Marine Policy 150 (2023) 105517 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Marine Policy journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/marpol Improving seafood systems with social network analysis: The case of cuttlefish marketing in Catalonia Sílvia Gómez *, Beatriz Patraca , José Luis Molina Dep. Social Anthropology Autonomous University of Barcelona Building B-Campus UAB 08193-Bellaterra (Cerdanyola del Vallès), Barcelona, Spain A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T Keywords: Innovation in seafood marketing has multiplied, resulting in a constellation of emerging marketing initiatives Cuttlefish marketing from the fishing sector and seafood distributors to cope with resources scarcity, uncertainty, and climate change. Social networks analysis Wholesalers, and retailers drawn on Social Network Sites (Facebook, Instagram, Whatsapp, Twitter, Youtube, Social media analysis TikTok) to disseminate the values associated with fish products. This study analyses the distribution network Seafood consumption Sustainability channels of the cuttlefish market in Catalonia (Spain) and the social media users. The methodology combines Digital ethnography social network analysis, digital ethnography, and qualitative analysis based on structured, semi-structured, in- depth interviews and images. Results suggest the existence of a paradox between the values of seafood products associated with "proximity," "local," and "seasonal products" cohabiting with market values adapted to the contemporary lifestyle of "convenience" and accessibility. The spread of gastronomic culture has popularised the demand for cuttlefish, increasing market diversification and growing competition between the buying and selling network actors. While distributors can obtain resources from different sources, fishers must cope with the lim­ itations of natural resources. We conclude that management plans should consider the integration of fishers in marketing channels and media discourses to improve the marketing of seafood products in pursuit of sustainability. 1. Introduction environmental companies launched marketing campaigns to cope with the supermarket competition, as pointed out in previous work [10]. Management plan regulations, including enhanced marketing cam­ Alternative marketing systems such as direct sales or short supply paigns, often reduce fishing capacity [1]. As a result, fishers’ strategies circuits give control back to the value chain, empowering fishers and to deal with scarcity, uncertainty, and climate change constraints, highlighting the challenges faced at the forefront of fishery governance tighten market competition ([10,29]; Prosperi, 2019). Hence, [45]. Furthermore, shifting the emphasis from production to small-scale fisheries today face transformative processes as a response to post-production, and focusing on added values, enhances fishermen’s the challenges posed by globalized markets [9,34,51,6], developed over commitment to resource protection within the ecological, social, and the past 50 years [2]. economic cycle [9]. In the case of Europe, there is a structural imbalance between high Therefore, new seafood marketing models, as part of the trans­ seafood demand and self-production capability [14]. As a result, there is formation of the agri-food system (Arthur, 2021; Ërtor-Akyazi et al., an increasing reliance on wild fish and aquaculture imports. This fact 2020; [10]), may be an opportunity window for the transition towards impacts local fish producers, who have increasingly reduced control sustainability and not just a way to optimize profitability in small-scale over local markets, losing bargaining power and influence on seafood fisheries (Gomez and Maynou 2021ab; [51]). Moreover, it makes fishers consumption (Gómez and [29]). In this vein, over recent years several co-responsible for localized sustainability problems [44] by turning marketing initiatives have emerged, promoted by different fishery ac­ them into active agents of fishery transformation ([10]b). Hence, sea­ tors (cooperatives, fishers’ guilds, individual fishermen, or small-scale food distribution linked to resilience in fisheries [45] is now at the core fishing associations, see Ërtor-Akyazi et al., 2020; [7]; Gomez & [29] of fishery policies [2]. The pandemic crisis reinforced this trend. The a; [35,40,41]). Wholesalers, retailers, fishmongers, and even disruption of the global seafood supply at the onset of COVID-19 * Corresponding author. E-mail address: silvia.gomez@uab.cat (S. Gómez). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2023.105517 Received 7 March 2022; Received in revised form 19 January 2023; Accepted 26 January 2023 Available online 6 February 2023 0308-597X/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). S. Gómez et al. Marine Policy 150 (2023) 105517 unveiled the weakness not just of global seafood markets [26] but also of local market systems, too dependent on hotels, restaurants, catering channels (“Canal Horeca” in Spain), and seafood imports. In addition, the situation in Spain, a country with high seafood consumption, was aggravated because of the lack of tourists during that period [32]. During the pandemic lockdown, the relocation of the seafood market and the closure of the Horeca channel pushed wholesalers and retailers to rely on domestic seafood distribution channels. This conjuncture boosted the proliferation of social media posts and online markets to reach consumers and encourage them to adopt new online purchasing patterns. Although with different impacts, this phenomenon occurred in different parts of the world ([25,46]; see also: https://www.iied.org/e­ valuating-impact-covid-19-pandemic-small-scale-fisheries-its-markets). The coronavirus pandemic was also an opportunity to reframe sea­ food value chains to engage with more local, green, inclusive, sustain­ able, and ethical food [21,26]. Simultaneously, images and values projected about seafood were increasingly more sensitive towards an environmental-health-based approach. In this vein, several authors indicated seafood as a potentially healthy and environmentally friendly product, high in protein and essential micronutrients, and low in CO2 emissions compared to other terrestrial animal production systems [5]. Specifically, the potential of cephalopods has been highlighted [31]. Hence, the post-COVID agenda [21] highlighted the plurality of positive values embedded in the value chain as a driver of decision-making for the consumption of healthy seafood. This paper describes the distribution network channels of cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis) in Catalonia (northeastern region of Spain) and the social media used by these channels to project positive values on seafood products. The study is the result of a research project conducted in collaboration with the cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis) co-management Fig. 1. Co-management committees in Catalonia: 1. Co-management plan on committee of the Gulf of Roses and Pals intended to develop a socio­ Sand eel; 2, 3: Co-management plan on Blue crab from Ebro Delta, and octopus from Ebro Delta; 4: Co-management plan on octopus from central coast; 5, 6,7: economic program.1 Currently, there are 20 small-scale fishers involved Co-management plan on small pelagic from Gulf of Roses, on cuttlefish from in this committee, two scientific members, one NGO, and the public Gulf of Roses and Pals; and small-scale fishing from Cap de Creus. administration representatives.2 Source: Jordi Rodon, Catalan Government. As part of the 2030 Catalan Maritime Strategy, the decree3 (118/ 2018, of 19 June 2018) on the governance model of professional fishing these objectives may help make fishing an attractive source of in Catalonia was passed in 2018 to establish co-management as a pro­ employment. active governance system that includes the viewpoints of different The Cuttlefish Co-management Committee of the Gulf of Roses and stakeholders (fishers, scientists, managers from public administration, Pals was the first committee created by the decree on the governance of and NGOs). This co-management system (Fig. 1) encompasses several professional fishing (118/2018, of 19 June 2018). Cuttlefish is a tradi­ co-management committees focused on specific species from different tional seasonal product of artisanal fisheries and falls in the scope of the areas along the Catalan coast (blue crab from the Ebro Delta, octopus co-management plan. Seasonality follows the criteria of traditional local from the Ebro Delta and central Catalan coast, small pelagic fish from ecological knowledge, which defines the local fishing calendar and its the Gulf of Roses, cuttlefish from the Gulf of Roses and Pals), co- market. Thus, the cuttlefish season is marked between January and June management committee for the sand eel fishery, and the co- when cuttlefish are adults. The fishing gear may be trammel nets or management committee of small-scale fishing in Cap de Creus. In trammel nets combined with traps. The latter is a traditional fishing gear addition, there are some preexisting management plans and fishery that was underused compared to trammel nets but has now been rein­ closures managed as an initiative of fishers’ guilds and by fishers troduced because of its lower impact. However, the peak of fishing oc­ themselves with the advice of expert scientists.4 curs around spring (between March and May), when the cuttlefish The main objectives of co-management governance are to improve reaches a size attuned to market preferences. This biological phase co­ the fishery’s natural resources, its economic profitability, and promote incides with the best weather for fishing. From June to August, few the historical and cultural values attached to the territory. Achieving fishers catch cuttlefish, and those who do use traps. During the summer, female cuttlefish stay in specific areas, looking for places to lay their eggs. They prefer the branches of bushes (mastic or mastic trees, Pistacia 1 lentiscus) for egg-laying, and fishers place them inside the traps to Funded by the European Maritime and Fisheries Fund (EEMF). 2 facilitate capture. However, it should be noted that catches at this time Oficial journal of the Catalan Government. Resolution of 16 December 2021, on the authorization of vessels for the shellfishing of cuttlefish with traps are low. Subsequently, from September to December, fishers voluntarily and trammel net within the scope of the management plan of the cuttlefish of stop this fishing when the species are juvenile and have little market Roses and Pals Bays. value.5 3 Decree 118/2018 of 19 June on the governance model for professional fishing in Catalonia published at the Official Journal of the Generalitat de Catalunya (DOGC-A-18170141–2018). The decree, sets out the guidelines for 5 Oral communication of a fisherman and a scientist working for the public the co-management decision making body (the co-management committee). 4 administration. Oral communication of Jordi Rodon, 18 of September of 2021, at 1st participatory process on small-scale fishing in Catalonia. See https://www. congresartsmenors.cat/. 2 S. Gómez et al. Marine Policy 150 (2023) 105517 The cuttlefish co-management plan approved in 2020,6 seeks to fix In this regard, it is worth noting that eating absorbs a considerable the practice of fishing using traditional ecological knowledge regarding part of human beings’ time, energy, and technical knowledge [17], seasonality. The plan aims to adopt the necessary measures (see [3]) to including odors, textures, and flavors. These characteristics have been protect and restore the resources according to maximum sustainable transferred to digital platforms with renewed strength through the yield. Fishers suggested creating three closed zones to recover the eggs exhibition of food and cooking, highlighting in several cases social and trapped in the net, with the intention of producing the effect of a environmental responsibility. Information shared through social media nursery. Also, there is a limitation on cuttlefish fishing permits. More­ can be conceived as ongoing conversations among diverse actors [19]. over, combining trammel nets and traps is a suitable option since the This complementary analysis is essential because the consumers catch targeted by each fishing gear corresponds to a different fraction of generate the content through digital tools that widen the traditional the cuttlefish population, reducing the impact of the activity on the "word of mouth," resulting in a plurality of social influence processes ecosystem. Also, the mesh size of the network is limited to 20 cm. [8]. Finally, to reinforce the traditionally established seasonality, a 60-day long closure on cuttlefish starts in September until the end of October, 2.1. Trade actor networks with a ban on recreational fishing. Cuttlefish is a highly valued product of small-scale fishing, very In this section we follow Trivette’s [48] work as a guide for applying popular in Catalonia’s regional local gastronomy [28]. Despite the low social network analysis to food marketing channels, identifying the ac­ impact of small-scale fisheries compared to trawl fisheries, the increase tors engaged in buying and selling seafood, and defining their ties. in small-scale fisheries’ catches points toward the progressive intensi­ Firstly, we collected relational attributes (from May to September fication of fishing efforts on cuttlefish affecting its availability [28]. 2021) through structured interviews (see supplementary material) with In short, this study aims to identify how commercial channels affect open-ended questions to 22 seafood distributors from the three existing cuttlefish production and consumption. We adopt a relational approach profile groups of distributors (5 wholesalers, 15 retailers, 2 “alterna­ to describe this "meshed network of formal and informal producers, tives”). The interviews were conducted mainly face-to-face and, in a few distributors, retailers, and consumers" ([26], p. 8), including social cases, by phone or email. In this case, wholesalers supply the Horeca media usage. We conclude with some recommendations to improve channel but also retail sales (fishmongers); retailers correspond to co-management systems toward sustainability. proximity fishmongers, marketplace fishmongers, and direct selling to end customers in supermarkets. Finally, the label “alternatives” refers to 2. Materials and methods the retail sale of selected products under proximity and environmental care criteria. This research combines a variety of methods, including interviews, With the help of the fishmongers’ and wholesalers’ guilds and social network analysis of marketing networks, social media, whether as fishers’ guilds, we selected different profiles of seafood distributors. an online marketplace or as showcasing the product, and digital There are 41 wholesale companies registered in the fish wholesalers’ ethnography. Social networks are actors (individuals, organizations, guild of Catalonia (https://www.gmpbcn.com/). Wholesale companies enterprises) linked to each other by relationships. It combines the that operate only in Catalonia used to be of medium size (employing quantitative mathematical approach of graph theory with the qualita­ around ten workers). At the same time, larger companies (employing tive approach of social science, providing comprehensive explanations more than 20 workers, even hundreds) distribute to other wholesalers in of social relationships [39]. The graphs enable us to visualize these Catalonia, Spain, and even to other countries in Europe. As regards re­ networks, along with the computation of centrality measures [30,52]. tailers, they vary from being a one-person company to companies Fig. 2 presents the methodology. employing between one and five workers, or up to ten workers, and 80% Digital ethnography is the participant or non-participant observation of them operate in the metropolitan area of Barcelona (https://gremi­ of social interactions and posts in digital settings [22]. It inquires about peixaters.cat/agremiats/#). Under the category of "alternatives," ac­ ways of life in a digital, material, and sensorial world [36]. Also, it refers cording to previous work (see Gómez and [29]), there are 15 initiatives to an existing continuum of actions online and offline, assuming that in Catalonia. We selected two of these for our study. One represents an both are in constant feedback. It is also “a way to conceptualize how the autonomous fishers’ initiative, whereas an environmental enterprise social media ethnographer makes ethnographic places that are traceable promoted the other. Also, one alternative was from Barcelona, and the on the web” ([38], p. 127). In our case, we study this continuum by other was from a coastal village in the Girona province. To maximize analyzing and observing the use of social media by participants (re­ diversity, we took great care in selecting different profiles to illustrate tailers, wholesalers, and others). The researchers complemented the the different realities. Two of the five wholesalers are large-sized com­ observation with comments, interactions (likes), and direct questions (e. panies, and the other three are of medium size. Seven retailers are from g., We have seen that you have prepared a special basket for paellas and it has the Girona province (three located in the rural inland area), and eight been successful on Instagram. Has this been reflected in sales?). are from Barcelona. We built a data matrix of the cuttlefish trade net­ With this aim, we adopted a convenience sampling strategy, looking works based on the participants’ nominations, irrespective of the to maximize the diversity of types of actors and tracking trends grouped geographic location. under specific hashtags. Therefore, our approach, like most qualitative Secondly, the study reconstructs two types of networks using research, is non-probabilistic. The lack of statistical representativeness is different name generators [43]. The first type elicits the main suppliers: offset by depth in understanding, interpretative enrichment, and Who are my suppliers? The second type, the main customers: Who are my meaning. This strategy allows us to explore a) who are the actors in the customers? Hence, for the first type, to stimulate the elicitation of names, production and consumption chain that are effectively involved in dig­ the name generator for distributor was as follows: Please tell us, ranking ital platforms, b) how cuttlefish is represented in the collective imagi­ them in order of importance, the main 5 suppliers in the last 12 months nation, and c) what are the values attached to cuttlefish, in special (indicating their approximate contribution to the trade volume). For the tradition, aspiration, and daily life. second type of network, the name generator was as follows: Please tell us, ranking them in order of importance, the main 5 customers in the last 12 months (indicating their approximate contribution to the trade volume, 6 ORDER ARP/166/2020, of 1 October, approving the Management Plan for see supplementary material). These networks illustrate the commercial the professional shellfishing of cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis) on the beaches of relations with wholesalers’ distributors, retailers, and “alternative” Pals and Roses and establishing an annual ban and a catch limitation for rec­ channels established between producers (fishers) and end users. After reational fishing. creating two data matrices, one for sellers and the other for customers, 3 S. Gómez et al. Marine Policy 150 (2023) 105517 Fig. 2. Methodology. we used the Gephi software [4] to visualize and calculate the centrality analyzed public digital resources used by the 22 interviewed distributors measures of the graphs. (Facebook, Instagram, Web pages, and Twitter) to identify the kind of The intensity of ties was measured with the participant’s estimation visibility of cuttlefish, customer interactions, and the frequency of use of of the trade volume, which can vary depending on the season and cut­ these media. tlefish availability (see supplementary material). This estimation rep­ As pointed out by Lewis [23], Titcomb [47], and [18], food comes resents the strength of the link between nodes. Consequently, those into play in social media through images uploaded on platforms like distributors with just one customer show thicker lines, whereas those Instagram. Therefore, Instagram emerges as an especially suitable place diversifying their supplies among different customers show thinner to capture visual narratives associated with products. ones. This visualization enables us to identify the prominent actors In order to address the visual narrative, we analyzed 200 images (customers) and to observe the degree of market diversification high­ from Instagram, using the hashtags #freshcuttlefish and #cuttlefish to lighted in different colors –red for Girona, green for Barcelona, and blue identify the values associated and the most frequent images showcased. for the rest of Spain. The yellow nodes are the alters, the actors nomi­ In addition, we analyzed 100 images used by the distributors: one nated by the interviewees. The labels are literal translations from wholesaler, one retailer, and one alternative. The visual narratives focus Catalan or Spanish versions of the questionnaire. on: (1) fishing and conservation, (2) selling and distribution, and finally, Finally, with the aid of structured interviews, we collected data on (3) consumption involving a broad spectrum of consumers: from the following topics: (1) Distributor identifying attributes (sex, type of households to relevant chefs. distributor, size of the enterprise); (2) Division of work between men Data scraping was performed with the Phantombuster7 tool from the and women; (3) Selling of the product (most sold species, alternative or hashtag #sepiafresca. The images were published in a time frame from traditional channels); (4) Uses of Social Media (product exhibition, 2017/03/10–2021/01/04 and collected on 2021/06/21. It should be publicity, registration of orders); (5) Buying and selling (commercial noted that since the hashtag is not a Trending Topic and points to a local channels, perceptions, changes in recent years); (6) Characteristics of product, the time frame is extensive. An attempt was made to search the cuttlefish (labeling, valuing, qualities, management plan, customers’ using the term #sèpia (with an accent and as it is called in the area perception). studied), but it was discarded because, in general, users disregard orthographic accents in hashtags. Hence, we performed a manual screening to avoid polysemy (e.g. sepia color) and to adjust the search to 2.2. Social media analysis the region of interest, aided by the contextual data of the photographs, other hashtags, narratives, and geolocation. In addition to Instagram, we The analyses of visual discourse focused on the different possibilities under which users of digital platforms display cuttlefish to identify the implicit, explicit, congruent, and incongruent values of sustainability within the commercialization cycle. Through digital ethnography, we 7 Instagram Hashtag Collector from https://phantombuster.com/ 4 S. Gómez et al. Marine Policy 150 (2023) 105517 screened other social media sites to assess how cuttlefish is presented in must be diversified: “Cuttlefish is not a product with guaranteed supply, the three stages of the value chain: harvesting, sale, and consumption. before you could buy everything in the same place and now, I have to go to Using participant observation we collected complementary data from several places” (Man, retailer, E.1). “Cuttlefish is a product for retailers. In Youtube, TikTok, Twitter, and Facebook about the value of cuttlefish, France wholesalers already work (with cuttlefish), and they work very well. scenarios of presentation, textual and visual narratives around cepha­ In a ranking, cuttlefish is the top product sold. All year. (…)” (Woman, lopods, and recipes, among other issues through which cuttlefish are wholesaler, E.5). In this regard, France is an important supplier (Fig. 4) present in digital life thanks mainly to fishers, distributors, and espe­ as it is nominated several times under the label “France Britain”, cially end consumers. “Wholesaler from France” and “France”. Note that one nomination refers to "artisanal trammel" which refers 2.3. Structured and semi-structured face-to-face interviews to a type of supply but not a place. A trammel net is usually used by small-scale fishers when fishing cuttlefish. It is important to highlight Apart from social media data, additional data from structured in­ that this was the nomination of a distributor that we have categorized as terviews was analyzed to characterize marketing channels (supple­ an "alternative" whose value criterion for buying goes beyond the mar­ mentary material). Semi-structured, face-to-face interviews were ket value. Distributors nominate several buyers, fishmongers, and the conducted with key informants (2 alternative distributors, one whole­ Horeca channel in third place, which emphasizes its relative importance. saler, and one representative of retailers leading the Fishmongers’ Guild Next, they nominated national and European supermarkets, schools, and of Catalonia) to gain a better understanding of the actors’ social net­ cooperatives. While both kinds of supermarkets buy from wholesalers, works, buying and selling motives, and marketing strategies. The the other sells to wholesalers, retailers, and "alternative" distributors. wholesaler and the representative of retailers interviewed were selected The only exception is with cooperatives that exclusively buy from the on the grounds of their lengthy experience in the sector (more than 20 "alternatives." However, despite the irregular trade volume to schools years). In contrast, key informants representing the "alternatives" and cooperatives, the importance given to the proximity of the product correspond to owners of the first such emerged initiatives. should be observed. According to interviews, the criterion for buying In addition, we conducted two in-depth interviews with two key from cooperatives is "because it is more sustainable" or "to help fishers.". informants from the fishing sector (55 and 26 years old, respectively) to On the network "Who are my suppliers?", we observe (Fig. 4) that gather their views on marketing and labeling systems, the state of re­ distributors nominated large consumer groups (represented by single sources, the use of social media platforms, concerns, and alternatives to nodes), although each node represents a diversified group of consumers. meet the challenges. Both are members of the co-management com­ The most significant and most diversified group belongs to the node of mittee. The information was incorporated into an Excel database file to retail consumers, the "private individuals" (households), following facilitate triangulation with digital ethnography and social network different criteria for buying cuttlefish (such as price, origin, ecological analysis. awareness), and for where they buy (convenience, proximity, habits, social awareness). Similarly, the Horeca channel covers the everyday 3. Results menu of one humble bar to the gastronomic creations of the most recognized chefs. The nomination of retail consumers indicates the 3.1. Actors’ networks of buying and selling importance of serving private individuals (household consumption), whether at home or through establishments. 64% of distributors offer We have two types of social networks. In the first one (Fig. 3) we the possibility of home delivery via digital platforms, especially What­ observe the relations between the interviewees (green nodes for Barce­ sApp, among other kinds of apps. This trend has become popular since lona, red nodes for Girona, and blue nodes for national distributor) and COVID-19. the main customers (yellow nodes). The name generator is "To whom do I According to data obtained from the questionnaire to the distribu­ sell cuttlefish?". As we can see, the ties are of different thicknesses tors, it can be confirmed that even small fishmongers use WhatsApp and depending on the level of sales towards one type of customer or another. Instagram to contact customers. This is clear in one case that uses To obtain this information, we requested an estimation of the business WhatsApp Business, a WhatsApp group (client portfolio) through which volume over the past 12 months. individuals can place orders. The seller sends photos of the counter, and The second network (Fig. 4) presents the relationships between the customers order the product they will receive when the fishmonger interviewees: green for Barcelona, red for Girona, and blue for national closes. The payment is arranged afterward via bank transfer. A similar distributors. It also reflects the places or vendors from which they obtain app for Barcelona markets is called Manzaning App.10 the cuttlefish for resale (yellow nodes). The name generator is "From In Fig. 5 we can see that phone calls and WhatsApp are the most whom do I buy cuttlefish?". Likewise, we requested an estimation of the common communication tools (42%) to place orders, 19% email, 12% business volume over the past 12 months. use Instagram and the web page, 4% Facebook, and face-to-face makes When tracing the actors’ network between distributors and buyers up 37%, although for retailers the presence of customers in the estab­ (Fig. 3) we could clearly identify two main nodes, Horeca and fish­ lishment is important because the buying-selling practice is also a social mongers, as being assorted by retailers but also wholesalers. With event that increases customer loyalty. greater indegree8 three main nodes: retail consumers that correspond to Facebook is the favorite online platform for many fishmongers, private individuals (households) (15 nominations), Fishmongers (10), wholesalers, and retailers, mainly used as a showcase rather than as a and the Horeca channel (7). We can observe 42 nodes in the actors’ tool for receiving orders. Nevertheless, it is a digital space that hosts network between distributors and suppliers (Fig. 3), representing 21 customer interactions and suggestions (see supplementary material). distributors that sell cuttlefish and 21 buyers who purchase it.9 The The "fish basket" distribution (originated in agroecological short-circuit variation in the number of nodes in the two networks is important. chains) is an option aimed at promoting online sales, in addition to an The reason for this variation is the seasonality of cuttlefish in relation answer to "food disappointment" related to negative perceptions of to annual demand. In addition, as the distributors themselves say, there globalized agri-food systems and the institutions that control, partici­ is not enough product to supply all customers and the supply sources pate, and reproduce them. The "food disappointment" implies a lack of trust towards these systems motivated by ethical, environmental, and 8 Indegree is the number of edges incident in the node. 9 10 One informant did not answer the questionnaire on the name generator https://manzaning.com. This is an App that covers diverse Barcelona’s about buyers and suppliers neighbourhoods 5 S. Gómez et al. Marine Policy 150 (2023) 105517 Fig. 3. To whom do I sell the cuttlefish? or Who are my buyers? Interviewees from Girona (all the red nodes), Barcelona (nodes in green), and National distributor (in blue). Yellow nodes: alteri mentioned by interviewees when answering the questions. Fig. 4. From whom do I buy the cuttlefish? or Who are my suppliers? Interviewees from Girona (red nodes), Barcelona (green), and National distributor (blue). Yellow nodes: alters nominated by interviewees when answering the questions. health reasons (Gómez & Lien, 2017; Soler & Calle, 2010). As expressed by a wholesaler: "When the state of alarm started (because of COVID-19), I came up with the idea of "COVID baskets". As there were no restaurant ser­ vices, I implemented this service" (Man, Wholesaler, E.7). At first glance, the "fish basket" model promotes values of proximity, fair trade, and product seasonality congruent with the ideas of sustain­ ability. Although alternative distributors, such as consumer co­ operatives, preserve these values and use these distribution channels, the booming eco-baskets have transformed into "market baskets" based on demand and not on the product’s origin or seasonality. Paying attention to commercial relations between distributors and their direct suppliers (Fig. 4), in first place, we can observe the origin of cuttlefish being Mercabarna (wholesale distribution of the food sector in Barcelona, n = 9), Roses Fishers’ Guild (n = 8), France (n = 5), and Fishers’ Guild of Catalonia (n = 5). We distinguish the Roses Fishers’ Fig. 5. Ordering and selling channels. Informants were asked to indicate what Guild from the Fishers’ Guild of Catalonia because of its importance in channels they used from a list of options (face-to-face, Phone call, Whatsapp, Girona. Taking into account the geographic distribution of in­ Instagram, Facebook, E-mail, Web page). termediaries, the percentage of trade is meaningful. Looking at the graphs, we can observe that retailers, especially from Barcelona, buy all 6 S. Gómez et al. Marine Policy 150 (2023) 105517 of their products at Mercabarna instead of diversifying across different and “quality” followed by “taste” and “popular”. As one distributor ex­ places of buying as distributors from nearby provinces do. This is re­ presses: “(cuttlefish), it is already known, like bread, and people will eat the flected in the nomination of "Fishers’ Guilds of Catalonia" as one node bread they can eat” (Woman, wholesaler, E.5). Cuttlefish is a product that without distinguishing which ones and the trade but differentiating it is considered “popular” and “traditional” since it is one of the most from Mercabarna and cuttlefish imported from other places like established cephalopods in the Mediterranean diet. Despite other species Morocco and France. Retailers from the provinces of Catalonia usually having gained ground in daily consumption, cuttlefish is considered a distribute their products to local fishmongers out of the influence of the lifetime product: “culturally it has always been consumed, we did not know metropolitan area of Barcelona, mostly in coastal areas. Also, there is a other cephalopods. It is cuttlefish or squid what was known and consumed, significant concentration of consumers consuming fresh fish from local not octopus”11 (Woman, wholesaler, E.6). sources. It is noteworthy that the characteristic “sustainability” is the least Even so, 80% of local fresh fish is consumed in the metropolitan area mentioned. Distributors advertise this, particularly retailers: “Yes, of Barcelona. Purchases from France correspond to wholesale mid­ everything must be promoted, but no more catches, it must be sustainable. dlemen with high percentages of buying -between 40% and 90% of the Diversifying: adapted seabeds and producing reservoirs of controlled pro­ total of cuttlefish-; in contrast to the “Fishers’ Guilds of Catalonia” with a duction” (Man, retailer, E.17). percentage of between 30% and 10%. This situation reflects the differ­ As regards artisanal small-scale fishing, one retailer expresses the ence between main markets and complementary markets. In terms of desire to highlight the contradiction between the annual demand of network analysis, we can add that despite networks not being perfectly cuttlefish and the seasonality of this fishing with the need to diversify hierarchical, their accumulative effect distributes goods in a non- suppliers to provide for their customers throughout the year: “We lack uniform way since they distribute scarce resources in a deferential supply in quantity to make a "small industry" and the price paid at auction is way [52]. very high except, perhaps, in spring. If we sell fresh cuttlefish, we cannot count The distributors are fundamental agents to communicate and give on the fishing ports (as suppliers) because you run out. Unless you buy it value to cuttlefish. Despite market interests associated with the volume imported, or from Galicia or Huelva, you are not going to get anything.” of trade being a priority, added values are essential to sell the products in (Man, retailer, E.1). established market niches and emerging ones that will need to target The same comment on the final price of the product is also reflected new consumptions more aligned with sustainability criteria and re­ in a fisherman’s opinion: “The fishing gear is not valued in the end product sponsibility. In order to promote consumption, there are two aspects: (referring to the idea of sustainability often represented by fishing methods). first, the initiative and experience of distributors, and second, the needs Some end customers value it but most people say: Oh, this is too much! I don’t of consumers in light of their diversity and priorities at the time of want it! We’ll find it cheaper, despite being from Indonesia, or wherever, that purchase. Detecting necessities and priorities enables us to address the doesn’t matter” (Fisher, E.27). research of mechanisms derived from prevailing narratives based on Despite the importance of the idea of “sustainability” used in pro­ values (proximity, sustainability), economy (price), culinary aspects motional messages, as cuttlefish is demanded all year, distributors (taste, versatility), and traditional and alternative ways of selling. manage to always have a supply of cuttlefish regardless of the geography We should also be aware that on social media, we find the aspira­ and the fishing methods, two aspects highlighted as definers of sus­ tional component that undermines what we want to project and only tainability. France and Morocco, followed by the Netherlands, have sometimes corresponds with reality as a whole. This is a weakness in the been identified as potential suppliers when necessary. Also, being sup­ method. In order to understand how these factors operate we must plied from abroad enables more affordable prices, lower than provided research the discourse and the perceptions of both distributors and by retailers: “There is a demand for cuttlefish all year, another thing is buyers as well as the discourses in social media. Before COVID-19, there whether or not we find it. Cuttlefish is our top-selling product. They demand were a lot of online markets and alternative initiative mechanisms such it, but they do not know whether it is seasonal or not, you can’t always find it. as “fish baskets” (Gómez & [29]). However, in 2020 we can state that, There is always frozen cuttlefish, from other places” (Woman, wholesaler, except for three cases, all actors identified in the study as involved in the E.6). “Cuttlefish is a product for retailers, when there isn’t (cuttlefish) the market cycle of the cuttlefish are represented on online platforms. Dis­ price is very high and few competitive and then, you acquire it (cuttlefish) tributors actively display their products and take sales orders through from other places” (Woman, wholesaler, E.5). these platforms. The results of 22 interviews with distributors show us On the contrary, we also can find alternative distributors that ensure the main characteristics identified for cuttlefish, as they have expressed they receive a supply by using two criteria: seasonal product and them (Fig. 6). The two most valued characteristics refer to “freshness” product of proximity. They also dictate the criteria of selling to the end consumer: “We mark the availability of the product and customers request when the product is available” (Woman, alternative distributor, E.2). 3.2. Visual narratives The most outstanding aspect of the visual dimension is the vast gastronomic offer around cuttlefish. The consumption of stylized images has consolidated food as a contemporary tool to define social belonging (Taylor and Keating, 2018). Metaphors and symbols such as abundance, pleasure, ethics, and the connection between human beings and culinary transformation processes take part in the digital quotidian showing a whole range of practices, technologies, discourses, and values, that, like the digital environment itself, evolve constantly ([24]; see Fig. 7). 11 Note that octopus has been popularized thanks to the Galician octopus. It was not until the 60 s and 70 s that octopus (Octopus vulgaris) is considered Fig. 6. In the interviews we suggested a series of characteristics attributed to important fisheries in northern Catalonia (for example Cap de Creus) with cuttlefish. The informants chose the values that most represent the product tourism. Octopus wasn’t valued in the local gastronomy or very few compared according to their perception. to other species. 7 S. Gómez et al. Marine Policy 150 (2023) 105517 cuttlefish compared to 7/200 of clean cuttlefish. We observe that cut­ tlefish also appears as part of a set over ice in fishmongers. By tracking the last 100 images on Instagram of those 3/22 interviewed (one retailer, one wholesaler, and one alternative) receiving orders through this platform, we can see that cuttlefish occasionally appear highlighted in front of other popular species, like tuna. There is a single cuttlefish exhibition (1/100) at the counter, together with other species. As regards wholesalers, cuttlefish only appears twice (2/100) in addition to other species and three times (3/100) as the main product, always raw and unclean, including recommendations about how to consume it following Asian recipes or with additional details about its chromatophore characteristics or the habitat. As regards the alternative distributor’s Instagram account, cuttlefish is the protagonist on four occasions (4/100), in images of cooked cuttlefish submitted by cus­ tomers, always according to traditional styles and popular dishes. Even though cuttlefish is a product with high price variability and constant Fig. 7. Percentage of visual presentation of cuttlefish on Instagram. demand, its image in social media is poor compared to tuna, salmon, and octopus. It is interesting to pay attention to the presence of recreational Many actors are on the digital food space: producers, cooks, sup­ fishing associated with cuttlefish on Instagram (Fig. 6), which appears porters, distributors, restaurants, and hotels. We observed these actors’ alongside images of nature. Recreational fishing for cuttlefish is a visual narratives of prepared foods through TV programs, commercial growing recreational fishing type that competes with artisanal fishing multimedia, YouTube, Instagram, and viral content spread from TikTok because of the lack of regulation despite the efforts made in this vein by among others. co-management committees. The co-existence of small businesses and amateur stakeholders in the Based on the grouping of images traced through different digital same spaces favors the spread of new ideas about food and the diversi­ platforms, we can see how cuttlefish appears in various scenarios fication of each stakeholder’s message: "Healthy Food," "Innovation," (Table 1). The images and videos show us the product’s quality, and "Proximity," "Home-Cooked meal," "Gastronomic Roots," "Use," importance. However, we also encountered images that do not promote "Ecological Products," and "Traceability." All these labels imply a critical values of care and environmental sustainability by presenting plastic shift in the digital consumer, from a passive actor to a culture of ex­ wrappings such as bags and boxes or styrofoam for product trans­ change and prosumerism.12 portation and delivery instead of showing good product preservation, Furthermore, as expressed by a representative of fishmongers in freshness, and security. As regards YouTube, we mainly find traditional Catalonia, cuttlefish is a product that fits with today’s lifestyle under­ preparations made by amateurs and promoted by renowned chefs and pinned by social relationships, the worship of the person, the body, and TV productions that have joined the rise in food exhibitions. The fishing health. All these aspects are represented in social media and contrast sector is also represented and valued but to a lesser extent. with what food represented in earlier times, especially after Franco’s dictatorship and later (between the 1960 s and 1980 s) when overeating 4. Discussion was a sign of socio-economic well-being and status. “Now food is not a priority, now the priority is the attention to the person, Cuttlefish is a top-rated seafood product, particularly in Catalonia, the body, health, human relations belonging to collectives, that’s what it and is part of the most famous cephalopod-based dishes. With roots in is. It is a different relationship with food. Social priorities, trends, and traditional Catalan gastronomy, cuttlefish is linked to domestic meals comforts move us. Cephalopods is a comfortable product” (Fishmonger and promoted by chefs. The commodification of gastronomic culture has representative, E. 24). popularized its consumption, highlighting it as an accessible product: easy to cook, nutritious, tasty, and reasonably priced. In addition, the The results of searching for the combination of both hashtags notion of cultural heritage encapsulated in traditional dishes combines #freshcuttlefish and #cuttlefish tracked in 200 photographs from Insta­ modern food ideas with innovation (with modern dishes or embracing gram according to the foodporn13 concept, show us the predominance of cultural diversity). Nevertheless, the supply of cuttlefish relies on the representation of cooked cuttlefish. Cuttlefish as the dish’s principal importation. The cuttlefish season in Catalonia is from January to June. element, or alone, appears 65 times, prepared following traditional Since 2020 a two-month closure (September and October) has been recipes (according to traditional Catalan dishes such as "meatballs with introduced as a preservation measure promoted by the co-management cuttlefish" or "cuttlefish with peas"). Cuttlefish combined or mixed with plan14 to ensure sustainability. other ingredients appears on 83/200 occasions, primarily cooked Therefore, local producers cannot supply their year-round demand following traditional recipes or combined with other styles: "cuttlefish despite being sold as a local product or, at least, a product rooted in the fettuccine," "cuttlefish tajine with lemon.". local culture. Traditional dietary systems based on local and seasonal Unclean raw cuttlefish appears frequently compared with clean raw foods, such as the Mediterranean diet, have been noted as healthy and cuttlefish because distributors traditionally associate unclean raw cut­ ecological, addressing sociocultural and socioeconomic aspects by tlefish with freshness. We have found 25/200 photographs of unclean linking consumption with distribution and production [42]. However, while cultural food preference has focused on recipes, cooking methods, and meals, it needs to pay attention to the quantity of consumption and 12 Prosumerism refers to the action of being a prosumer. Prosumers are con­ its distribution in daily diets throughout the year. sumers than incentive consumption thanks to the influence they can exert over Defining the seasonality of the product is more complex than it their digital followers when they generate content related to producers’ and sellers’ offers. As for the food, the consumer is not the last step of the chain but using exhibition and recreation of foods can start a new cycle of a specific type 14 of consumption (Lewis and Philipov, 2018) Oficial Journal of the Catalan government. ORDER ARP/166/2020, of 1 13 Foodporn is the glamourized visual presentation of cooking, or the pre­ October, approving the management plan for the professional shellfishing of sentation of food in advertisements, info-marketing, blogs, and other visual cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis) in the bays of Pals and Roses, and establishing an means. annual closure, and a limitation on catches in recreational fishing. 8 S. Gómez et al. Marine Policy 150 (2023) 105517 Table 1 the challenges of seafood consumption for the coming years ([33]; Ideas and associations of cuttlefish (Facebook, Twitter, Youtube, and TikTok). Guillen et al., 2019). Consumer cooperatives promote short supply cir­ Phase in the Visual Images Ideas and associations cuits through “basket fish” delivery as “alternative” marketing routes value chain narrative that are environmentally friendly (Gómez & [29]). Harvesting Nature Sea bottom, other Calm, balance, This delivery strategy incorporated recently by wholesalers and re­ marine species, wellbeing. tailers, particularly during the COVID-19 lockdown, was an opportunity sand, water. to reach consumers at home. Nevertheless, it is important to attach Harvesting Tools and Fishing gears, Work, tradition, efforts environmental values to the "basket" to conciliate demand with stock crafts fishing vessels Harvesting Special pieces Big cuttlefish, Trophy, exception, availability. The results in Table 1 show how different ideas are asso­ important good product, nature ciated with different stages of the value chain, mixing seafood locali­ production zation values with images of plastic or polystyrene that do not allow for Harvesting Preservation Ice, water, plastic Production, processing, reconciling a clear idea of sustainability. Considering that the industri­ and boxes, package. industrialisation. alization processes identified through packaging images have reduced distribution Sale Offers and Prices, offers, Opportunity, business, the global lack of food supply, local food sustainability is questioned posters posters, pictures, invitation. [20]. On the other hand, the environmental consequences arising from logos, designs industrialization may be weaknesses in sourcing as consumers become Sale Display Ice, other marine Trust, freshness, dependent on global trade, as experienced with the COVID-19 closures. counter species, sellers, quality, variety buyers, Markets. In this vein, Kaiser and Algers [20] suggest that ethics cannot be assessed Sale Seafood Product Proximity, offers, through consumer choices or the environmental impacts of one type of baskets and assortment, other variety production but through all the choices that affect the value chain. orders marine species, Nevertheless, the global-local interaction of the value chain in a sus­ special orders. tainable relationship remains complex. Sale Clean and Cleaned and Clean: easy, availability Unclean uncleaned Unclean: quality, Some scholars point out that markets should be reframed through cuttlefish cuttlefish seasonality, tasty, pure. relational strategies beyond "simple market transactions" (Gutierrez & Sale Storage and Plastics, Product cleaning, Morgan, 2015; [45], 2019). Conversely, some others [50] state that local distribution polystyrene, ice, pollution, bargage. seafood supply chains are not enough to transform sustainable fisheries freezy because of their dependence on global markets. This paper describes Consumption Local cuisine Rice, olive oil, Tradition, homemade, vegetals, aromàtic delicious, memories, how local seafood production chains interact with global seafood sys­ herbs, other nutritive. tems. The social embeddedness of economic exchange relationships [13] marine species is an essential driver of the seafood market, increasingly diversifying its Consumption Cooking Fire, knives, Effort, transformation, marketing supply channels. More attention should be paid to the effects Processes kitchens, pans, skills. plates. social relationship networks may produce on consumers’ behavior. Consumption Haute cuisine Innovative and Surprise, curiosity, Adjusting production to demand by de-commodifying the seafood cul­ traditional innovation, gourmet, ture even when food marketing contains non-market or added values. ingredients, sophistication, fusion The promotion of added value to seafood must take into account local culinary cuisine. indicators to ensure fishing sustainability. Whereas the "embeddedness techniques Consumption Household Fireplace, grill, Family, meeting, of market" (in the sense of [37]) through different marketing initiatives environment plats, pans, tradition, good meal gaining ground in online platforms can prevent market failure [16], household kitchen. educating the consumption experiences could prevent poor adjustments Consumption Gastronomic Professional Aesthetics, of demand to local, sustainable production. As [16] stated, "Institutions, environment cooking, design professionalism tableware, both formal and informal, play a key role in shaping the value chain/pro­ lighting. duction networks in terms of facilitating or constraining growth.". Product certification of sustainable indicators has been pointed out as an efficient solution to ensure fishing sustainability that may act as seems. For example, many consumers associate product seasonality with added value [15]. An aspect that should be considered as part of the locally produced food, although it only sometimes meets the criteria of a co-management plan is the certification of the co-managed cuttlefish seasonal product. Furthermore, seasonality is associated with fruits and according to sustainable indicators. We add that fishers must be inte­ vegetables but not so much with other crops and animals [27]. The grated into the "embeddedness of the market" as a strategy to improve de-seasonality of popularized traditional dishes forces the market to seafood marketing systems and meet sustainability criteria. Data on supply the availability of this product from other places. As pointed out imported cuttlefish and its fluctuation in price coincide with fishers’ by Tsounis (2022), the variation in demands according to the dietary concerns regarding the availability of stocks and the final price. Dis­ preferences of consumers has ecological consequences. As stated by tributors can get supplies from different sources, while fishers must deal [49]), the homogenization of lifestyles and the shifts in consumption with natural resource constraints and fishery regulations. habits may produce ecological instability, affecting fishing activity. Although we do not know to what extent distributors can mediate Global-local paradoxes are projected regardless of whether pro­ between market demand and fishery production, its influence has been moters are wholesalers or retailers. On the one hand, as we can see in the demonstrated in fishers’ behavior [12]. Stressors such as environmental results, the idea of local traditional products is reinforced despite not change, the state of commercial fish stocks, and market competition respecting the seasonal value of the product. On the other hand, prod­ mean that distributors have to contend with the availability of resources ucts from elsewhere with a strong production of wild fish and aqua­ in trying to shape the consumer behavior of contemporary society in culture dominate the space. their favor. A consumption culture needs to be further developed to The need to integrate plurality and divergent values influencing food recover the cultural heritage of fishing, its culinary practices, and soci­ decisions [21] should be reviewed to prevent large producers from oecological embeddedness. permeating consumer preferences to the detriment of environmental sustainability. Increasing seafood consumption at the expense of 5. Concluding remarks depending on imports could reverse the environmental value of fish production low in CO2 emissions. International transportation is one of This paper stems from research carried out for practical purposes to 9 S. Gómez et al. Marine Policy 150 (2023) 105517 develop a series of suggestions that help the cuttlefish fishing and for the implementation of a socio-economic program” under the grant marketing chain. Therefore, it is an exploratory study investigating agreement ARP163/21/000023. We acknowledge all fishers and sea­ various possibilities and seeking a panoramic view. One of this study’s food distributors that kindly participated in the project as well as we weaknesses is that it is confined to a defined space and time and could be express our appreciation to all persons who shared with us their valuable improved if it were a longitudinal study that could also better capture knowledge by collaborating. We would also like to thank Eva Visauta, the effects of the social and economic changes resulting from COVID. from the public administration and secretary of the cuttlefish co- Another weakness could be its exploratory character: although it is a management committee, who is always available to help and provide strength to obtain a complete overview of the situation, it needs to information. further explore both the method and its development and analysis. Our study points out that it is essential to integrate local fishers in Appendix A. Supporting information marketing channels and media discourses to ensure more "socio- ecologically embedded market networks," both locally and globally. Fair Supplementary data associated with this article can be found in the and equitable consumption with the environment and the producer must online version at doi:10.1016/j.marpol.2023.105517. also be promoted. 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