Ocean and Coastal Management 236 (2023) 106502 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Ocean and Coastal Management journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ocecoaman Children’s interaction with ecosystem services in a mangrove forest: Perceptions of fisherfolks on the involvement of minors in fishing activities in the Gulf of Fonseca in Honduras Isidro Maya Jariego a, *, Daniel Holgado a, Andrea Cecilia Castillo b, David Florido del Corral a, Sílvia Gòmez Mestres c a Universidad de Sevilla, Spain b Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Honduras, Honduras c Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T Keywords: This study examines the participation of minors in fishing activities in the communities settled in the mangroves Fishing communities of the Gulf of Fonseca, in Honduras. With a survey of 88 fishermen from San Lorenzo (in the province of Valle), Child labour we describe the perception of adults regarding the involvement of minors in fishing and we examine the threats Ecosystem services to the mangrove ecosystem on the Pacific coast. To complete the case study, 11 qualitative interviews and 2 focus Mangroves groups with key informants were conducted. The results revealed that children start to perform pre-work ac­ Honduras tivities around the age of 11 or 12. The contact with nature in complementary shellfish harvesting and fishing activity is perceived as contributing to the improvement of their understanding of nature in general and about the ecosystem services of the mangrove in particular. This assessment of child labour practices when minors collaborate in family subsistence activities, highlights the need to ensure local traditional knowledge trans­ mission that should be integrated as part of formal education, which may help reinforce the fishing community future implication in conservation bottom-up initiatives at the same time that prevent child labour malpractices. 1. Introduction 1.1. Minors, fishing communities and mangroves Children’s interaction with nature develops their understanding of Tropical coastal mangroves are highly productive ecosystems that the surrounding ecosystem services, strengthens their ability to adapt have experienced significant biodiversity decline in recent years (Canty and promotes a sense of attachment to the place (Lindahl, 2005; Louv, et al., 2018; Soanes et al., 2021). Together with the impact of climate 2005, 2005b). However, this interaction also imbues “child labour" change, they are subjected to strong pressures related to aquaculture, practices1 (Maya-Jariego, 2021), such as the participation of minors in agriculture, logging and coastal urban development. This has led to a fishing, herding or agricultural activities. In this study we explore to deforestation of over a third of the surface area of mangrove forests over what extent the collaboration with subsistence tasks carried out by a decade (Duke et al., 2007). parents is perceived by local communities as a problem or an opportu­ The local fishing communities are among the groups with the most nity for the personal development of children. To do this, we base our direct interaction with the mangrove and that can be most strongly study on the case of fishing communities in the Gulf of Fonseca, in affected by this decline. Hence the need to find out the threats perceived Honduras, and we examine the link of minors with the natural envi­ by the group of fishermen, as well as their receptivity to accepting the ronment through their direct or indirect participation in fishing measures to mitigate them (Owuor et al., 2019). Many families who live activities. off fishing depend on the resources offered by the mangrove and are directly affected by the degradation of the ecosystem. The mangrove is a habitat that provides protection and food to a wide variety of marine * Corresponding author. Facultad de Psicología, Calle Camilo José Cela s/n, 41018, Sevilla, Spain. E-mail address: isidromj@us.es (I. Maya Jariego). 1 In other words, it has a negative impact on their health, psychological well-being or personal development. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2023.106502 Received 7 September 2022; Received in revised form 17 January 2023; Accepted 19 January 2023 Available online 25 January 2023 0964-5691/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by- nc-nd/4.0/). I. Maya Jariego et al. Ocean and Coastal Management 236 (2023) 106502 species (Stone et al., 2008), therefore, in addition to serving as a to November), combining the use of hooks and cast nets with fishing on breeding area, it allows them to catch fish, molluscs and crabs. It has also foot in the swamps. Thirdly, fishermen of the islands usually devote been used to obtain firewood or wood for construction. themselves to fishing in the open sea. Those two last groups occasionally The people who live near the mangroves know first-hand the combine their main fishing activities with farms, employment in aqua­ ecosystem services they provide and directly perceive changes in the culture and construction or tourist activities. ecosystem. In different geographical contexts, it has been shown that In the most recent registry, there was a census of 1180 small-scale these communities are aware of the decline in provisioning services and, fishing vessels at 35 landing points on the Honduran coast of the Gulf more specifically, of the negative impact generated by both illegal log­ of Fonseca. Of these, 80% were active, implying a capacity of approxi­ ging and the progressive reduction of the mangrove surface area mately 2000 fishermen in the area. The daily departure involved some (Baremore et al., 2021; Caviedes et al., 2020; Nyangoko et al., 2022). 330 boats, that is, 30% of the total number of boats registered. Total The fishing activity is one of those that is directly affected by this whole catches in 2008 amounted to 4200 tonnes, mainly from fish (3400 process, reinforcing the subsistence economy. tonnes), and to a lesser extent shrimp (570 tonnes), mangrove cockles In these communities, children start fishing and learn the charac­ and crabs (230 tonnes) (Soto et al., 2012). In the last decade, species teristics of the ecosystem through their early experiences. Participation such as the catfish, grouper or shark have practically disappeared from in the activities carried out by their elders offers them an opportunity to catches, whereas wild shrimp are only found sporadically (Kurien, interact directly with nature and benefit from the intergenerational 2015). transmission of local ecological knowledge. The relationship with nature Alongside the degradation of ecological spaces in the Gulf of Fon­ contributes positively to child development (Summers et al., 2012), as it seca, a reduction in the volume of catches and in the profitability of the not only promotes greater environmental awareness (Cohen and fishing activity has been observed. The depletion of some populations of Horm-Wingerd, 1993), but it also improves the minor’s cognitive abil­ fish species has resulted in the need to search for new catch areas, which ities and degree of independence (Kahn and Kellert, 2002; Louv, 2005, has sometimes led to crossing the international borders of the three 2005b, 2005van Noy, 2008). For this reason, we have questioned countries that share the Gulf.2 The capture effort has also increased whether the participation of minors in the family subsistence economy considerably in recent decades. Fishermen have to spend more time and must be classified as “child labour” (Maya-Jariego, 2021), or whether more fuel to reach waters that are further and further away from landing the acquisition of popular knowledge about the natural environment is areas. On the other hand, the incipient entry of commercial and indus­ essentially incompatible with formal education (Reyes-García et al., trial fishing boats and the increased use of driftnets in small-scale fishing 2010). areas has further reduced the catches available (Lemay et al., 2007). Next, we focus on the specific case of the Pacific coast of Honduras. In the next two sections, we successively review the characteristics of the 1.3. The mangrove in the gulf of fonseca fishing activity and ecosystem services in the Gulf of Fonseca. This al­ lows us to describe the peculiarities of the socio-ecological environment Mangroves3 are forests of trees and shrubs that dominate the inter­ faced by minors who collaborate in fishing activities. tidal zone along coasts, estuaries and islands in tropical and subtropical regions (Macintosh and Ashton, 2002; Middleton and McKee, 2001). 1.2. Fishing in the gulf of fonseca Mangroves provide various ecosystem services that contribute to the well-being of the communities directly linked thereto (Brander et al., The expansion of small-scale fishing on the coasts of Honduras is a 2012). Among others, they fulfil duties of provision, regulation, habitat relatively recent phenomenon (MacKenzie and Stehlik, 1996). This type maintenance and cultural services (Spaninks and van Beukering, 1997). of fishing is key to the diet, economy and employment of coastal com­ However, mangroves are among the most threatened ecosystems in munities, mainly in remote areas or in areas with high levels of poverty, the world (Stevens et al., 2006). Because of their location, they are where there are no other alternative sources of income. In Honduras, vulnerable to natural agents such as hurricanes and storms. They are there are clear differences between the country’s two main fisheries: the also exposed to anthropogenic factors such as road construction, Caribbean and the Pacific Ocean. Small-scale fishing is prevalent in the pollution and tourism (Barbier and Cox, 2003). This disappearance of Gulf of Fonseca, where the lack of a consolidated infrastructure to mangroves has a profound impact on the vulnerability of coastal pop­ process catches reduces the marketing of fish mainly to the domestic ulations, especially in developing countries (de Souza Queiroz et al., market or to the nearby bordering areas of El Salvador or Nicaragua (Box 2017). and Bonilla, 2009). This is the case with Honduras: some of the threats and pressures Fishing is carried out on foot in the seasonal swamps and lakes to suffered by mangroves worldwide are clearly reproduced in the Gulf of catch mangrove cockles, clams, red mangrove crabs, shrimp larvae and Fonseca. In this inlet of the Pacific Ocean, overexploitation comes shrimp. Small boats, with net and hook gear, are also used to catch fish mainly from the extraction of wood for construction and firewood for and shrimp. The boats are made of wood and fibreglass, measure an fuel. At the same time, the transformation caused by the industrial average of 6 m in length, do not have a cabin and have 15-horsepower exploitation of shrimp and tilapia has considerably reduced the size of steam engines and a maximum capacity of one tonne. The product of the mangrove forest areas (Promangle, 2001). Children soon become small-scale fishing is intended mainly for self-consumption and local aware of the threats to the mangrove through their participation in the marketing. It is worth highlighting the lack of fish markets or organised daily activities of the fishing community, in direct interaction with collection spaces for the sale and marketing of catches. The most used adults. That is why the perception of the fisherfolks provides a valid system for the sale of fish is intermediation, which consists of marketing approach to how intergenerational transfer occurs. Adults transfer to the catches through a middleman, who is generally not from the fishing minors their vision of the ecosystem environment and of the fishing area, and who travels from cities in the southern region, or even from the activity itself. Central District, and sells the product at markets and other commercial In the case of the Gulf of Fonseca, there is an evident tension between premises in the country. In the Gulf of Fonseca, three groups of fishermen have been identi­ fied based on the type of fishing, the degree of dedication and the usual 2 This has caused an increase in disputes and conflicts between fishermen, as places of capture (Corea Flores, 2007). Firstly, open sea fishermen tend well as the seizure of their product and fishing gear by the authorities on to fish all year round, with intensive use of trammel nets and a great numerous occasions. diversity of species caught. Secondly, fisherman of lakes, within the 3 They are also known as “tidal forests”, “coastal forests” and “mangrove mangrove, tend to fish for half of the year, normally in winter (from May forests” (FAO, 1994). 2 I. Maya Jariego et al. Ocean and Coastal Management 236 (2023) 106502 logging and aquaculture activities, small-scale fishing and mangrove 1. How do the economic, ecological and social changes to which Pacific conservation. Moreover, the State has shown little ability to regulate and coastal communities are exposed affect family life and, specifically, control these activities. Hence why some international cooperation the early involvement of minors in work activities? initiatives have started to demand environmental conservation actions, 2. How is local ecological knowledge about the mangrove transmitted with the introduction of sustainable practices in aquaculture. For through the participation of minors in community life and small- example, investments have been made to farm tilapia in the high seas scale fishing? and reduce pressure on the mangrove, avoiding its deforestation for the installation of farming pools. It is also worth mentioning the Community The answer to these two questions will serve to propose appropriate Advisory Councils on protected areas, promoted by local organisations, management strategies in relation to an issue that has historically been which have made it possible to channel part of the local and interna­ neglected in coastal fishing communities. tional aid, creating participation spaces around the protection and regeneration of the mangrove (Flores, 2013). 2. Methods 2.1. Study area 1.4. Research questions This study was carried out in a fishing community in the municipality The participation of minors in fishing activity is important in the of San Lorenzo, in the Gulf of Fonseca (represented in Fig. 1). San Lor­ domestic economy of families. Especially in a context in which the enzo is the capital of the province of Valle, which forms the outlet of subsistence economy is threatened by commercial intermediaries, Honduras to the Pacific Ocean, together with the province of Choluteca. aquaculture companies and the over-exploitation of wood, among other The coastal areas located in both provinces are characterised by a high factors. Consequently, intra-family dynamics are decisive in the func­ population density, high levels of poverty and an accelerated deterio­ tioning of the socio-ecosystem. ration of natural resources (ACI-Participa, 2018). In this context, it is necessary to explore which activities carried out The Gulf of Fonseca is a bay shared by El Salvador, Honduras and by minors can be considered child labour and which are a form of Nicaragua. The region is formed by a system of water basins with coastal collaboration with livelihood activities with a recreational or educa­ and aquatic habitats that constitute the basis for the socio-economic tional dimension. Both the context of poverty and the value of local development of the area. The marine-coastal area occupies more than knowledge could help to better understand child labour in societies half of the stretch of the Gulf and is mainly made up of mangroves and based on subsistence economies. salt forests, estuaries, marshes and swamps. In total it occupies 8245 In this case study we examine community dynamics, fishing activity km2, including an aquatic area of 2015 km2 and a coastline of 400 km. and mangrove exploitation in a community in the Gulf of Fonseca in The wetlands cover approximately 1000 km2. The tropical dry forest Honduras. The objective of the research was to describe adult perception creates a contact line with the humid mangrove forest, generating a key of the relationship of minors with the environment through their ecological space in the Gulf. The beaches on these limits are spawning participation in work activities in the fishing sector. To do this, we and nesting areas for sea turtles and their estuaries serve as a habitat for combined the characterisation of the extractive activity in a fishing a large number of species of high ecological and commercial value. community with the assessment of the ecosystem services provided by Seasonal lakes are depressions below the mean high tide that connect the mangrove, paying particular attention to the fishing activity carried with the sea through estuaries (Corea Flores, 2007). During the summer out by minors. With these two elements, we intend to answer the (from December to April), the beaches are usually dry and unproductive following research questions. Fig. 1. Satellite image of the gulf of fonseca (source: National oceanic and atmospheric administration, NOAA. Public domain). Coordinates: 13◦ 15′ N 87◦ 45′ O. 3 I. Maya Jariego et al. Ocean and Coastal Management 236 (2023) 106502 for fishing. In winter (from May to November), they capture rainwater, questionnaire with questions on (a) socio-demographic, labour and and this is added to the contributions from the estuaries. Finally, the economic characteristics of the family home, (b) social participation and group of islands in the Gulf of Fonseca is a landscape of volcanic origin. sense of community, (c) ecological functions, situation and perceived These islands are made up of dry forest, with a stretch of relatively problems of the mangrove, (d) fishing activity and ecological knowledge accessible beaches along the coast, which constitute the area’s main and (e) child labour linked to fishing. To evaluate the functions and the tourist attraction. impact that child labour in fishing has on minors, a scale was applied The 80,000 ha of protected spaces form part of the Natural Protected that evaluated the degree of agreement with different results of this Areas Subsystem of the Southern Zone of Honduras. This subsystem is work on the child’s development and learning, as well as the possible made up of seven habitat or species management areas, two multiple-use benefits for families and the community environment. areas and a marine national park. Although the management of pro­ In the first phase, 11 individual interviews and 3 focus groups were tected areas in Honduras is the direct responsibility of the State, through conducted. The mangroves were visited, and the fishermen were the National Institute of Forest Conservation and Development, agree­ accompanied in some of the activities of fishing and capturing mangrove ments are also established with non-governmental organisations and cockles. The contacts with the informants were provided by a fish local entities for the shared management of these spaces. The Honduran merchant in the area with close ties to public services, local associations legislation defines management as a “shared management model, based and communities linked to the mangrove. Fishermen, mangrove cockle on a dynamic and systematic process, between the State, local govern­ catchers, and representatives of the Committee for the Defence and ments and organised civil society” (Mesa de ONGs Comanejadoras de Development of Flora and Fauna in the Gulf of Fonseca participated in Áreas Protegidas de Honduras, 2018, p. 9). This management is organised the qualitative interviews, along with members of non-governmental around four key elements: the guarantee of conservation, sustainable organisations and local public administrations, both from the San Lor­ use, governance and community participation with gender equity. In the enzo Mayor’s Office and the General Directorate of Fisheries and case of the Gulf of Fonseca, the private entity responsible for the shared Aquaculture. In the focus groups, information was obtained on the management of these protected areas is the Committee for the Defence educational context and the experience of children and teenagers in the and Development of Flora and Fauna in the Gulf of Fonseca. local ecological context. Teachers, families, children, workers in the fishing sector, administration officials and members of environmental 2.2. Participants protection associations participated in the groups. The participants signed an informed consent, in which they were given a guarantee of Interviewing adults provide instructive insights to children’s inter­ confidentiality and aggregate treatment of the information. The children action with nature because adults are part of children’s everyday spaces participated in the framework of an international cooperation project and activities in the municipality of San Lorenzo. To this end, a total of and had the signed authorization of their parents or guardians. 88 fishermen from the municipality of San Lorenzo participated in the The interviews and focus groups were transcribed and analysed by study, with an average age of 42.3 years (SD = 13.89 years). Almost all two independent researchers who identified key issues related to fishing interviewees are men (92.04%, n = 81). Most of them live in the activity, community processes and child labour. This information was neighbourhood of San José del Chaparral (79.5%, n = 70), whereas the used to prepare the instruments and collect information in the second rest came from other adjacent neighbourhoods such as Buenos Aires, part of the study. It was also used to prepare a qualitative report that was Buenos Aires South and La Ceibita. It is a population that is deeply independently reviewed by two anthropologists with international rooted locally, with little geographical mobility: 73% lived in the same experience in marine socio-ecological contexts. The scales used in the district in which they were born, while the remaining 27% came mostly survey are described in the next section. from other municipalities in the province of Valle or from other nearby provinces like Choluteca or Francisco Morazán. However, 20% of in­ 2.4. Instruments terviewees say they receive remittances from relatives living abroad, in most cases between 100 and 300 dollars per month. Goods and services of the mangrove. A list was used containing 25 The results of the interviews do not necessarily represent the actual possible functions related to (a) the provision of resources through perceptions of children themselves. fishing, agriculture and other human activities, (b) the regulation of the ecological space and protection against environmental phenomena, (c) 2.3. Procedure the conservation of biodiversity and ecological wealth and (d) the pro­ motion and maintenance of cultural and community processes. To pre­ The field work was carried out in two phases. Firstly, exploratory pare the list, the inventory of mangrove ecosystem functions created by visits were made to the area over three consecutive months, and meet­ Himes-Cornell et al. (2018) was used as a source. The list was completed ings were organised with fishermen and representatives of associations with the information contained in the first exploratory phase of the and public institutions. Specifically, members of the Mayor’s Office, the study. The interviewees had to assess the importance, both for the General Directorate of Fisheries and Agriculture, educational centres in community and for themselves, of each of these services on a scale of 1 the area, fishermen’s associations and various non-governmental orga­ (“low importance”) to 3 (“high importance”). The scale presented a nisations were contacted. Focus groups were also organised with chil­ Cronbach’s alpha of .814. dren and teachers from educational centres in San Lorenzo, on the one Threats to the mangrove. The interviewees were asked to rate the level hand, and with key informants linked to fishing, on the other. Over these of perceived threat from different activities in the mangrove: tourism, three months, participant observation of fishing activities in the area aquaculture, fishing, agriculture, wood or salt extraction and urban was also carried out. The second phase took place two years later and development. They also assessed the degree of environmental deterio­ consisted of applying the survey to the 88 fishermen included in this ration, water pollution and climate change. To do this, the catalogue of study. the most frequent activities listed by the key informants interviewed in In the first phase, the research combined (a) the intensive observa­ the first phase of the study was used. The interviewees rated each of tion of the urban environment, community dynamics and the daily these activities on a scale from 1 (“It poses no threat”) to 6 (“It poses a fishing activities of the inhabitants of the neighbourhood of San José del significant threat”). Chaparral in San Lorenzo with (b) an evaluation through individual Regulations linked to the fishing activity. A 7-item scale was applied in interviews and focus groups on fishing practices, mangrove ecosystem which the interviewees were asked about different actions related to the services and the involvement of minors in work activities. regulation of fishing activity to improve its sustainability. The scale In the second phase, the respondents answered a semi-structured evaluated aspects such as the imposing of restrictions on the fishing 4 I. Maya Jariego et al. Ocean and Coastal Management 236 (2023) 106502 activity (e. g. “fishing should be restricted in certain areas to allow fish fishermen declared a monthly income of less than 108 euros (3000 and the mangroves to grow”) or the control of fishing activity by the lempiras), while a fifth reported an income of over 180 euros per month State or by fishermen’s associations (e. g. “the fishermen’s associations (over 5000 lempiras). Over half consider that their income is not enough should lead the marketing of fishing”) or the control and imposing of to cover the basic expenses of the family home (54.5%). Only 10% have sanctions on irregular fishing activities (“illegal fishing and sale of fish some ability to generate savings. The majority are those who own the should be sanctioned”). The interviewees had to rate each item with a basic materials and goods to perform the fishing activity, such as nets Likert-type scale from 1 (“completely disagree”) to 6 (“completely (72.7%), lamps (70.5%), hooks (50%), a boat or canoe (48.9%) and an agree”). engine (51.1%). Registration of fishing activity. On one hand, the frequency of use by The fishermen’s collective forms part of a highly cohesive commu­ the interviewees of different fishing gear (trammel net, cast net, beam, nity. The respondents report a high psychological sense of community hook or fishing on foot) was evaluated and on the other, the catch vol­ with their neighbourhood of residence. They feel especially well inte­ ume of different fish species was evaluated. In this latter case, to facil­ grated with their neighbours. However, participation in community- itate identification, the interviewees were presented with a list of based organisations is sporadic. species, as well as a sheet with an image of a specimen of each one together with the scientific name and common name used in the area. 3.2. Fishing activity and local ecological knowledge Both for the identification of the fishing gear and the main species caught in the Gulf of Fonseca, the information provided by the in­ At the time of the interview, the respondents had been linked to the terviewees in the first phase and previous studies was used (Soto et al., fishing activity for an average of 27.72 years (SD = 14.81). Practically 2012; Promangle, 2001). half have not had any other occupation throughout their lives.5 The most Child labour. The interviewees were asked about the frequency with used fishing gear is the trammel net (66%), followed by the extraction of which children engaged in different fishing activities, such as repairing molluscs and crustaceans on foot (25%), the beam, fishing with hooks or and taking care of boats and gear, fishing by boat or on foot or helping to traps (10%) and the cast net (5%). In Fig. 2, we document the coexis­ unload and sell fish. Secondly, a 10-item scale was applied to evaluate tence of fishing on foot and fishing from a boat in the same setting of the the degree of agreement with different benefits and harms of the mangrove. involvement of minors in fishing activities. The scale evaluated aspects such as the importance of the economic contribution of the child’s ac­ “At night we fish and in the day there are mangrove cockles and, tivity (“it is important for the sustenance of the family economy”), the when there are any, also fish. Right now, there are no fish, so we have acquisition of knowledge and cultural values (“it educates and instructs not gone out fishing, this is done at night and during the day we hunt them about nature, the mangroves and the sea”) or the benefits for child for mangrove cockles”. [Fisherman and mangrove cockle catcher, development (“it is beneficial for their physical and mental develop­ San José del Chaparral] ment”). The scale obtained a Cronbach’s alpha of .753. “When we start the day here, there are times when like let’s say right Personal networks. The following name generator was used: “Please now as the tide is rising, one comes home from work, let’s say when give me a list of 45 people with whom you have a regular relationship the tide is high, sometimes it drops back in the afternoon, so we throughout the week. I am interested in you mentioning those with sometimes come home from catching mangrove cockles, load the whom you have the most frequent and regular contact. [They may be trammel nets and go fishing at night, for part of the night”. [Fish­ work colleagues, neighbours, relatives, friends, or people with whom erman and mangrove cockle catcher, San José del Chaparral] you share hobbies. They may be from your neighbourhood, from nearby neighbourhoods or even from more distant ones. It is important that “The fishermen earn what is left over. Fuel costs are taken out first. they are the 45 people with whom you have the most frequent rela­ And from there we distribute it into three parts, but first we have to tionship]”. Information was obtained from each of the people mentioned take out the fuel cost and what is left over is what will be distributed. about their gender, their relationship with Ego,4 their place of residence, Sometimes they even owe fuel because they can’t pay. The mangrove the activity they were engaged in and the frequency of contact. Later, cockle catchers play it safe because there are always mangrove the interviewee was asked to indicate the type of relationship that each cockles at the points where they already know they can get them. But pair of alters mentioned had with each other at four levels of intensity, the fishermen who may catch 45 or 50 pounds, at 25 pesos a pound of where 0 corresponded to “they do not know each other”, 1 “they know fish, and after an entire night of work …“. [Fish seller, San Lorenzo] something of each other”, 2 "they have a good relationship” and 3 “they Around half of the fishermen state that they catch species such as the are friends”. white mullet (Mugil curema), the Pacific flag-fin mojarra (Eucinostomus Currani), the spotted head sargo (Anisotremus Dovii), the green jack/ 3. Results Pacific crevalle jack (Caranx Caballus/Caninus) and the Colorado snap­ per (Lutjanus Colorado) on a daily basis. The mangrove cockle (Anadara 3.1. Socio-economic characteristics of households Tuberculosa) is the only bivalve mollusc caught by a significant pro­ portion of fishermen on a regular basis, while others such as the salt­ In total, 70% of respondents live in a home they own. The most water clam (Mytella Guyanensis), the cortez oyster (Crassostrea common case consists of sharing the family home with a partner and Corteziensis) and the grand ark clam (Anadara Grandis) are caught less children, with an average of 2 children per household. Most households frequently. In this case, the type of specialised extraction, on foot and in have electricity and drinking water services (94.3% and 80.7%, specific areas of the mangrove, limits catches to those who are exclu­ respectively). Having a sewage system (61.4%) or access to the Internet sively devoted to this activity. (27.3%) is less common. The respondents made an estimate of the current average daily It is a group with a low socio-economic level. On the one hand, the number of catches of each indicated species and the daily average 10 participants have a low level of formal education: 61.4% have years ago. The results show an overall decline in the volume of catches in completed basic education, whereas 28.4% had no education at all. 42% all species, especially in those with the highest volume of catches, with a do not know how to read or write. On the other hand, practically half of 5 Among those who have performed other work activities, these include 4 In personal network analysis we refer to the respondent as "Ego", and the caring for the lakes and packaging products in aquaculture, as well as con­ people mentioned by the respondent as "alters". struction, agriculture and wood extraction. 5 I. Maya Jariego et al. Ocean and Coastal Management 236 (2023) 106502 Fig. 2. Two types of fishing in the mangrove. Catches of fish from a boat (left) and catches of molluscs and crustaceans on foot (right). decrease of between 30 and 70% depending on the species. However, Table 1 the high standard deviation of all averages reported a high variability in Level of perceived threat to the survival of the mangrove and the community. the estimates made by the fishermen. M SD 3.3. The perception of the mangrove ecosystem services Water pollution 5.02 1.72 Climate change 4.16 2.11 Wood extraction 3.86 2.16 The fishermen are aware of the importance of the ecosystem services Illegal fishing 3.50 2.22 offered by the mangrove. Firstly, they consider it a key resource for Real estate and construction activity 2.95 2.25 maintaining ecological diversity. Secondly, it is a source of fishing re­ Industrial fishing 2.86 2.25 sources, allowing the capture of fish, the rearing of young fish, food for Aquaculture 2.00 1.75 Agriculture 1.86 1.61 animals and plants and the capture of molluscs and crustaceans. Thirdly, Salt extraction 1.63 1.41 they recognise the role of the mangrove in the protection against Tourism 1.61 1.43 meteorological phenomena or climate change. Finally, they believe that Small-scale fishing 1.55 1.47 it is an ecosystem that also contributes to maintaining identity and Total 2.82 0.80 traditions. Note. Scale from 1 “No threat” to 6 “Significant threat”. On a personal level, the respondents have a direct relationship with the mangrove through the fishing resources it provides them. Over 45% Fonseca and that have caused political, social and environmental con­ mention catching fish or molluscs as the main service offered to them by flicts and problems in recent years, such as aquaculture (M = 2.00, SD = the mangrove. Obtaining firewood for burning (15.9%) or storing wood 1.75), agriculture (M = 1.86, SD = 1.61) and tourism (M = 1.61, SD = for construction (9.1%) are also notable uses. Moreover, an improve­ 1.43). ment in well-being and quality of life was mentioned by 8% of partici­ In the qualitative interviews, the fishermen insistently mentioned the pants. Minors may eventually participate in all these activities. problems derived from the felling and cutting of the mangrove, espe­ The fishermen are divided between those who consider the current cially of plants that are still green. The intensive extraction of wood situation of the mangrove as good (45.6%) and those who rate it as bad reduces the extent of the mangrove and its size, which ends up affecting (38%). However, the majority believe that the situation of the mangrove tidal flows and the reproduction of fish and poultry species. has worsened in the last 10 years (77.3%). Included among the biggest perceived threats to the survival of the mangrove are water pollution, “The mangrove is a way of life for us. Although we do not really take climate change and wood extraction. Fig. 3 documents some of the care of it. People even cut trees for firewood, and even worse because pressures to which the mangrove is subject. In Table 1 we have compiled they cut them when green … so it no longer grows, and the mangrove the ranking of problems perceived most important for the sustainability becomes small”. [Fisherman, San José del Chaparral] of the environment in which the respondents live. What is striking is the low perceived threat of activities that are widespread in the Gulf of Fig. 3. Benefits of and threats to the mangrove ecosystem services. From left to right: A) the mangrove is used as firewood and for building houses; B) aquaculture operations reduce the size of the mangrove and is associated with pollution levels; C) tourism on the islands of the Gulf of Fonseca is counted among the cultural services of the ecosystem. 6 I. Maya Jariego et al. Ocean and Coastal Management 236 (2023) 106502 “There was a big crisis in the mangrove … The mangrove planting earn 400–500 lempiras [from 14 to 18 euros]. Us mangrove cockle programme lasted until now, just one month ago there was a group catchers earn around 250 lempiras a day [9 euros], but we only work that came to plant mangrove … Because if you see, this house is made between 4 or 5 hours because we take advantage of the fact that the from mangrove, they cut the wood to make the house. Now it is tide goes out for around 6 hours and the other 6 hours the tide is high prohibited. If they catch you with that, they fine you and take away and then we can no longer do it”. [Mangrove cockle catcher, San José the product, and if they catch you a second time, you go to jail. This del Chaparral] wood is very resistant, it lasts for years if it doesn’t get wet, but if The fishermen recognised that this competition and the not always rainwater falls on it, it quickly rots”. [Fisher, San José del Chaparral] controlled incorporation of other members of the community to the The pollution of the mangrove was highlighted as another serious fishing activity has led, in some cases, to fishing in protected areas or problem for fishing activities. Pollution derives mainly from the using non-permitted fishing products or practices (such as explosives or discharge of wastewater from homes, from the deposit of solid waste on hooks). Moreover, the conflicts derived from the triple border with El to the banks of the mangrove swamp and from chemical substances from Salvador and Nicaragua aggravates the problem. agriculture and aquaculture. Likewise, climate change and its conse­ “For a Honduran, going out like this to sell mangrove cockles to quences (such as the heating up of water and long periods of drought) another country is expensive, but if a fisherman from another were also pointed out as problems affecting fishing. country comes to Honduras to sell them, it is cheap. People from El The fishermen hold the aquaculture farms responsible for both the Salvador and Nicaragua come here to fish and this cannot be done by pollution of the waters and the progressive reduction in the size of the a Honduran. In Honduras, anyone can enter to sell or do what they mangrove. Despite the fact that (as shown in Table 1) it was not reflected want. There are even fights and conflicts in some places”. [Fish seller, in the scale, the fishermen maintain a critical attitude towards the ac­ San Lorenzo] tivity performed by these companies, which they blame for the diffi­ culties in finding fishing areas (having to increasingly enter the Gulf) Together with the factors mentioned above, all of this has contrib­ and the reduction in catches. The installation of dams for shrimp uted to the decline in catches, the depletion of some mangrove areas and farming requires the felling of large areas of the mangrove, which has increased difficulties in finding profitable fishing areas. The fishermen led to a considerable reduction in its size in recent decades. The state are in favour of the establishment of close seasons during the breeding control of this activity is not always effective and the conflict of interests season and recognise the need to restrict development to protect the between the different parties involved makes it difficult to manage. mangrove. Some consider that the work of the Committee for the Defence and Development of Flora and Fauna in the Gulf of Fonseca “Unfortunately, most of the shrimp farms are located in protected indirectly supports the fishing sector, through surveillance actions to areas. Being able to control that is practically impossible and even if “prevent us from using explosives when fishing or from cutting green the State puts the brakes on or wants to apply regulations on people, trees from the mangrove”. it is almost impossible. Because the local governments receive in­ come from these activities (in addition to salt production, shrimp “We no longer get the same number of mangrove cockles as we did production and small-scale fishing that serve their municipalities, to before, now there are less. There is a lot of competition, that is, there be able to move forward with the issue of the education and health of are more mangrove cockle catchers and the need for work is greater their people)”. [Worker for the Regional Directorate of Fishing and each time. When there are not many mangrove cockles, then we grab Agriculture] the nets and go fishing. So, the mangrove rests, and when we return there is a little more production”. [Mangrove cockle catcher, San On the other hand, the fishermen complained that the dumping of José del Chaparral] chemical products derived from shrimp farming affected many mangrove fish species, increasing their mortality and reducing their Production has dropped quite a lot because, on a daily basis, there presence. This situation caused conflicts and direct confrontations be­ are more mangrove cockle catchers, more fishermen, and so the few tween the fishermen and the owners and workers of these companies. cockles that come in are distributed among everyone now. It is not like before when we gathered more”. [Fisherman, San José del “There are places where there are no saltwater clams because there Chaparral] are shrimp prey and they throw poison and kill them. When a shrimp harvest ends and they are going to plant another, they throw in some chemicals to prepare the land and kill the sea scorpion that eats the 3.4. The personal networks of fishermen in San Lorenzo shrimp. But if that escapes, it kills fish, mangrove cockles and salt­ water clams”. [Mangrove cockle catcher, San José del Chaparral] Fishermen have a highly cohesive interpersonal space. It is about dense personal networks, about strong ties. As well as having a high “There are fewer catches, partly because there has been a lot of density (M = 927, SD = 0.117), the mentioned contacts maintain strong product mortality, because now where a lot of product was taken, the relationships with each other, with a mean value of the tie greater than shrimp farms release a poison that kills mangrove cockles and fish. 2. Sub-areas of high cohesion are also observed, with a large proportion They also have nowhere to grow, the mangrove where they repro­ of cliques with a size greater than 25 members. The respondents have duced in quantity is disappearing”. [Fisherman, San José del daily contact with almost 40 of the 45 contacts evaluated (M = 39.91, Chaparral] SD = 6.81). Finally, the interviewees pointed out that competition between The composition is very homogeneous, as shown in Table 2. Most of fishermen has increased in recent years. Increased unemployment and the mentioned contacts were men. Over half of the people mentioned in poverty have led many inhabitants of the area to devote themselves to the personal networks are friends, and around 10 are relatives. Over two fishing or extracting mangrove cockles, increasing the number of fam­ thirds are fishermen (M = 30.96, SD = 13.36). The presence of players ilies who rely on this sector. dedicated to aquaculture, agriculture or tourism was almost testimonial. Next, we classified the personal networks into 3 clusters using the K- “We spend most of the time just doing this, because some mangrove means procedure, with the professional categories most present in the cockle catchers and fishermen have worked as construction helpers, personal networks and the time dedicated to the fishing activity by the but it does not work for us because the salary is very low, because interviewees being used as the criterion variables (Table 3). Clusters 1 construction helpers earn between 200 and 250 lempiras a day and 2 have a high proportion of fishermen in their networks and a low [between 7 and 9 euros]. For master builders, it is different, as they presence of professionals not dedicated directly to fishing. They differ in 7 I. Maya Jariego et al. Ocean and Coastal Management 236 (2023) 106502 Table 2 of beams, hooks and traps. His catches are mainly fish such as bass, horse Composition of the personal networks. mackerel, grouper or sea bream. He considers the main problem of the M SD mangrove to be ecological, due to the cutting of it either to build shrimp farming companies or to use it as firewood or construction material. Men 35.81 8.42 Women 9.19 8.42 Marvin’s network is more homogeneous in terms of its composition. Close relatives 6.73 8.29 Thus, 73.3% of his contacts are fishermen (n = 33), while a small pro­ Other relatives 3.68 7.35 portion are merchants (n = 6) or are either unemployed or devoted to Friends 26.40 15.26 housework (n = 6). Marvin maintains daily contact with most of them Work 3.21 9.68 Acquaintances 4.64 9.41 (n = 40, 88.8%), despite the fact that the density in the network of Fisherman 30.96 13.36 strong ties is lower than in Helder’s case. Aquaculture .11 .36 Agriculture .14 .85 Tourism .04 .35 3.5. The participation of minors in fishing activities Merchant 2.12 2.77 Labourer 1.64 4.10 In the Gulf of Fonseca, child labour has been traditionally linked to Student .79 1.98 small-scale fishing in the family environment. Children tend to partici­ pate from an early age in the extraction on foot of various species of molluscs and crustaceans (mainly mangrove cockles and crabs in the Table 3 mangroves of the Gulf) before joining other fishing activities, such as Final cluster centres for the cluster analysis. fishing with hooks or working on boats with gill nets on the open sea. It Cluster 1 (n = Cluster 2 (n = Cluster 3 (n = is often dangerous work, with serious consequences for the health of the 28) 20) 23) minors. They accompany their parents on boats and vessels and carry Number of contacts with 40.96 35.20 15.35 out part of the extraction work in the mangroves in groups of 2 or 3 for fishermen long days in the morning or in the afternoon, at low tide. Work in the Number of contacts with .89 1.60 3.87 merchants mangrove involves going into the mud to look for clams, where the Number of contacts with .29 .10 4.74 humidity conditions and high temperatures, presence of mosquitoes and labourers parasites and rubbing against the roots and trunks of the mangrove Fishing time (in years) 19 46 20 cause wounds and skin and respiratory problems. In our study, through the interviews with fishermen, we also docu­ ment early incorporation into performing extractive activities. The the length of fishing experience. While group 1 has been around 19 average age at which the participants started fishing was 11.67 years years, the second has been around for over 45 years. Cluster 3 is char­ (SD = 4.81), mainly with their parents (69.3%). This age coincides with acterised by the most heterogeneous composition: less than half of the the estimated age at which minors start fishing today. Over half of re­ members in its networks are fishermen, therefore, they have the highest spondents state that children now start helping the family with fishing proportion of merchants and labourers. In terms of fishing time, they are before the age of 10. Children tend to participate quite frequently in similar to the first cluster. most of the activities linked to fishing, from preparing the gear to selling To illustrate the two most differentiated types of networks, in Fig. 4 the fishing products. It is especially worth highlighting the unloading we have selected a representative case from cluster 2 and another and cleaning of fish and fishing from boats with adults, together with representative case from cluster 3. On the one hand, Helder is 28 years extracting mangrove cockles and selling the caught fish.6 Fig. 4 docu­ old (Network 27: Fig. 4, Left). He has been fishing since he was 12 years ments some of the activities performed by teenagers in the fishing old, when he started going out with his father to collect mangrove communities of San Lorenzo. cockles. He currently lives with his parents and has no partner or chil­ Fishermen in the coastal communities analysed consider that the dren. He mainly performs fishing activities with trammel nets, hooks participation of minors in fishing can contribute to child development, and traps, which he combines with catching mangrove cockles when the with a positive impact on their families. Although they do not think that tide goes out. This means he normally catches a wide variety of fish fishing is more important than a school education (M = 2.98, SD = (raucous grunt, mackerel, sea bass, grouper, mullet, pomfret, among 2.24), they do understand that it can improve the minors’ understanding others), but also molluscs and crustaceans (shrimp, mangrove cockles, of nature (M = 5.34, SD = 1.31) and community traditions (M = 5.30, crabs and saltwater clams). He also visits a wide variety of areas to find SD = 1.47). Moreover, in their opinion, it allows them to develop values those in which he can get the most out of the fishing activity, depending of honesty and respect (M = 5.34, SD = 140) while contributing to on the tide and weather conditions. For Helder, the main problem with family well-being (M = 5.07, SD = 1.48). Table 4 also mentions other the mangrove is the reduction in catches, which reduces the profitability perceived benefits of the participation of minors in work activities in the of the fishing activity and affects the family economy. Helder’s personal fishing sector. network is comparatively heterogeneous. His contacts are divided In fishing communities, the belief is quite widespread that the early equally into three groups: fishermen (n = 16, 35.5%), labourers (n = 14, involvement of minors in extractive activities, in preparing gear and in 31.1%) and people who are devoted to housework or are unemployed (n the unloading of fish improves the transmission of local ecological = 14, 31.1%). However, it is a cohesive network with a high density knowledge, knowledge of fishing practices and reproduction of cultural (0.695) and an extensive number of cliques (322). Helder maintains traditions and customs. Incorporation into the fishing sector occurs daily contact with 62.2% of his contacts (n = 28), whereas contact with naturally. the rest is usually weekly. His relationships are divided between close family (n = 20, 44.4%) and friends (n = 25, 55.5%). “Children start working from the age of 5 because when it comes to On the other hand, Marvin is 52 years old and started fishing when fishing, while their father is fixing the fishing net, they are there at he was 7, also accompanying the family (Network 60: Fig. 4, Right). He the same time … they stop going to school … If the father is cleaning only devoted himself to catching mangrove cockles in that initial period, a net, the child is alongside him with the carotillo hitting the net to an activity that he abandoned in adulthood. Except for a period when he worked as a shrimp packer at an aquaculture company, most of his life has been devoted to fishing. He currently mainly devotes himself to 6 They also mention, although with less relevance, looking after the boats and fishing with a trammel net, which he occasionally combines with the use gear on land, preparing and repairing gear and fishing with hooks and traps. 8 I. Maya Jariego et al. Ocean and Coastal Management 236 (2023) 106502 Fig. 4. Two personal networks of fishermen in San Antonio. An illustrative network from the third cluster is depicted on the left, and an illustrative network from the second cluster is depicted on the right. In both cases, only the “strong ties” have been represented, with an intensity value of 3. The colour indicates the professional sector of the personal contacts: Blue; fisherman; Yellow, labourer in other sectors; Pink, other (housework, unemployed, etc.). “The work of children in mangrove cockle fishing is justified because Table 4 they say that a child has a smaller hand to be able to enter inside the Impact and perceived benefits of the participation of minors in fishing activities. root and extract the mangrove cockle, clam or grand ark clam. Most M SD children go because of their smaller hands and, besides that, they Understanding of nature 5.34 1.31 don’t sink, they look like they’re levitating, they don’t sink. An adult Acquisition of values of honesty, commitment and respect 5.34 1.40 can sink up to their necks in mud, they can’t”. [Worker for the Knowledge of community traditions 5.30 1.47 General Directorate of Fisheries and Agriculture] Employment opportunities for the future 5.17 1.66 Improved family well-being 5.07 1.48 According to our informants, the children seem to be aware of the Physical and mental development 4.85 1.64 changes that the mangrove is undergoing, as well as some of the risks Supplement to school education 4.73 1.82 Important for family support 4.68 1.87 that threaten ecosystem services. Occasional participation in the work Pays for children’s education 4.36 2.07 activities of their families offers them a direct connection with that More important than school education 2.98 2.24 world. Children acquire skills to respond to day-to-day contingencies Note. Scale of 1 “Completely disagree” to 6 “Completely agree”. and learn about the socioeconomic relationships in their immediate environment. When labour participation is more intense, however, risks may appear that affect the children balanced development (see Fig. 5). clean it. Clearly, they are already joining in with the jobs of their parents instead of going to school”. [Worker for the General Direc­ 4. Discussion torate of Fisheries and Agriculture] They also believe that it has a positive impact on the acquisition of In this study we document the involvement of minors in fishing ac­ values such as honesty and commitment and that it contributes to the tivities in local communities in the Gulf of Fonseca. Children participate acquisition of skills for future employment. The lowest average is in the extraction of mangrove cockles, they accompany adults in fishing observed in the assessment of the relative importance of work compared from a boat and they actively collaborate in preparing fishing gear. This to school. However, over a third of the fishermen surveyed (35.5%) start in work activities normally occurs between 11 and 12 years of age, agreed or strongly agreed that work in fishing is more important than a frequently in the family unit. Early incorporation into fishing activities is school education. This is reflected in a high tolerance for the involve­ a practice that has been maintained for generations and that contributes ment of children in fishing activities. both to the socialization of minors in the world of work and to the transmission of situated knowledge about life in the mangrove. Some­ “We teach [children] when they start work, but most of the time they times it takes the form of pre-work activities, which facilitate learning go with some adults because they want to start working instead of about fishing gear or about the places and conditions in which the catch studying. Our eldest child is 16, but we do not send him to catch occurs. With early incorporation, children learn to combine fishing from mangrove cockles that often, it’s better he takes advantage of going a boat with shellfishing on foot, and they also acquire direct knowledge to school. Sometimes I take him on weekends, Saturday and Sunday, of the structure and functioning of the mangroves. They learn how to which is when he has free time”. [Fisherman, San José del extract mangrove cockles and how to obtain firewood. They are also Chaparral]. initiated into the belief system shared by their elders. They assimilate For the rest, dedication to work activities in fishing has a utilitarian that the mangrove is deteriorating and that aquaculture exploitations function, based on the perceived benefit of the work’s contribution to together with the excessive extraction of wood put the survival of the the economy and to family well-being. The characteristics of minors mangrove and the fishing activity itself at risk, as the progressive make them especially suitable for certain fishing activities on foot in the reduction in catches seems to show. mudflats. Adult fishermen have a positive view of incorporating children into fishing activities. In their opinion, collaborating in the work performed 9 I. Maya Jariego et al. Ocean and Coastal Management 236 (2023) 106502 Fig. 5. Minors are involved in activities related to fishing from an early age. On the left, a teenager helps his father repair fishing nets. On the right, a teenager shows off some of the mangrove cockles he has caught in the mangrove. by their parents provides a better understanding of nature. It is also a also been observed in other contexts (Maya-Jariego et al., 2018; natural way of learning about the customs and traditions of the com­ Maya-Jariego, Holgado, Florido & Martínez, 2016; Maya -Jariego, munity, as well as an expression of respect for the elderly, with whom Querevalú, Varela & Ávila, 2017). The perception of the changes to they collaborate through the shared assumption of responsibilities. which the ecosystem is exposed are also relevant with regard to the The results obtained in our research coincide with those from other integration of children in fishing communities. Thus, it has been studies, which show the importance of the mangroves and the pressures observed that the perception of changes in a fishing system affect so­ to which they are subjected. On the one hand, the mangroves play a ciocultural patterns, social networks, or the degree of community significant role in the local economy and in the livelihood of the com­ cohesion (Katikiro et al., 2015). munities living in them (Mozumder, Shamsuzzaman, Rashed-Un-Nabi, & Karim, 2018). On the other hand, overexploitation and the spread of unsustainable practices (such as fishing with explosives, trawl fishing 4.1. Practical implications and recommendations for management and small-mesh gill nets) have contributed significantly to the reduction in catches of shrimp and other populations of fish (Castellanos-Galindo The extraction of mangrove cockles has been a common subsistence et al., 2015). In the Gulf of Fonseca, it is an activity in which children practice for coastal communities linked to the mangrove in Central have traditionally participated (Canales et al., 2006; Zelaya, 2004). America for centuries. Recently, the increase in local and regional de­ The case study also highlighted the coexistence of fishing and mand, and consequently in prices, has made their extraction a funda­ shellfishing on foot in the coastal communities of the Gulf of Fonseca. mental commercial activity for these communities, sometimes leading to Some interviewees started by catching mangrove cockles, later they situations of overexploitation. Added to this is the uncontrolled combined catching mangrove cockles with boat fishing and, finally, they extraction of wood, as occurs in other places (Mozumder, Shamsuzza­ have preferably devoted themselves to boat fishing. This trajectory man, Rashed-Un-Nabi & Karim, 2018). However, small-scale fishermen seems to repeat itself with some frequency throughout the life cycle. As a perceive that the greatest threats to mangrove sustainability come from result, the coastal communities are organised into subgroups with a aquaculture farms. Some even suggest the existence of possible bribes to variable structure in the fishing gear used and in their relationship with public officials, and they generally declare themselves to be in favour of the mangrove. Shellfishing on foot seems to offer a better relationship a greater regulation of the uses of the mangrove. between the time invested and the catch obtained, and is better adapted The fishermen’s collective depends on intermediaries (“middlemen”) to the characteristics of minors. It is quite common for it to be used as a for marketing. This system places fishermen in a position of extreme complement to fishing, or as an alternative when faced with economic weakness given the ability of the claimants to set downward prices in a difficulties, depending on the season or when it is close season for boat stable manner, thus encouraging the intensification of the extractive fishing. Shellfishing is, therefore, a complementary subsistence, in activity (Bjorndal et al., 2014; Jacinto and Pomeroy, 2011; Pollnac et al., which the extractive activity forms part of the adaptation strategies of 2001). Consequently, improving the governance of the value chain domestic groups in coastal areas. In other geographical contexts, the could have a significant impact on the quality of life of the population preferred participation of women and children has also been docu­ (Jentoft and Chuenpagdee, 2018). Thus, we had the opportunity to mented, in a type of activity fundamentally oriented towards local verify this through the precarious conditions in which fishing families marketing and that in many cases provides a first socialization with the live on the Pacific coast of Honduras. sea. This is the case, for example, of women shellfish catchers in Galicia, In this study, we have examined the involvement of minors in work although over time their participation has evolved towards a greater and pre-work activities in the fishing sector, therefore, it can be con­ professionalization7 (Frangoudes et al., 2008; Pita et al., 2019). nected with the concept of “decent work” drawn up by the International The combination of fishing and shellfishing on foot is also reflected Labour Organization (ILO) (Garcia-Lozano et al., 2021). Among other in the diversification of the catch areas and the degree of exposure to the recommendations, the ILO has proposed the need to (a) generate different ecosystem services, as well as in the heterogeneity in the adequate employment opportunities, (b) establish regulatory standards composition of personal networks. This relationship between the dis­ over labour rights, (c) improve workers’ social protection mechanisms tribution of fishing activity and the properties of personal networks has and (d) promote the tripartite social dialogue (between workers, em­ ployers and governments). For its part, the Food and Agriculture Or­ ganization of the United Nations (FAO) establishes a guide in which it 7 Active work has been done with this group, for example in Spain, on the recommends guaranteeing access to education for minors, promoting social visibility of its activity, in an attempt to improve the management, decent work and, at the same time, taking into account the peculiarities marketing and political recognition of said activity. of small-scale fisheries and their livelihoods (Kurien, 2015). More 10 I. Maya Jariego et al. Ocean and Coastal Management 236 (2023) 106502 broadly, article 32.1 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child continuity of the fishing activity can be put at risk. This seems to be the "recognise the right of the child to be protected from economic exploi­ case when the emphasis is placed on reducing the size of fisheries tation and from performing any work that is likely to be hazardous or to through greater professionalization (Neis et al., 2013). Furthermore, this interfere with the child’s education, or to be harmful to the child’s may be aggravated in a context of climate change, to the extent that the health or physical, mental, spiritual, moral or social development" perception of greater uncertainty (such as an increased risk of storms) (United Nations General Assembly, 1989, p. 10). reduces parents’ expectations for their children to be fishermen (Ser­ In the Gulf of Fonseca, we were able to verify that children naturally eenonchai and Arunrat, 2019). take part in fishing activities, often under the supervision of adults in As far as effective governance practices are concerned, the preven­ their family. In this case, the number of hours, the schedules and con­ tion of early involvement in work activities usually entails the imple­ ditions under which this activity is performed could be determinants of mentation of educational reinforcement programs, which guarantee the its personal or educational impact and, ultimately, of its consideration as completion of compulsory schooling. At a higher severity level, reducing “child labour” (Holgado, Maya-Jariego, Palacio & Oviedo-Trespalacios, the risk associated with hazardous work typically requires rehabilita­ 2016; Holgado et al., 2014). The community itself conceives the tion, community reintegration, and tertiary prevention strategies. In the participation of minors as a way of assuming responsibilities, developing most extreme cases, the intervention focuses on ensuring compliance skills and acquiring a better understanding of the natural environment. with the law, which often involves judges, labour inspectors, or the In many cases, it will have a positive impact. However, there may be police (Maya-Jariego, 2021). In the coastal communities of Fonseca, we activities that pose a health risk8 or a level of dedication that interferes observe a certain predominance of light or episodic forms of labour with their continuation with compulsory education. For those cases, participation, which contribute positively to socialization in the world of despite family beliefs and values, it may be necessary to implement fishing and facilitate the direct relationship of minors with the natural community prevention actions for child labour (Maya-Jariego, 2017, environment. Nevertheless, this same incorporation by default of the 2021). children of fishermen in the fishing sector may also contribute to the Compared to other sectors of activity, the fishing sector is often reproduction of the social status of their parents, as well as it partially exposed to precarious working conditions (Garcia-Lozano et al., 2021). limits their opportunities for upward social mobility. In addition, there With regard to minors, even extreme cases of forced labour, slavery and are activities, such as shellfishing on foot in the mangrove swamp, that human trafficking have been documented (Agbenya, 2009; Hamenoo test the physical resistance capacity of minors and that are classified by and Sottie, 2015; Jensen, 2013). Hence, despite the great variability of the ILO as dangerous work (ILO, 2018). situations, the establishment of a minimum age for work and the rati­ Therefore, although very often the collaboration of minors with the fication of international ILO agreements are generally recommended. family’s subsistence activities is not comparable to the worst forms of Moreover, conditional cash transfers, psycho-educational interventions child labour, fishing in the mangroves also usually entails a series of and tripartite coalitions have been shown to be particularly effective potential risks that make it advisable the implementation of preventive (Maya-Jariego, 2021). However, as we have documented in the case of actions or mitigation of its impact. In addition, sometimes early labour Fonseca, when it comes to family subsistence activities, it is also activities reduce minors’ life opportunities along their life course, which necessary to adapt it to the local conditions and introduce improvements is why it is necessary to enhance their educational experience and that increase the community fit of interventions. We believe that inter­ implement other compensatory measures that guarantee the completion generational transmission of local knowledge should be ensured and of compulsory studies.9 even integrated as part of formal education to empower coastal com­ munities in the face of threats to mangrove ecosystems. This openness to 5. Conclusion local knowledge is also a tool to engage future fishing communities in bottom-up conservation activities, as well as to ensure fair access and In the coastal communities of the Gulf of Fonseca (Honduras), chil­ use of mangrove ecosystem services, while sustaining livelihoods. dren begin to interact with the mangrove swamp at an early age and often carry out pre-work activities, collaborating in fishing with their 4.2. Child labour and the governance of small-scale fisheries parents. This facilitates the intergenerational transmission of both local ecological knowledge and effective fishing practices. In many cases, The term “child labour” is often used to refer to any participation of early work activity is punctual or episodic and does not interfere with minors in the world of work (i.e., below the minimum legal working compulsory schooling. However, shellfishing on foot in the mangrove age). However, in practice, this label covers a great diversity of situa­ carries health risks, while early involvement in the world of fishing re­ tions, ranging from collaboration with family subsistence activities to duces the diversity of job opportunities available to them during their forced labour or slavery, passing through different forms of wage labour adult lives. This implies that abolitionist approaches to child labour may (Maya-Jariego, 2021). In the case of fishing, for example, port not be sufficiently sensitive to the local reality of the fishing sector in fish-sorting, deep-sea fishing, or high-risk dive fishing under harsh certain geographical contexts. But at the same time, there is evidence of conditions would fall into that same category (Damcha-om, 2002; the need to prevent school dropout and strengthen social protection Hamenoo and Sottie, 2015), to name just a few. Understandably, the measures for children from low-income families. The early socialization potential impact of each of these modalities on child development and of minors in the fishing sector facilitates the social reproduction and well-being is clearly different. In turn, the intervention strategies that future sustainability of fishing. However, given the conditions in which are relevant and effective would be also different in each case. this activity is normally carried out, it is advisable to be vigilant about In those families that have a subsistence economy, all members the development and well-being of children in families that are usually play an active role in maintaining the household, so we need to consider the role of women and children in obtaining resources and generating income (Pomeroy, 1987). Otherwise, when the family base of 9 Another alternative consists of promoting entrepreneurship and innovation small-scale fisheries is ignored, it becomes increasingly difficult to re­ in the fishing sector. Both training and local development initiatives can be cruit new generations for the sector, and consequently the very particularly relevant to boosting opportunities for young people in fishing communities. Training allows improvements to be made in fishing companies as well as in fishing modalities, in turn influencing the employment profile of the 8 For example, mosquito bites, skin problems due to humidity and rubbing sector. This training can be especially relevant with the school-age population, against mangrove roots, or nicotine addiction due to the tobacco used to drive as a way to maintain the link with traditional knowledge about the sea, the away mosquitoes, among other problems, have been described. maintenance of fishing tools or knowledge about marine species. 11 I. Maya Jariego et al. Ocean and Coastal Management 236 (2023) 106502 dedicated to fishing. Primary and secondary prevention initiatives are a Box, S.J., Bonilla, R.S., 2009. Evaluación de las Prácticas Pesqueras en Pesquerías de Pequeña Escala del Golfo de Fonseca, Honduras. CODDEFFAGOLF, San Lorenzo priority in this context. (Honduras). This document contributes to the field of ocean and coastal man­ Brander, L.M., Wagtendonk, A.J., Hussain, S.S., McVittie, A., Verburg, P.H., de Groot, R. agement in terms of providing insight into the multiplicity of identities S., van der Ploeg, S., 2012. Ecosystem service values for mangroves in Southeast of youth in coastal communities. The consideration of the various mo­ Asia: a meta-analysis and value transfer application. Ecosyst. Serv. 1 (1), 62–69. Canales, Y.R., Chicas, T.Y., Joya, A.C., 2006. 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