Firenze University Press www.fupress.com/bsgi The Olympic Village and the Olympic Urbanism: Perception and Expectations of Citation: V. Della Sala (2022). The Olym- pic Village and the Olympic Urbanism: Olympic Specialists Perception and Expectations of Olym- pic Specialists. Bollettino della Socie- tà Geografica Italiana serie 14, 5(2): Il villaggio olimpico e l’urbanistica olimpica: Percezione e 51-64. doi: 10.36253/bsgi-1796 aspettative degli specialisti olimpici Copyright: © 2022 V. Della Sala. This is an open access, peer-reviewed article published by Firenze University Press Valerio Della Sala (http://www.fupress.com/bsgi) and dis- tributed under the terms of the Crea- Department of Geography, Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona, Spain tive Commons Attribution License, E-mail: valerio.dellasala@gmail.com which permits unrestricted use, distri- bution, and reproduction in any medi- um, provided the original author and Abstract. The editions of the Olympic Games (OG) created a major urban transforma- source are credited. tion, which allowed for a new critical perspective on the new urban dimension of the Data Availability Statement: All rel- Mega-Event, especially in the construction of the three main physical elements built: the evant data are within the paper and its athletics stadium, the swimming pool facilities and, above all, the “Olympic Village”. The Supporting Information files. study analyses the Winter and Summer Olympic Villages (OV) in a general way with a particular focus on the relationship between the OV and the urban fabric. The interde- Competing Interests: The Author(s) pendence between the city and the OG has evolved through new models of develop- declare(s) no conflict of interest. ment of the Olympic event that has marked the importance of the OV in the processes of city transformation. The lack of previous studies allows us to affirm the importance of the study for the academic debate on the future of the OV. The study will use quanti- tative analysis to analyse the different variables and responses of the Olympic specialists who participated in the sample. The study will make it possible to observe the percep- tions and expectations of the interviewees through statistical analysis. Moreover, con- sidering that only one symposium was organised in the Olympic history in 1996, the following survey is a solid basis for designing future OV in the candidate cities. The organisation of a new symposium almost thirty years after the 1996 one is of fundamen- tal importance to discuss the territorial impact, organisational models, heritage, infra- structure, participation, housing, social change and territorial transformations. Keywords: olympics games, olympic legacy, sustainability, urbanism, territorialisation approach. Riassunto. Le edizioni dei Giochi Olimpici hanno dato vita a un’importante trasfor- mazione urbana, che ha permesso di aprire una nuova prospettiva critica sulla nuova dimensione urbana dei Giochi, soprattutto nella costruzione dei tre principali elemen- ti fisici realizzati: lo stadio di atletica, gli impianti natatori e, soprattutto, il “Villaggio Olimpico”. Lo studio analizza i Villaggi Olimpici invernali ed estivi in modo genera- le, con un focus particolare sul rapporto tra il Villaggio Olimpico e il tessuto urbano. Il rapporto di interdipendenza tra la città e i Giochi Olimpici si è evoluto attraverso nuovi modelli di sviluppo dell’evento olimpico che hanno segnato l’importanza del Vil- laggio Olimpico nei processi di trasformazione della città. La mancanza di studi pre- cedenti ci permette di affermare l’importanza dello studio per il dibattito accademico Bollettino della Società Geografica Italiana serie 14, 5(2): 51-64, 2022 ISSN 1121-7820 (print) | DOI: 10.36253/bsgi-1796 52 Valerio Della Sala sul futuro del Villaggio Olimpico. Lo studio utilizzerà l’analisi – Games that have focused on the development of quantitativa per analizzare le diverse variabili e le risposte degli sports facilities: London 1908, Stockholm (1912), Los specialisti olimpici che hanno partecipato al campione. Lo stu- Angeles (1932), Berlin (1936), Helsinki (1952), Mel- dio permetterà di osservare le percezioni e le aspettative degli bourne 1956, Atlanta 1996. intervistati attraverso l’analisi statistica. Inoltre, considerando – Games that have transformed the city’s urban iden- che nella storia olimpica è stato organizzato un solo simposio nel 1996, la seguente indagine costituisce una solida base per tity: Rome 1960, Tokyo 1964, Munich 1972, Montre- la progettazione dei futuri villaggi olimpici nelle città candi- al 1976, Moscow 1980, Seoul 1988, Barcelona 1992, date. L’organizzazione di un nuovo simposio a quasi trent’anni Sydney 2000 da quello del 1996 è di fondamentale importanza per discute- However, the following groups refer only to the re l’impatto territoriale, i modelli organizzativi, il patrimonio, summer edition of 2000. In the following table, the OG le infrastrutture, la partecipazione, gli alloggi, i cambiamenti that have taken place up to the present day and which sociali e le trasformazioni territoriali. could not be observed at that time are added. Sub- sequently, table 1 shows a classification of the urban Parole chiave: giochi olimpici, eredità olimpica, sostenibilità, impact of the winter edition. urbanistica, approccio alla territorializzazione. On the other hand, the winter editions require transformations of the mountain sites, specific facilities and finally, the revolution of the transport system, which shows that over time they have developed differently 1. Introduction to the Olympic Urbanism from the summer editions. In the following table, we can see the different edi- From the first edition of the modern Olympic Games tions in three different groups based on the impact gen- in Athens in 1896 until Tokyo in 2020, 29 summer edi- erated. tions have been held, and 24 were organised in different Therefore, urban transformation and the design of cities in 17 nations. Meanwhile, the first edition of the spaces acquire enormous importance in the social and Winter Games was held in Chamonix in 1924 and until economic aspects of the city. The planning and con- Beijing 2022, 24 editions were organised in 21 different struction of new sports structures in mountain areas is cities in 12 nations. For this reason, observing different a sensitive issue considering the natural context. In addi- projects in different socio-economic contexts allows us tion, the ski jumping structures and the bobsleigh track to observe the impact of the OG across multiple areas. are two of the most problematic facilities, which contin- Authors such as Andranovich, Burbank and Heying ue to raise doubts and criticisms of the IOC. However, (2001), analysing urban impacts, identify spatial transfor- the transformation of the space should be integrated into mations as the most visible impact and one of the most a dynamic structure rooted in a long-term plan. important legacies in the post-event phase. Subsequently, The authors Chalkley and Essex (1999), in agree- authors such as Kasimati (2003; 2006) and Kassen-Noor ment with Preuss (2004), underline the importance of (2013), identify infrastructure as the most perceptible and effective design for facilities in the post-Olympic period dangerous legacy for the future of candidate cities. In which tend to favour the evolution of sporting prac- addition, editions such as Rome, Tokyo, Mexico, Munich, tice and ensure accommodation for the poorest citizens Barcelona, Sydney, Turin, Vancouver, and London allow (Chalkley, Essex 1999). us to observe how these mega-events remain an active and dynamic heritage of the host cities today. For this reason, the metamorphosis of urban space, and the trans- Table 1. Urban impact of the 2004-2028 Summer Olympics. Source: formation of roads and infrastructures, imply new strate- The following elaboration was provided by Essex and Chalkley in gies to establish synergies with pre-existing urban forms 1998. without compromising the future of citizens (Bale 2004; Arsen 1997; Auruskeviciene et al. 2010). Therefore, in Low impact Sports facilities Urban transformation consideration of the visibility of the urban impact and Paris 2024 * Beijing 2008 London 2012 physical transformations in Olympic cities, through the Los Angeles 2028** Rio 2016 Athens 2004 contribution of Essex and Chalkley (1998), we observe Tokyo 2020 the first classification concerning urban intensity: * The Paris 2024 edition will have 95% temporary or existing struc- – Low impact: Athens, 1896, Paris (1900); St. Louis tures. (1904), London (1948), Mexico (1968), Los Angeles ** The 2028 edition of Los Angeles will be an event with 100% tem- (1984). porary or existing structures. The Olympic Village and the Olympic Urbanism: Perception and Expectations of Olympic Specialists 53 Table 2. Urban impact of the Winter Olympics 1924-2026. Source: geted campaigns to encourage international companies Author’s elaboration. to hold conferences and events in the city that hosted the 2000 Olympics. The promotional activities enabled Low impact Sports facilities Urban transformation the city of Sydney to host ongoing events over four years. Chamonix 1924 Cortina 1956 Oslo 1952 The following significant result was the inclusion of Syd- Saint Moritz 1928 Squaw Valley 1960 Innsbruck 1964 ney in the international conference, congress, and events Lake Placid 1932 Lake Placid 1980 Grenoble 1968 market, which can be described as surprising or unprec- Garmish 1936 Sarajevo 1984 Sapporo 1972 edented1. Saint Moritz 1948 Lillehammer 1994 Innsbruck 1976 Thus, it can be stated that the OG can guarantee a Calgary 1988 PyeongChang 2018 Albertville 1992 unique development only if the quality of management Salt Lake 2002 Nagano 1998 and planning borders on perfection (Essex, Chalkley Milano-Cortina 2026 Turin 2006 1998; Gratton 2002; Preuss 2000; 2004). Vancouver 2010 Why do cities want to host the OG? Over time, we Sochi 2014 Beijing 2022 have observed different political motivations vital to host states. In addition, in recent years, we have seen the bidding process completely transformed to being pre- sented by the prime minister of each country2 . At the Subsequently, Hiller (2014), looking at mega-events political level3, the Olympic event was often presented in the urban process, has identified the following phe- to favour the creation of new jobs and to improve the nomena that can be realised in candidate cities: gross domestic product of each country (Matheson 2006; – The catalyst for urban change. Matheson, Baade 2004; McDonogh 1991). – Land-use change in urban space. Roughly since 2000, the protest groups4 against the – Stimulation of creativity in spatial planning. organisation of the Olympic event have increased drasti- – They mobilise funding (private and public). cally to become active movements5 and they force public – Support in projects is very ambitious or costly. administrations to withdraw their political candidacies – Requires completion by the date of the event. (Heine 2018). However, the referendum phenomenon – Structural improvements in specific sectors (e.g., remains fundamental for recognising and affirming a transport). shared development model among all event stakeholders. – It produces specific structures that redefine urban space and territory. Urban transformations can have different impacts in 2. Introduction to the Olympic Village different areas: socio-cultural, political, and economic. Moreover, since the Turin 2006 edition, the environ- In the modern era, candidate cities discover mega mental impact has become a fundamental element in the sporting events and their potential. Over time, the host choice of candidate cities. Subsequently, the transforma- cities have used the event to promote their image in the tion of the city’s image through promoting the lifestyle world, accelerating the process of globalisation. Accord- can help increase national pride and have a socio-cultur- ing to Hiller (2000; 2003), from an urban perspective, al impact on the host community. Meanwhile, Preuss, in any large-scale event can be considered a mega-event if it his 2000 study, identifies tourism as the most relevant has a significant and permanent urbanistic effect on the socio-economic impact on Olympic cities in the post- urban fabric. Furthermore, if the event is considered a Olympic period. Furthermore, the international promo- tion of the Olympic city should motivate businesses and 1 To achieve the following result, the Sydney Organising Committee investors to visit the city, taking advantage of the new involved the top experts in Olympic planning, ensuring a unique devel- services developed for the post-Olympic future (Billings opment for the entire community. 2012). For example, Barcelona’s post-Olympic planning 2 In 2021, for the first time, Australia’s Prime Minister presented the official Melbourne 2032 bid 11 years before the Olympic event. was based on the organisation of new areas specifically 3 Political interest focuses on the possibility of attracting new foreign for technological development, and therefore invest- investors and increasing the capital available to meet or attempt to meet ments in telecommunications were included in the budg- the real needs of citizens. 4 For example, Munich 2018 was forced to withdraw its bid because citi- et to offer companies new services of high technologi- zens, through a popular referendum, did not want any events in those cal value (Brunet 2005). While in Sydney, pre-Olympic locations chosen by third parties. planning was an example of a promotional campaign for 5 The Olympics is recognised as one of the most active movements international companies. City and State conducted tar- internationally. 54 Valerio Della Sala new priority for the City Council, the urban agenda will The first solutions adopted were allocating the event inevitably be prioritised to include the Olympic project in to cities with hotel availability and negotiating the price an overall transformation plan. Future works involving a for all participants. The accommodation situation was modification or alteration of space will be promoters of characterised by total improvisation, to the extent that the urban heritage of the OG (Hiller 2014). According to some countries used boats to transport and accom- Harvey, one of the critical elements of post-industrial cit- modation for their delegations6. Over time, the Organ- ies is the city’s revitalisation through gentrification, lei- ising Committee had to get involved in the search for sure, and entertainment (Harvey 1991). In addition, new other places that could be temporarily transformed into urban entertainment structures will be created in the accommodation, such as hospitals, schools, military central space of the post-industrial city, developing new camps or renting boats. The first decade was character- specific urban districts (LEDs) (Sorkin 1992). Therefore, ised by the emergency of finding accommodation for mega-events change the priority in the intervention of participants. regular urban processes. Mega-events require long-term However, the regulation of the event and the pre- preparation across different project scales. disposition of the first OV in Paris 1924 provided an Olympic urbanism in general and the OV, in con- unmistakable signal for the debate about the situation sideration of the construction processes and the reuse of regarding Olympic accommodation for future editions. the OV, represent a specific case of urban transformation Therefore, the first phenomenon observed in the first OV (Muñoz 1996). The OV is considered the centre of the in Paris in 1924 was undoubtedly an emergency (Muñoz Olympic project for its functionality during the event 2006). The temporary requirement to house the Olympic and, above all, for its use afterwards (Muñoz 1996). In athletes meant that decisions had to be made in time to such a way, the Olympic event helps us observe the host guarantee accommodation structures for the duration cities’ urban evolution through renovating spaces and of the event. It is essential to point out that the Paris creating new urban areas in the urban fabric. However, OV, proposed in the form of barracks in an unoccupied the research of OV involves the study of cities, planning area near the Olympic Stadium and with the provision and processes of specific interventions for the temporary of some essential services, had few elements in common accommodation of athletes. with the first OV built for the Los Angeles 1932 event. About the concept of the OV, it is fundamental to During the Berlin Congress in 1930, the IOC members introduce the origin of the original thinking provided initiated a debate for the promotion of a new accom- through the ideas of Baron Pierre de Coubertin. The modation solution, which Zack Farmer promised as a idea of creating a new “Modern Olympia” was openly new way to solve the accommodation problem, provid- put forward to groups of architects as early as 1910 by ing a solution that included food for a cost of two dol- the Baron (Muñoz 1996). The OV was a complex organ- lars a day7. Subsequently, Berlin in 1936 moved forward ised in different locations to celebrate the Olympic event, with constructing a permanent OV, which began to take inspired by internationalism and the aspirations for shape as a construction site with a tremendous physical world peace, characteristic of the thinking of the Euro- impact on the territory. As seen in the Official Report pean bourgeoisie during the first half of the 20th cen- of the 1936 OCOG, the wish of the Berlin Organis- tury (Gresleri 1994). The Baron’s idea was to create a ing Committee was to replicate the OV of Los Angeles territorial space through sport and education based on for the emphasis and replication of the modern city of Thomas Arnold’s philosophy of 1830. From this point of Elis (OCOG 1936). Therefore, the Organising Commit- view, Coubertin’s proposal had much in common with tee proposed a permanent solution using the Döberitz contemporary ones, such as the “international city” con- military camp, some 21 km from the Olympic site. The ceived by the architect Ernest Hébrard as early as 1910. women, however, as in Los Angeles in 1932, were accom- If the international city was defined as the new capital modated separately. The Villas of Los Angeles and Berlin of peace and thought, Coubertin’s Olympic city could be were the typologies that promoted and inspired a hous- defined as the capital of peace and sport (Muñoz 1996). ing model to lay the foundations for the Villas through- Therefore, the concentration of athletes, officials and out the century. visitors was beginning to force the IOC to consider the issue of accommodation as a priority, considering the 6 The issue of travel and accommodation costs for delegations will be host cities and their availability. However, at that time, one of the main topics of discussion in connection with the increase in the number of participants. the IOC was undefined (Muñoz 1996), especially regard- 7 The American offer of accommodation, meals and use of local trans- ing the budgets of the different countries, so it was not port was hard to refuse, and therefore the Village of Los Angeles will easy to manage accommodation independently. become an inspirational model for future candidate cities. The Olympic Village and the Olympic Urbanism: Perception and Expectations of Olympic Specialists 55 From that moment, the housing defined a new pic Committee. Cities should consider the OV as an image of the “Olympic city” by including sports facili- integrating element of a new philosophy of urban devel- ties in its architectural ensemble. Thus, the conception opment, which, through sport, can promote a healthy of the Olympic residence as more than just a temporary lifestyle. Only in consideration of the real needs of the place for Olympic accommodation. The OV began to citizens can the permanent project meet the expecta- evolve through the definition of new proposals for the tions of the host community. Otherwise, temporary realisation and redefinition of spaces beyond specifi- solutions represent the best measures to avoid compro- cally sporting ones. Over time, the OV will become the mising the long-term future of the candidate cities. For fundamental element in sponsoring a structural mod- example, the OV in Athens, Turin, Sochi, Rio and Pyeo- ernisation of the city, which in some cases, has become ngchang, to this day, continue to compromise the future a model of future development for the host cities. The of the host cities. The State of abandonment is the result observation of successful models such as Rome (1960), of the choice of a permanent model that was not includ- Munich (1972), Barcelona (1992), Sydney (2000), Van- ed in the post-Olympic planning of the accommoda- couver (2010), and London (2012) forces future cities to tion. These abandoned structures allow us to reflect on shape themselves to acquire new roles in global city net- the importance of Olympic urban planning in not per- works. In the summer edition, Olympic urban planning manently compromising land in host cities. consists of the OV, the Olympic stadium and the swim- Over time, different projects involving the reuse or ming pool. Undoubtedly, the following structures form renovation of urban spaces have been observed. Aware- the physical heritage of the Olympics in the host city. An ness of the impact of the OV has introduced new mixed urban heritage that considers each host country’s cultur- models for the realisation of accommodation. The con- al, social, political, economic and sporting history can struction of the OV in the main fabric of the cities will become a crucial element in creating new socio-econom- lead to changes in the services available and a rise in ic dynamics. However, the OG and the OV since Rome prices, accelerating the processes of gentrification in the in 1960 will play a fundamental role in the restructuring new neighbourhood. Moreover, in some editions such of urban space, favouring a rethinking of the scale of the as Sydney, Athens, Beijing, and Rio, the identification project for future interventions8. In Oslo, Rome, Mexico, of land has led to a displacement of people for the con- Grenoble, Munich, Barcelona, Sydney, Turin, Vancouver, struction of the OV. At the same time, the transforma- and London, we have seen how the OV remain an active tion of the areas in Beijing will cause a change in land and dynamic heritage that continues to be transformed value with the subsequent change of use in the post- by the structures of the cities and the morphology of the Olympic phase (Zou 2015). In a long-term scheme, the territory. OV will take a central role in the physical modifications Therefore, the potential of the OV should not only of the spaces. On one hand, changes in the value of land be considered at the time of the creation of new accom- use can lead to real estate speculation and gentrification. modation and new projects in the cities but all the On the other hand, the organisation of the OG with possibilities for the city’s future should be thoroughly multiple OVs will contribute to spatial changes in differ- evaluated. Consequently, the Olympic Village can be ent areas of the territory. considered the cornerstone of the city renewal project through the OG. The urban style, the choice of materi- als, and the application of new building technologies, 3. Methodology supported by infrastructural change, represent a unique possibility for the candidate cities. However, the pos- As mentioned above, due to the lack of previous sibilities should be considered regarding existing plans studies and the limited knowledge of the opinion of the and the city’s future projects. As we will see in the fol- agents involved in the different dynamics regarding the lowing sections, the typology of OV adopted by candi- development of the Olympic Villages, the research pro- poses a quantitative methodology by a questionnaire date cities in Olympic history can be analysed through structured using 27 closed questions and one open ques- different permanent and temporary models. The con- tion was also carried out to allow the qualified inter- struction of the Olympic Village cannot be considered viewees to propose a personal opinion on the specific valuable only to carry out the obligations of the Olym- subject of the study. The interviews are part of a doctoral 8 Rome in 1960 will be the first Olympic city to use the Olympic event quantitative methodology supported by an international as a catalyst for other urban and infrastructural transformations pro- co-tutorship between the Universidad Autónoma de Bar- posed by the city’s post-war reconstruction. celona and the Politecnico di Torino (Della Sala 2022). 56 Valerio Della Sala The questionnaire is structured in four parts: 1. pro- tive research enables the elucidation of human envi- file; 2. introduction; 3. Olympic Village; 4. specific ques- ronments and experiences within various conceptual tions. The following contribution will only analyse those frameworks. Quantitative research using statistical statistically significant questions for this contribution. techniques must answer two fundamental questions. The interview subjects were selected about their The first concerns the relationship between phenomena direct or indirect involvement in planning the Olympic and places, and the second examines their differences. Games. Professors who have not been directly involved Therefore, the fundamental questions of human geog- with the IOC but have contributed effectively to the aca- raphers concern the observation of social structures demic development of Olympic Games research have related to the individual’s experiences within places. also been chosen. This group of interviews guarantee a Statistical methods also raised the question of experi- heterogeneity of the respondents. mental design, how to formulate hypotheses and how to The qualified testimonies were chosen to have had test them. Science is always open to new experiments to links with the Barcelona Olympic Studies Centre, the observe phenomena related to human experience. Geo- Institute for Sports Research, the Lausanne Olympic graphical researchers can use quantitative analysis and Studies Centre, the Sydney Olympic Studies Centre, the subject the coded results to standard statistical analysis Ottawa Olympic Studies Centre, the Rio de Janeiro Olym- to determine frequencies, correlations, variations, etcet- pic Studies Centre, OMERO Interdepartmental Research era. Therefore, the present study uses statistical analy- Centre for Urban Studies centre and various universities sis to determine the relevant correlations between the which, over the years, have collaborated directly in the intensity and frequency of the observed phenomenon. research and planning of the Olympic Games. In addition, the choice of actors interviewed allows for a In summary, the testimonies correspond to the fol- heterogeneous observation of the phenomenon through lowing profiles: the previous experience of geographers, urban planners – Members of the Olympic Studies Centre and planners who contributed to stimulating the acad- – Managers of the research committees emy under study. – Professors who publish openly or with Olympic While the analysis of the data depends on three publishers on the subject of study. main factors: 1. The level of measurement of the vari- – Those responsible for Olympic Games management ables; 2. The structure of the study hypotheses; 3. The or planning activities. analytical interest of the researcher (Sampieri 2014). The results from the online questionnaire for col- lecting the quantitative research data are shown below. Eighty-five people answered the questionnaire. It should Bivariate correlation be noted that some questions allow for multiple respons- es to obtain more information. In addition, the spread- The following correlations of the responses were sheet containing the results obtained can be consulted measured through Pearson correlation coefficient (r), in the annexes. The results will be explained through which allows us to measure the linear dependence the frequency of the answers and by observing the cor- between two quantitative random variables. This Pear- relations between the answers using SPSS software. son index helps us recognise and measure the relation- Likewise, the quantitative analysis will be supported by ship between two quantitative and continuous variables. an analytical phase that will allow us to observe wheth- The correlation coefficient can be interpreted through er there are correlations between the answers to the values ranging from +1 to -1. A value of 0 indicates no research hypotheses. association between the two variables. A value greater It should be noted that the quantitative interview than 0 indicates that there is a positive association. Posi- was conducted in English. The analysis was conducted tive association indicates that, as the value of one vari- using nominal and ordinal questions. The survey ques- able increases, the other variable also increases. A value tions were designed to be answered with the Likert scale, less than 0 indicates a negative association. which allows us to observe the Pearson correlation of the – correlation less than zero: negative correlation, vari- calculated variables. ables are inversely related; The research methods are increasingly qualitative – correlation greater than zero: perfect positive corre- to clarify human feelings, individual experiences, and lation. The variables are directly correlated; social processes (Hay 2021). – correlation equal to zero: no covariance can be However, quantitative research is used in differ- determined. ent areas of human geography. Specifically, quantita- The Olympic Village and the Olympic Urbanism: Perception and Expectations of Olympic Specialists 57 Legend methodology. A correlation of 28.4% between questions 12 and 9 was observed earlier. Subsequently, a correla- In the following graphs, the values of the statistical tion of 31.10% is observed between the strategic plan- analysis of the correlation between the variables of the ning of the OV and its definition as a unique instrument quantitative interview can be observed. The observation for the long-term development of the candidate cities of the Pearson correlation will be done through the val- (question 13). The definition of a specific OV strategy ues that are valid and statistically significant. Two values will guarantee its own identity over time in the candi- will indicate the confidence and reliability index of the date cities. model: (*) will indicate a confidence interval of 95%, and Meanwhile, a second correlation of 49.5% is (**) will indicate a confidence interval of 99%. These two observed between defining a specific OV strategy and its levels shall indicate only statistically significant and reli- inclusion in a territorial transformation project (question able values. 15). The definition of a specific strategy will inevitably be related to ensuring a long-term strategy for the host city. Subsequently, a correlation of 57.1% is observed between 4. Results the definition of a specific strategy for the construc- tion of the OV and its specific use in the post-Olympic The analysis of the results only considers questions period (question 17). The planning of the OV through administered to respondents where a statistically sig- a specific strategy is related to the definition of its post- nificant correlation is observed. Therefore, the questions Olympic use. These data allow us to affirm that the analysed will be as follows: post-Olympic use should be included in a specific strat- – Question 12. Does the Olympic Village need to be egy planned in the pre-Olympic period to be exploited planned through a specific strategy? in the post-Olympic period. Subsequently, a correla- – Question 15. Do you think that the planning of tion of 68.9% is observed between the variable relating the Olympic Village – to guarantee the long-term to the specific strategy of the OV and the respect of the development of the city and the region – should be project for the real needs of the citizens (question 18). included in a territorial transformation project? The definition of a specific strategy for planning the OV – Question 21. Can the construction of Olympic Win- must consider the needs of citizens before being imple- ter Villages in mountain communities promote a mented in the city. A correlation of 54.7% is observed process of territorial expansion by the host city? between the variable concerning the specific strategy for – Question 22. Should the construction of the Olym- the OV and the definition of two specific strategies for pic Village be carried out through two complemen- the different Olympic construction and planning peri- tary strategies: a financing model for the construc- ods (question 22). The definition of a specific strategy tion period and a management model for the post- for the development of the Olympic Village implies the Olympic period? definition of two different strategies for the period of the – Question 24. In your experience, at the academic Olympic project. A strategy for financing the OV and a level, does the issue of Olympic urbanism need to specific strategy for managing the Village in the post- be further explored through longitudinal and cross- Olympic period. Subsequently, a correlation of 29.3% can sectional studies? be observed between the variable relating to the specif- – Question 26. Today, the 1996 Symposium on Olym- ic strategy and the importance of furthering the theme pic Villages held by the IOC in Lausanne is the only through longitudinal and transversal studies (question academic conference that analysed the evolution of 24). The definition of a specific strategy for planning the the Summer Olympic Villages over time in a trans- OV in the territory implies an increase in the interest versal way. In your opinion, should a new sympo- and importance of studying the issue of Olympic urban- sium be held to reflect on the Winter Olympic Vil- ism in depth through longitudinal and transversal stud- lages and to observe the new strategies carried out ies. Finally, a correlation of 30.7% is shown between the by the candidate cities? variable relating to the definition of a specific strategy From this question, we can see how the variable for the development of the OV and the need to provide related to the planning of a specific strategy establishes a new Olympic symposium to discuss the evolution of correlations between other variables: questions 9, 13, the OV issue (question 26). The definition of a specific 15, 17, 18, 21, 22, 24, and 26. We will only reflect on the strategy for planning the OV implies greater importance variables with a reliability index of 99%, and the other in reflecting on the evolution of the Olympic Village variables can be found in the annexe of the quantitative through the organisation of a new Olympic symposium 58 Valerio Della Sala Question 12. Does the Olympic Village need to be planned through a specific strategy? 2 3 7 9 12 13 15 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 r -0,049 -0,045 0,203 0,284** 1 0,310** 0,493** 0,571** 0,689** 0,18 0,201 0,219* 0,547** 0,199 0,293** -0,015 0,307** Question 15. Do you think that the planning of the Olympic Village – to guarantee the long-term development of the city and the region – should be included in a territorial transformation project? 2 3 7 9 12 13 15 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 r -0,105 0,007 ,271* ,393** ,493** ,270* 1 ,484** ,382** ,376** 0,14 ,312** ,336** 0,163 ,259* -0,144 ,440** Question 21. Can the construction of Olympic Winter Villages in mountain communities promote a process of territorial expansion by the host city? 2 3 7 9 12 13 15 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 r 0,02 0,033 0,032 0,139 0,219* 0,077 0,312** 0,213 0,316** 0,414** 0,415** 1 0,297** 0,019 0,323** -0,014 0,259* * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (two-tailed). ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (two-tailed). to discuss and debate one theme of Olympic urbanism. transformation project will inevitably contribute to pro- In conclusion, it can be seen how the variable defined moting new social changes in the host city. A correlation by question 12 is correlated with other variables that of 31.2% is observed between the inclusion of the OV involve and influence the future development of Olym- and its contribution to territorial expansion processes in pic cities. The definition and planning of a specific strat- mountain communities (question 21). Including the OV egy for developing the OV will imply the involvement of in a territorial transformation project can promote a ter- other territorial relations and strategies. ritorial expansion process in mountain communities. A From this question, we can observe how the variable correlation of 33.6% is established between the inclusion related to the planning of the OV in a strategy of terri- of the OV and its complementary strategies in the dif- torial transformation establishes correlations between ferent Olympic periods (question 22). To guarantee long- other variables: questions 7, 9, 12, 13, 17, 18, 19, 21, 22, term development in Olympic cities, the inclusion of the 24, and 26. OV in a territorial transformation project must neces- Only the variables with a reliability index of 99% sarily be carried out through two complementary strate- will be reflected upon, and the other variables can be gies: a financing model for the construction period and a found in the annexe of the quantitative methodology. post-Olympic management model. Finally, a correlation The correlation between questions 15 and questions 2, of 44.0% was observed between the inclusion of the OV and 3, have been analysed previously. A correlation of and the importance of considering new territorial strat- 48.4% is observed between the inclusion of the OV in a egies through the organisation of a new Olympic sym- territorial transformation strategy and its specific post- posium (question 26). Including the OV in a territorial Olympic use (question 17). Including the OV in a long- transformation project implies a greater interest in stud- term strategy must inevitably consider the definition ying them to consider future strategies for the host cit- of the specific use of the Olympic Village in the post- ies. In conclusion, the inclusion of the OV in a long-term Olympic period. Meanwhile, a correlation of 38.2% is territorial transformation strategy is directly related to observed between the inclusion of the OV in a territorial other elements to consider when planning the OV in the transformation project and the consideration of the real territory. needs of citizens (question 18). Therefore, the inclusion Thanks to this question, we can see how the variable of the OV in a territorial transformation strategy must related to the promotion of a process of territorial expan- inevitably consider citizens and their needs. Thus, we sion of the OV in mountain communities establishes cor- observe a 37.6% correlation between the inclusion of the relations between other variables: question 12, question OV and its influence on promoting social change in the 15, question 18, question 19, question 20, question 22, host city (question 19). Including the OV in a territorial question 24, question 26. We will only reflect on the vari- The Olympic Village and the Olympic Urbanism: Perception and Expectations of Olympic Specialists 59 Question 22. Should the construction of the Olympic Village be carried out through two complementary strategies: a financing model for the construction period and a management model for the post-Olympic period? 2 3 7 9 12 13 15 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 r -0,147 -0,154 0,175 0,231* 0,547** 0,222* 0,336** 0,391** 0,569** 0,376** 0,139 0,297** 1 0,111 0,387** -0,105 0,239* Question 24. In your experience, at the academic level, does the issue of Olympic urbanism need to be further explored through longitudi- nal and cross-sectional studies? 2 3 7 9 12 13 15 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 r -0,306** -0,147 0,094 0,226* 0,293** 0,138 0,259* 0,187 0,349** 0,458** 0,043 0,323** 0,387** 0,167 1 -0,067 0,468** Question 26. Today, the 1996 Symposium on Olympic Villages held by the IOC in Lausanne is the only academic conference that analysed the evolution of the Summer Olympic Villages over time in a transversal way. In your opinion, should a new symposium be held to reflect on the Winter Olympic Villages and to observe the new strategies carried out by the candidate cities? 2 3 7 9 12 13 15 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 r -0,244* -0,183 0,139 0,344** 0,307** 0,235* 0,440** 0,329** 0,426** 0,426** 0,256* 0,259* 0,239* 0,195 0,468** -0,076 1 * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (two-tailed). ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (two-tailed). ables with a 99% reliability index, and the other variables 17, 18, 19, and 21 has been noted above. Subsequently, can be seen in the annexe of the quantitative methodol- a correlation of 38.7% is observed between the variable ogy. The correlation between questions 21 and questions related to the different strategies and the requirement to 12,15,18,19 and 20 was analysed earlier. Subsequently, study the subject of Olympic urbanism in depth through a correlation of 29.7% is observed between the variable longitudinal and transversal studies (question 24). related to territorial expansion in mountain communi- Through longitudinal and transversal studies, the study ties and the implementation of two different and comple- and academic research on the OG can help implement mentary strategies for the operation of the OV over time and execute complementary strategies for the OV’s plan- (question 22). The definition of a financing model and a ning, financing and management over time. specific management model for each period of the Win- From this question, we can see how the variable ter OV may be the promoter of a territorial expansion related to the need to deepen the theme of Olympic process in the post-Olympic period. Finally, a correla- urbanism through longitudinal and transversal stud- tion of 32.3% was observed between the variable relating ies establishes correlations between other variables: to territorial expansion in mountain communities and question 2, question 9, question 12, question 15, ques- the need to study the subject of Olympic urban plan- tion 18, question 19, question 21, question 22, ques- ning in greater depth at the academic level (question 24). tion 26. Only the variables with a reliability index of The study and observation of Olympic urban planning 99% will be reflected upon, and the other variables can through longitudinal and transversal studies will help be found in the annexe of the quantitative methodol- understand the territorial expansion processes observed ogy. The correlation between questions 24 and ques- in the mountain communities where OV was built. tions 2,3,9,12,15,18,19,21 and 22 was seen earlier. Subse- With this question, we observe how the variable quently, a correlation of 46.8% is observed between the related to the different complementary strategies for the variable relating to studies on the subject of Olympic exploitation of the OV establishes correlations between urbanism and the need to provide a new symposium on other variables: questions 9, 12, 13, 15, 17, 18, 19, 21, 24, OV (question 26). Over time, the study and academic and 26. research on Olympic urbanism need to be deepened and Only the variables with a reliability index of 99% observed from different perspectives. The organisation of will be considered, and the other variables can be found a new Olympic symposium is essential to reflect on the in the annexe of the quantitative methodology. The cor- Winter OV, looking at the new strategies pursued by the relation between questions 22 and questions 9, 12, 13, 15, candidate cities. 60 Valerio Della Sala This last question allows us to observe how the var- viewees clearly stated that the local community must be iable related to the organisation of a new symposium included in the accommodation project. establishes correlations between other variables: ques- Secondly, some interviewees State that the Interna- tions 2, 9, 12, 12, 13, 15, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, and 24. tional Olympic Committee should reconsider the need Only the variables with a reliability index of 99% will to concentrate on constructing the OV in a central and be considered, and the other variables can be found in crucial location. Over time, we have observed different the annexe of the quantitative methodology. The cor- cities in the post-Olympic period experiencing a rise in relation between questions 26 and questions 2, 9, 12, housing prices and property speculation caused by the 13, 15, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, and 24 has been observed Olympic event. Creating a new neighbourhood in a cen- throughout the study. In conclusion, it can be observed tral location will inevitably lead to changes in the urban that question 26 has the highest number of correla- fabric, in the centrality of cities, becoming an added tions (12) among all the variables considered. This data value for future citizens. The planning and identification confirms with certainty that the organisation of a new of the location of the OV must be subject to the strictest Olympic symposium is of fundamental importance analysis of social and economic equity. Some interview- for the academic community’s discussion, observation ees stated that it is necessary to balance the investment and reflection on the evolution of the spatial organisa- in housing, not to have athletes in one place. Through tion models of the Olympic Winter Villages. Over the co-location, the environmental footprint and all the years, it has been possible to observe different models travel issues related to the mobility of Olympic athletes of the spatial organisation constantly evolving, which will be reduced. Thus, planning different OV in the ter- can help us understand the subject of Olympic urban- ritory will ensure a reduction of infrastructural works ism globally. The 1996 Olympic Symposium proved to and modifications of the mobility systems of the cities. be the only institutional moment of academic debate Thirdly, the interviewees agree on the importance and reflection in the scientific community. As we have of defining a long-term plan that addresses the follow- been able to observe through the analysis of the cor- ing issues: housing, integration, sustainability, and citi- relations, the organisation of a new symposium almost zens’ well-being. The focus of the project should be on thirty years after the 1996 symposium is of fundamen- citizens and their demands. In addition, some inter- tal importance to discuss issues related to territorial viewees suggested that the planning process should impact, organisational models, heritage, legacy, infra- include an active and shared planning phase so that structures, participation, housing, social changes and new ideas and proposals become good practices for territorial transformations. future cities and experiences. Promoting healthy life- styles through shared planning can promote new ways of designing future cities in the long term. Moreo- 5. The Future Development of the Olympic Village in ver, it should be easier to compromise with the IOC to the Candidate Cities develop four, five, six or more OV rather than just one. The development of OV in the future should involve a he contributions of the interviewees allow us to hybrid approach, including diverse accommodation affirm that there are some common reflections on the areas through new sustainable practices for the future theme of urban development, management models, of the cities. In addition, the possibility of using mixed accommodation, sustainability, and the implementa- housing models was chosen by only a part of the inter- tion of the OV project. In addition, most interview- viewees; the majority stated that the Olympic Village ees stated that being a complex issue, it would need to should provide popular housing and affordable resi- be researched longitudinally to contribute effectively to dences in the future. The key problem of contempo- developing the Olympic urbanism theme. rary cities is the lack of social housing, environmental Firstly, it is interesting to note that most interview- sustainability, and affordability. For this reason, the ees have stated that the OV should be thought of as a OV has a unique and intangible potential for candi- long-term plan and add the ordinary transformations date cities. The Olympic urbanism that finds its ulti- of each Olympic city. In addition, some interviewees mate expression in the OV has the power to offer physi- claim that the International Olympic Committee can- cal visions of the future of housing and urbanism for not interfere in the accommodation planning when our future cities. The assembly of temporary facilities the local community drives OV. This statement allows for athletes or competitions allows us to explore new us to reflect on the urban development models of each construction and practices that could never be carried city and each Olympic experience. Furthermore, inter- out in cities. Planning a temporary area that progres- The Olympic Village and the Olympic Urbanism: Perception and Expectations of Olympic Specialists 61 sively transforms into a public space will unequivocally According to some interviewees, OV should not be improve the quality of life and the possibilities of neigh- seen as a tool that can help solve chronic problems in bourhoods permanently. The interviewees agree on the cities. Building accommodations through public funding importance of a multi-scale approach that can redefine to be sold to private parties in the post-Olympic period OV internal and external spaces. As discussed by inter- will lead to lucrative projects that may develop different viewees who studied or participated in the London 2012 social problems. The construction of the OV through and Sydney 2000 Games, we should reflect and consider private funding will inevitably reduce the post-Olym- the possible futures of OV. In general, the concept of pic legacy possibilities for the host society. The OV has environmental sustainability, as it is used today, needs to be part of a whole infrastructural system developed to be studied through multidisciplinary analyses that to improve the host region’s infra- and extra-territorial consider the phenomenon from a holistic view. How- communications. Finally, about the management mod- ever, the concept of environmental impact needs to be els of the OV, some interviewees stated that the most considered within the new urban structural changes sustainable examples over time are those solutions that brought about by the OV. Fourthly, about the manage- have integrated a university housing strategy. The type ment and planning models of the OV of the future, and size of housing required for the OV are best suited some interviewees stated that there is no ideal model to university residences in cities with large universi- and that their management depends on the structure ties, developing a unique legacy for universities. The and finances of each specific city. In addition, most construction and planning of a new neighbourhood interviewees state that the management model should nowadays must pay attention to the fulfilment of dif- be provided through mixed housing that may include ferent environmental aspects that will be a priority for social housing, decreasing the possibility of displace- the community. Waste management, energy efficiency, ment of citizens after the Olympic event. The planning public transport and public spaces. Planning the OV in of the OV should be strategically thought out to encom- future cities has become a more complex challenge than pass the local communities’ needs, desires, and objec- in the past. tives. As for the future of the OV, most interviewees say In addition, planning a Winter Olympic event in a that it will continue to evolve as it does now because the regional territory introduced new challenges that were idea of a community in an OV is fundamental to trans- not considered before and were never considered in oth- mitting the values of Olympism. er experiences. Considering the Winter and Summer OV Meanwhile, some interviewees stated that the Win- as two distinct entities will be the first step to favour and ter OV had received relatively little attention. The issue stimulating longitudinal research on the specific topic. of the Winter OV about climate change, environmental The interviewees’ statements allow us to elucidate that impact and changing strategies in mountain communi- the OV of the future should be planned through social ties is seen as fundamental to developing sustainable housing strategies, infrastructural system integration, solutions over time. According to most interviewees’ integrated planning and a mixed housing experience. opinions, the issue is complex. For this reason, Olympic Moreover, if we look at the editions of Barcelona urban planning needs longitudinal studies to observe 1992, Turin 2006, Vancouver 2010, London 2012, Tokyo these added structures’ total evolution over time in a ter- 2020 and Beijing 2022, the OV built in the main fabric ritory sensitive to the whole ecosystem. Over the years, of the cities has favoured the emergence of a new area we have always observed that a solution for the OV in which, in the post-event phase, could favour an expan- the post-Olympic period was to be integrated into the sion of the urban limits. However, the summer OV, if we tourist circuits of the mountain communities. Today, the take as a model a neighbourhood of 20,000 people, will Turin, Vancouver, Sochi, PyeongChang and Milan-Cor- have a different impact than its winter counterpart, as tina projects allow us to observe other forms of mixed the latter will have to host some 5,000 athletes and offi- management that can favour urbanisation in areas that cials. Therefore, based on the different forms, accom- are sensitive to the future of our world. It can be stated modation organisation models, size and distances of the that the Olympic Village model has reached a territo- areas of interest in each context, the OV can provoke rial dimension that implies the construction of multiple the transformation of an urban area that, over time, can Olympic Villages in a territory that can reach up to 200 become a crucial element for the expansion of urban lim- km. However, if we consider the Olympic Villages in its. Consequently, the role of the host community and mountainous locations, it is argued that the provision of citizens should be crucial in the organisation of the new new accommodation can be the catalyst for future tour- housing. Including other elements and criteria in the ist exploitation of the competition areas. evaluation process, such as the percentage of social hous- 62 Valerio Della Sala ing or the number of green spaces, could decrease the Della Sala, V. (2022). The Olympic Villages and Olympic chances of impacting the host territory and society. Then, urban planning. Analysis and evaluation of the impact on organising a new Olympic symposium is essential to dis- territorial and urban planning (XX-XXI centuries). Tesi cuss research concerning Olympic urbanism and villages. di dottorato, Universitat Autónoma de Barcelona, Politec- nico di Torino. Essex, S., Chalkley, B. (1998). Olympic games: Catalyst of References urban change. Leisure Studies, 17 (3), 187-206. Andranovich, G., Burbank, M. J., & Heying, C. H. (2001). Gratton, C. (2002). Sport in the City. Sport in the City. Olympic cities: Lessons learned from mega-event politics. London, Routledge. Journal of Urban Affairs, 23 (2), 113-131. Harvey, D. (1991). The Condition of Postmodernity: An Arsen, D. (1997). Is there a link between infrastructure Enquiry into the Origins of Cultural Change. New York, and economic development? In Birmingham, R. D., Mier, Wiley. R. Dilemmas of Urban Economic Development: issues in Hay, I., Cope M. (2021). Qualitative research methods in theory and practice. Thousand Oaks (California), Sage human geography. New York, Wiley. Publishing, 82-98. Hiller, H. (2014). Host Cities and the Olympics: An Inter- Auruskeviciene, V., Pundziene, A., Skudiene, V., Gripsud, actionist Approach. London, Routledge. G., Nes, E. B., Olsson, U. H. (2010). Change of Attitudes and Country Image after Hosting Major Sports Events. Inzi- Hiller, H. (2000). Mega-events, urban boosterism and nerine Ekonomika- Engeneering Economics, 21 (1), 53-59. growth strategies: an analysis of the objectives and legiti- mations of the Cape Town 2004 Olympic Bid. Interna- Bale, J., and Christensen, M. K. (2004). Post-Olympic? tional Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 24 (2), Questioning sport in the Twenty-first Century. Oxford, 449-458. BERG. Hiller, H. (2003). Toward a science of Olympic outcomes: Billings, S. B., Holladay, J. S. (2012). Should cities go for the urban legacy. In De Moragas, M., Kennett, C., Puig, the gold? The long-term impacts of hosting the Olympics. N. (eds). The Legacy of the Olympic Games, 1984-2000. Economic Inquiry, 50 (3), 754-772. Losanna, International Olympic Committee, 102-109. Brunet, F. (1995). An economic analysis of the Barcelo- International Olympic Committee [IOC] (2005). Techni- na’92 Olympic Games: resources, financing, and impact. cal Manual on Olympic Village (November 2005). Losan- In de Moragas, M., Botella, M. (eds.). The Keys to Suc- na, International Olympic Committee. cess: The Social, Economic and Communications Impact of Barcelona’92. Barcelona, Centre d’Estudis Olímpics i de International Olympic Committee [IOC] (2017). The l’Esport, Universitat Autónoma de Barcelona, 203-237. Olympic Winter Games numbers: Vancouver 2010, Sochi 2014 and PyeongChang 2018. Losanna, International Brunet, F. (2005). The economic impact of the Barcelo- Olympic Committee. na Olympic Games, Barcelona: the legacy of the Games 1992-2002. Barcelona: Centre d’Estudis Olímpics (UAB), International Olympic Committee [IOC] (2018). Host city (2002), 1-27. contract operational requirements. Losanna, International Olympic Committee. Brunet, F. (2005). The economic impact of the Barcelona Olympic Games, 1986-2004: Barcelona: the legacy of the International Olympic Committee [IOC] (2018). Olym- Games, 1992-2002 [online article]. Barcelona, Centre pic Agenda 2020 Olympic Games: The New Norm Report d’Estudis Olímpics, Universitat Autónoma de Barcelona. by the Executive Steering Committee for Olympic Games http://olympicstudies.uab.es/pdf/wp084_eng.pdf Delivery. Losanna, International Olympic Committee. Chalkley, B., Essex, S (1999). Urban development through International Olympic Committee [IOC] (2018). Olym- hosting international events: a history of the Olympic pic Summer Games Villages from Paris 1924 to Rio 2016. Games. Planning Perspectives, 14 (4), 369-394. Losanna, The Olympic Studies Centre. De Moragas, M., Kidd, B. (eds.) (1996). Olympic villages: International Olympic Committee [IOC] (2018). Sharing a hundred years of urban planning and shared experiences. history, enriching the future Olympic Winter Games Vil- International Symposium on Olympic Villages, Lausanne lages from Oslo 1952 to PyeongChang 2018. Losanna, The 1996. Lausanne, International Olympic Committee. Olympic Studies Centre. The Olympic Village and the Olympic Urbanism: Perception and Expectations of Olympic Specialists 63 Kasimati, E. (2003). Economic aspects and the Summer ical analysis of land prices and development intensity. Olympics: a review of related research. International Jour- Urban Geography, 36 (5), 735-756. nal of Tourism Research, 5 (6), 433-444. Kasimati, E. (2006). Macroeconomic and financial analysis of mega-events: evidence from Greece. Bath, University of Olympic Official Reports Bath, Department of Economics & International Devel- opment. Xth Olympiade Committee of the Games of Los Angeles (1933). The Games of the Xth Olympiad Los Angeles 1932: Kassens-Noor, E. (2013). Transport Legacy of the Olym- official report. pic Games, 1992-2012. Journal of Urban Affairs, 35 (4), 393-416. Comitato olimpico nazionale italiano (1957). VII Giochi olimpici invernali, Cortina d’Ampezzo, 1956 = VII Olympic Matheson, V. A. (2006). Mega-events: The effect of the Winter Games, Cortina d’Ampezzo, 1956. world’s most significant sporting events on local, regional, and national economies. Worchester, College of the Holy Comitato per l’Organizzazione dei XX Giochi Olimpici Cross, Department of Economics. Invernali Torino 2006 (2007). XX Giochi Olimpici inverna- li Torino 2006 = XX Olympic Winter Games Torino 2006. Matheson, V. A., Baade, R. A. (2004). Mega- Sporting Events in Developing Nations: Playing the way to Pros- Comité d’organisation des Jeux Olympiques et Paralym- perity? South African Journal of Economics, 72 (5), 1084- piques d’hiver de 2010 à Vancouver (2010). VANOC offi- 1095. cial Games report = Rapport officiel des Jeux COVAN. McDonogh, G. (1991). Discourses of the City: Policy and Comité d’organisation des Xèmes Jeux Olympiques Response in Post- Transitional Barcelona. City and Soci- d’hiver (1969). Rapport officiel [Xèmes Jeux olympiques ety, 5 (1), 40-63. d’hiver] : Official report [Xth Winter Olympic Games]. Millet I Serra, L. (1997). Olympic Villages after the Games Comité d’organisation des XVes Jeux Olympiques d’hiver. Lluís Millet. Centre d’Estudis Olímpics, UAB. Calgary. (1988). Rapport officiel des XVes Jeux Olympiques d’hiver = XV Olympic Winter Games official report. Muñoz, F. (1996). Historic evolution and urban planning typology of Olympic Village. Hundred years of urban plan- Comité de candidature de Beijing aux Jeux Olympiques ning and shared experiences. International Symposium on d’hiver de 2022 (2014). Beijing 2022: candidate city. Olympic Villages. IOC Comité exécutif des jeux d’Anvers, Comité olympique Muñoz, F. (2006). Olympic Urbanism and Olympic Vil- belge (1920). XVIIème Olympiade Anvers 1920 /. lages: Planning Strategies in Olympic Host Cities, London Comité Olímpico Brasileiro (2010). Passion unites us: Rio 1908 to London 2012. The Sociological Review, 54 (2 sup- 2016 bid official report = Unis par la passion: rapport offi- pl.), 175–187. ciel de la candidature de Rio 2016. Preuss, H. (2000). Economics of The Olympic Games: Comité olympique français (1924). Les Jeux de la VIIIe Hosting the Games 1972-2000. Sydney, Walla Walla Press. Olympiade: Paris 1924: rapport officiel. Comité olympique The University of Germany. français. Preuss, H. (2004). The Economics of Staging the Olym- Comité Olympique Suisse (1951). Rapport général sur les pics: A Comparison of The Games 1972-2008. New York, Ves Jeux Olympiques d’hiver, St-Moritz 1948. Edward Elgar Pub. Comité organisateur des Jeux de la XIX olympiade Sampieri, R.H. (2014). Metodología de la investigación. (1969). Mexico 68: Official Report. Mexico, McGrawHill. COOB’92 (1992). Official report of the Games of the XXV Sorkin, M. (1992). Variations on a Theme Park. New Olympiad Barcelona 1992. York, Hill and Wang. Organisasjonskomiteen (1953). VI Olympiske Vinterleker Wimmer, W. (1976). Olympic buildings. Leipzig, Edition Oslo 1952 = VI Olympic Winter Games Oslo 1952. Leipzig. Organisationskomitee der IX. Olympischen Winter- Zou, Y., Mason, R., Zhong, R. (2015). Modelling the spiele in Innsbruck 1964 (1967). Offizieller Bericht der IX. polycentric evolution of post-Olympic Beijing: An empir- Olympischen Winterspiele Innsbruck 1964. 64 Valerio Della Sala Organisationskomitee für die IV. Olympischen Winter- Organising Committee (1974). Die Spiele : the official spiele 1936 Garmisch-Partenkirchen. (1936). IV Olympis- report of the Organizing Committee for the Games of the che Winterspiele 1936: Garmisch-Partenkirchen 6. bis 16. XXth Olympiad Munich 1972. Februar : amtlicher Bericht . Organising Committee (1995). Official report of the XVII Organisationskomitee für die XI. Olympiade Berlin 1936 Olympic Winter Games Lillehammer 1994. (1937). The XIth Olympic Games Berlin, 1936: official Organising Committee for the XIIth Winter Olympic report. Games 1976 at Innsbruck. (1976). Endbericht : XII. Olym- Organising Committee for the Games of the XVII Olym- pische Winterspiele Innsbruck 1976 = Rapport final: Inns- piad. (1963). The Games of the XVII Olympiad Rome, bruck ‘76 = Final report : Innsbruck ‘76. 1960 : the official report of the Organizing Committee. Organizing Committee of Albertville (1992). Rapport offi- Organising Committee for the XIth Olympic Winter ciel des XVIes Jeux Olympiques d’hiver d’Albertville et de la Games Sapporo 1972. (1973). The XI Olympic Winter Savoie = Official report of the XVI Olympic Winter Games Games Sapporo 1972 : official report = Les XI Jeux olym- of Albertville and Savoie. Olympic Winter Games. Organ- piques d’hiver Sapporo 1972 : rapport officiel . izing Committee. Organising Committee for the XIV Olympiad. (1951). Organizing Committee (1928). Rapport général du Comité The official report of the Organising Committee for the XIV exécutif des IImes Jeux olympiques d’hiver et documents Olympiad. officiels divers. Lausanne, Comité Olympique Suisse, Comité Exécutif des IImes Jeux Olympiques d’Hiver, St- Organising Committee of Lake Placid 1980. (1980). XIII Moritz. Olympic Winter Games Lake Placid 1980 : official results = XIII Olympic Winter Games Lake Placid 1980 : résultats Salt Lake City Organizing Committee (2002). Official officiels = XIII Olympic Winter Games Lake Placid 1980 : report of the XIX Olympic Winter Games Salt Lake 2002: offizielle Ergebnisse. 8-24 February 2002. Organising Committee of Los Angeles Olympics. (1985). Sydney Organizing Committee for the Olympic Games Official report of the Games of the XXIIIrd Olympiad Los (2001). Official report of the XXVII Olympiad: Sydney Angeles 1984. 2000 Olympic Games. Organising Committee of the Games of the XXII Olym- The Organizing Committee for the XVIII Olympic Win- piad. (1981). Games of the XXII Olympiad: Official report. ter Games Nagano 1998 (1999). The XVIII Olympic Win- ter Games: official report Nagano 1998. Organising Committee of the XIVth Winter Olympic Games 1984 at Sarajevo. (1984). Final report = Rapport Vancouver Organizing Committee for the 2010 Olympic final = Završni izvještaj. and Paralympic Games [VANOC] (2009). Olympic Games Impact (OGI) Study for the 2010 Olympic and Paralympic Organising Committee of the XXII Olympic Winter Winter Games Pre-Games Results Report. Games and XI Paralympic Winter Games of 2014 in Sochi (2015). Organising Committee (1955). The official report of the Organising Committee for the Games of the XV Olympiad. 1955. Organising Committee (1958). The official report of the Organizing Committee for the Games of the XVI Olympiad Melbourne 1956. Organising Committee (1960). VIII Olympic Winter Games Squaw Valley, California, 1960: final report Califor- nia Olympic Commission. Organising Committee (1966). The Games of the XVIII Olympiad, Tokyo 1964: the official report of the Organizing Committee.