage tank. During periods of limited solar resources, such such as in in as thethe afternoons afternoonsandandnights, or or nights, when thethe when performance performance of the electrolyzers of the drops electrolyzers dropssignifi- sig- cantly, the fuel cells are activated to generate electricity. This innovative approach nificantly, the fuel cells are activated to generate electricity. This innovative approach en-enables ables the P3H2V facility to leverage the surplus of solar energy for the generation of elec- trical power, thereby achieving sustainable and efficient energy production and manage- ment. The sampling campaign will consist of a minimum of 16 selected points (See Figure 7), which will be chosen based on their scientific and technological interest, utilizing the Energies 2023, 16, 4509 9 of 12 the P3H2V facility to leverage the surplus of solar energy for the generation of electrical power, thereby achieving sustainable and efficient energy production and management. The sampling campaign will consist of a minimum of 16 selected points (See Figure 7), which will be chosen based on their scientific and technological interest, utilizing the methodological criteria described below. Table 3 provides a detailed outline of the experimental design and georeferencing of the sites. The sampling campaign was designed based on several criteria, including: 1. Distance between points: A maximum of 100 km between consecutive points has been set. 2. Altitude variation: The campaign will prioritize validation at different altitudes up to those relevant to the mining industry (~4000 m above sea level) in order to obtain data of the sensitivity of the PEM Fuel Cell to altitude. 3. Solar irradiation: The Antofagasta Region has favorable irradiation conditions, but local topography may affect the performance of photovoltaic panels. Thus, this factor Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW has been considered as well. 4. Logistics: Diverse factors, including proximity to roads, terrain inclination, topo- graphical flatness of the terrain, availability of municipal permits, access for transport trucks, and the public or private nature of the domain. Figure 7. Map of P3H2V monitoring campaign (approximation). Figure 7. Map of P3H2V monitoring campaign (approximation). Table 3. Georeferencing of the initial proposal for the P3H2V sampling campaign showed in 7. Energies 2023, 16, 4509 10 of 12 Table 3. Georeferencing of the initial proposal for the P3H2V sampling campaign showed in Figure 7. Location Latitude Longitude 1 Ollagüe 21◦ 130 2.40” S 68◦ 140 28.82” W 2 Quillagua 21◦ 420 17.49” S 69◦ 320 0.05” W 3 Barriles 22◦ 90 58.77” S 70◦ 10 7.65” W 4 Calama 22◦ 260 3.76” S 68◦ 510 31.52” W Pass Jama/ALMA 5 23◦ 130 38.25” S 67◦ 50 50.34” W Observatory 6 San Pedro de Atacama 22◦ 540 48.35” S 68◦ 100 59.52” W 7 Sierra Gorda 22◦ 530 3.16” S 69◦ 180 44.53” W 8 Michilla 22◦ 420 6.80” S 70◦ 160 25.29” W 9 Peine 23◦ 390 53.88” S 68◦ 40 19.07” W 10 Mine Gabriela Mistral 23◦ 290 24.76” S 68◦ 480 55.43” W 11 Baquedano 23◦ 330 53.08” S 70◦ 140 34.97” W 12 Mine Zaldívar/Escondida 24◦ 130 57.79” S 69◦ 00 6.23” W 13 PSDA Antofagasta 24◦ 50 24.14” S 69◦ 550 44.29” W Pan American Highway 14 24◦ 290 48.43” S 69◦ 500 31.43” W North, Route 5 15 Paranal Observatory 24◦ 430 46.03” S 70◦ 210 49.35” W 16 Taltal 25◦ 340 7.19” S 70◦ 210 51.00” W By taking these factors into account for the design of the sampling campaign, it is expected to collect data that will contribute significant scientific and technical value. 3. Future and Perspectives Data from the preliminary analysis (five-day campaign) shows that a generation of the theoretical total of 2.8 kg/day-H2 is achievable, but in the first point of campaign, only an average of 1.8 kg has been achieved of H2 generated. The reduction in daily energy generation can be attributed to the soiling of the photovoltaic and the high temperature of the panels, which negatively impacts overall efficiency. Calculations indicate that the peak capacity is attained for five hours of the day, with a notable decline in power output observed during the afternoon. These findings highlight the relevance of addressing panel soiling to optimize energy production and guarantee consistent and reliable electrical output. Further research and development in this area may result in solutions for improving the performance and longevity of photovoltaic systems. Assessing parameters such as: Electrolyzers efficiency, hydrogen storage issues, and fuel cell utilization hold significant importance within the field of hydrogen generation, as the accurate measurement of these parameters is crucial in determining the overall efficiency of the process. In addition, the impact of seasons and day/night on photovoltaic power will be considered when generating this map. Therefore, a rigorous analysis of the measured parameters will be conducted to exclude any potential errors and establish potential of hydrogen generation in the Antofagasta region in an empirical basis and realistic conditions. The comprehensive mapping campaigns and the data obtained will be useful to develop a simulation-based regional map. The map will enable the identification of strategic points within the region that has the highest production efficiency. The simulation-based approach provides a more advanced and precise depiction of the hydrogen generation system, which enables the identification of potential bottlenecks and opportunities for optimization. This project aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the key factors influ- encing the efficiency of hydrogen production, storage, and utilization. The forthcoming publication of the full map of GH production under realistic field conditions by the end of this year is anticipated to significantly contribute to this endeavour. The growth of the GH energy industry presents various challenges that necessitate careful attention and proactive measures. These challenges include the requirement for large-scale technological industrialization, substantial investments, and coordinated efforts to meet the increasing Energies 2023, 16, 4509 11 of 12 demand for GH. Furthermore, there is an urgent need to cultivate a skilled talent pool proficient in electrolysis, hydrogen storage, fuel cell technology, and system integration. Overcoming these challenges calls for continuous research and development initiatives to drive innovation and surmount technical limitations. Collaborative actions involving governments, industry stakeholders, and research institutions are essential for overcoming these challenges and fostering a resilient and sustainable hydrogen economy. The insights derived from this study hold immense value for policymakers and stakeholders in the energy sector and industry, offering essential information to guide decision-making processes and strategic planning. While economic considerations are not the primary focus of this project, the findings and knowledge generated will contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of the technical aspects and potential applications of hydrogen in the region. This understanding can inform future economic assessments and decision-making processes, enabling a more informed and strategic approach to the development of hydrogen-related projects in the area. With the anticipated publication of the full map of GH production under realistic field conditions by the end of this year, stakeholders will have access to comprehensive data and analysis that can inform and support their efforts in advancing the hydrogen economy. Supplementary Materials: The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https: //www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/en16114509/s1, Table S1: With a list of projects currently declared under construction in 2021all Under going energy projects in Chile 2021. This list was used to plot the Figure 1. Author Contributions: Conceptualization, supervision, funding acquisition and researching L.M.; writing—original draft preparation, E.C.-A. and A.C.-A. based on inputs from L.M.; writing—review and editing, E.C.-A., I.C. and A.C.-A.; data acquisition J.S., N.S. and F.H.; PV advisor S.R. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Funding: We acknowledge financial support from for Gobierno Regional de Antofagasta and FIC-R project código BIP: 40033431-0. CICITEM is supported by the Gobierno regional de Antofagasta. ICN2 is supported by the Severo Ochoa program from the Spanish Research Agency (AEI, grant no. SEV-2017-0706) and by the CERCA Programme/Generalitat de Catalunya. Data Availability Statement: Under reasonable requested to the corresponding author (L.M.). Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. References 1. Bethoux, O. 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