School Mental Health (2023) 15:1173–1184 https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-023-09613-x ORIGINAL PAPER The Kids aren’t Alright: A Brief Positive Psychological Intervention During the COVID-19 Pandemic in a Spanish Sample of Adolescents Anna Muro1,2 · Clàudia Tejada-Gallardo3 · Júlia Illa1 · Montserrat Gomà-i-Freixanet4 · Jorge L. Méndez-Ulrich5 · Karin Chellew6 · Antoni Sanz1 · Ramon Cladellas1 Accepted: 23 September 2023 / Published online: 13 October 2023 © The Author(s) 2023 Abstract Previous studies have reported that adolescents were at higher risk for mental health disorders during and after the COVID-19 pandemic due to the characteristics of their developmental period and to the impact of social and mobility restrictions on their daily routines. In response to these reports, we designed, implemented, and evaluated the impact of a brief positive psychological intervention in a high school setting to increase adolescents’ psychological well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic. A pre-post experimental study was conducted to compare the levels of anxiety, academic moti- vation, and performance changes in an experimental and control group. A final sample of 148 students from two Spanish high schools of the Catalan region participated in the study (Mage = 12.45; 48% female). Results showed that participants in the experimental group reported a reduction in anxiety and an increase in global motivation levels compared to the con- trol group. Regression analyses also revealed that the intervention was a significant predictor of reduced anxiety, increased motivation, and fewer failed subjects, while high anxiety predicted decreased performance and reduced motivation. These findings suggest that brief positive psychological interventions implemented in high school classrooms could be a cost- effective and systemic preventive measure for increasing adolescents’ psychological well-being and strengthening their general mental health both during and after periods of pandemic restrictions. Keywords Positive psychology · Well-being · Adolescence · Prevention COVID-19 was declared a global pandemic by the World Health Organization (WHO) in March 2020. With over 375 million cases and 5.68 million deaths worldwide, it is regarded as one of the deadliest pandemics in history (Kontis et al., 2020; WHO, 2022). Governments world- wide implemented various non-pharmacological measures, Anna Muro including social distancing, self-isolation, and mobil- anna.muro@uab.cat ity restrictions, while some countries implemented com- 1 Department of Basic, Developmental and Educational plete lockdowns and quarantines that lasted for months. Psychology, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Edifici B, Spain was among the most affected countries in the Euro- Campus UAB, Bellaterra (Barcelona) 08193, Spain pean Union, with reports showing a significant increase 2 Serra Húnter Program, Generalitat de Catalunya, Barcelona, in mental health problems, especially among women and Spain younger members of the population (Loades et al., 2020; 3 Department of Psychology, University of Lleida, Lleida, Muro et al., 2021; Pizarro-Ruiz & Ordóñez-Camblor, 2021; Spain Sanabria-Mazo et al., 2021). Social isolation, disruption 4 Department of Health and Clinical Psychology, Autonomous in daily routines, concern for one’s and others’ health, and University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain uncertainty were considered factors that caused generalized 5 Department of Research Methods and Diagnosis in anxiety and increased depressive symptoms, especially in Education, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain younger people given the developmental needs of this age 6 Department of Psychology and Education, Mount Holyoke period (Courtney et al., 2020; Galea et al., 2020; Luijten et College, South Hadley, MA, USA 13 1174 School Mental Health (2023) 15:1173–1184 al., 2021; Ravens-Sieberer et al., 2021). Children and ado- rather than relying on external pressures or rewards. This lescents exposed to disasters are considered to be at higher form of motivation has been associated with increased sub- risk because of their heightened vulnerability, and they need jective well-being, decreased anxiety, and better academic special attention compared to adults during global crises performance (Balogun et al., 2017; Ahmetović et al., 2020). and catastrophes (Peek et al., 2018). One meta-analysis of Academic performance posed a significant challenge almost 23,000 children and adolescents from 11 countries for students as national school closures were implemented, found that the prevalence of depression and anxiety after impacting approximately 91.3% of the student popula- the pandemic was 34.5% and 41.7%, respectively (Panda et tion, which corresponds to more than 1.5 billion students al., 2021). Countries that implemented full lockdowns, like (UNESCO, 2021). Courses moved from in-person learn- China, reported a higher prevalence of anxiety (37%) and ing to online learning, predominantly using information depression (44%) among children and adolescents, while in and communication technology (ICT). The rapid transition countries with partial lockdowns, such as the Netherlands, to remote work and online learning posed numerous chal- the prevalence was lower (Luijten et al., 2021; Zhou et al., lenges for the education sector. Obstacles such as difficul- 2020) In Spain, a higher prevalence of emotional problems ties in accessing online platforms and the constant exposure was observed in older children, late adolescents (18–21), to COVID-19-related news and media coverage contributed and some studies reported around 50% of psychological to increased anxiety among students and had a detrimental distress among university students (Amorós-Reche et al., impact on their learning process, motivation, and academic 2022; Jiménez-Villamizar et al., 2023). Accordingly, the performance (Rahiem, 2021). Performance is a signifi- number of adolescents treated in mental health clinics in cant concern for educators, students, and their families, as Spanish metropolitan areas (such as the surrounding regions underperformance can lead to increased anxiety, decreased of Barcelona) increased by 47% during the first quarter of academic motivation, and lower chances of successful inte- 2021 compared to the same period in 2020 (Sant Joan de gration into societal work structures (Muro et al., 2018). It Déu Hospital, 2021). is worth noting that poor academic achievement has been identified as the most significant predictor of educational failure and an indicator of psychosocial or mental health Anxiety, Motivation, and Performance problems such as learning disorders, academic burnout, During the COVID-19 Pandemic substance use, and higher dropout rates at an earlier age (Muro, 2015). Increased anxiety was one of the most frequently reported Accordingly, these three variables –anxiety, motivation, correlates among the youngest populations during the pan- and performance– are closely interconnected and play a demic (Panda et al., 2021). Anxiety is a highly influential central role in adolescents’ well-being and mental health affective factor in mental health and has also been consis- (Balogun et al., 2017; Fatih & Dadandi, 2020; Tang & He, tently described as one of the most significant predictors of 2023; Vitasari et al., 2010a, 2010b). Therefore, the fear and academic failure (Ahmetović et al., 2020). It is a dynamic disruption caused by lockdowns in school routines dur- variable that induces feelings of worry, fear, and negative ing the COVID-19 pandemic posed a threat to students’ emotions such as guilt, overthinking, and doubts about distress, academic motivation, and performance. Given one’s skills, efficacy, and performance. The experience of the developmental needs of adolescents and the cumula- anxiety also intensifies when individuals confront adverse tive effects of such anxiety-inducing events, it was recom- situations and threats to their self-esteem and also depends mended to implement prevention programs in schools as a on their basal personality levels and individual disposition means of supporting public health services and addressing (Spielberger et al., 1983; Zuckerman, 2005). mental health concerns during the pandemic lockdowns Another crucial factor related to academic performance among adolescents (Galea et al., 2020; Ravens-Sieberer et is motivation (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2000), which fulfills al., 2021). students’ basic needs for well-being, autonomy, compe- tence and relatedness, and enhances their achievement of academic goals (Ahmetović et al., 2020). There are two School-Based Interventions for Promoting main types of motivation: extrinsic motivation underlies the Adolescents’ Mental Health activities carried out to obtain an external reward or avoid punishment, while intrinsic motivation drives engagement It is well known that school, as a community, is an essen- in an activity for its own sake, for gaining pleasure and sat- tial systemic setting for children’s personal development isfaction from performing a task. Intrinsic motivation exists and, as such, plays a critical role in determining social, when an individual is driven by satisfying internal rewards emotional, and behavioral outcomes (Fazel et al., 2014). 13 School Mental Health (2023) 15:1173–1184 1175 It also provides the ‘socializing context’ to learn a range The Present Study of life and academic-related skills (Goldberg et al., 2019). Several pre-pandemic studies targeting the adolescent popu- The COVID-19 pandemic has presented unprecedented lation revealed that interventions delivered in high school challenges, and a limited amount of research has explored settings had beneficial effects on adolescents’ mental health the implementation and effectiveness of positive education (Boniwell & Ryan, 2012; Platt et al., 2020). For instance, programs in promoting adolescents’ mental health during positive psychology interventions (PPIs) implemented in global crises. To address this gap, the current study aimed schools have shown to be effective in enhancing psycho- to examine the effectiveness of a brief MPPI (five sessions logical well-being, academic motivation, and performance targeting several well-being components) delivered in four (Boniwell et al., 2016; Shankland & Rosset, 2017). PPIs are first-year high school groups to enhance mental health psychological interventions that cultivate positive feelings, amidst the pandemic. The stressful situation caused by the cognitions, and behaviors, while promoting positive human pandemic, including confinement measures and disrup- functioning and well-being on multiple levels including the tions in academic routines, has exacerbated anxiety levels personal, social, cultural, and global aspects of life (Bolier in adolescents, thereby increasing their risk of decreased et al., 2013; Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000; Sin & academic motivation and performance (Barbosa-Camacho Lyubomirsky, 2009; Vázquez & Hervás, 2008). The specific et al., 2022; Cassady & Johnson, 2002; Fatih & Dadandi, implementation of PPIs in educational settings is referred 2020; Golberstein et al., 2020; Hossain et al., 2021; Spiel- to as positive education (Seligman et al., 2009). Positive berger, 2019). Therefore, based on prior research conducted education focuses on teaching well-being skills and aims to by other authors using similar interventions (Muro et al., enhance the cognitive, emotional, and behavioral strengths 2018; Tejada-Gallardo et al., 2022), we hypothesized that of both students and teachers to improve their performance participation in the brief MPPI during the pandemic would and motivation. Additionally, positive education strives to (H1) decrease adolescents’ anxiety levels, (H2) increase create healthier and more positive school environments that academic motivation, and (H3) enhance academic perfor- support the holistic development of adolescents (Argüís- mance. Finally, we also hypothesized that (H4) higher anxi- Rey, 2021; Boniwell & Ryan, 2012; Lombas et al., 2019). ety would be associated with lower levels of performance. A review conducted by Shankland and Rosset (2017) showed that implementing brief PPIs (i.e., five or less ses- sions) in schools can successfully produce a wide range of Method benefits, such as decreases in disruptive behaviors, depres- sion, and anxiety symptoms and increases in school moti- Procedure vation, positive emotions, and well-being. Compared to single-component PPIs targeted at improving only one The sample of schools for this study was recruited using aspect of well-being (e.g., gratitude), multicomponent PPIs cluster sampling. The inclusion criteria for clusters were that (MPPIs) include a variety of exercises targeting two or more they had to be public high schools of the Barcelona metro- theoretically relevant well-being components (e.g., charac- politan area, teaching secondary education levels (12 to 19 ter strengths, gratitude, self-esteem and optimism). A recent years old) and with similar socio-economic status (lower- meta-analysis conducted by Tejada-Gallardo et al. (2020) middle socio-economic status, i.e., having an income below demonstrated that school-based MPPIs have a significant 20% of the average Spanish income). Public high schools impact on adolescents’ well-being and psychological dis- are subsidized by the state with public funds and account tress both in the short and long term. Furthermore, research for 55% of the total number of schools in Barcelona area has shown that increasing levels of well-being during ado- (Barcelona Education Consortium, 2022). They reflect the lescence are associated with a reduction in psychological wide diversity of the Spanish citizenry, include local stu- distress (Tejada-Gallardo et al., 2022). For this reason, dents of all social classes and also immigrants, a phenom- targeting multiple domains of positive functioning from enon that cannot be observed in private schools, since they high-schools through MPPIs is a promising pathway for are financed with tuition fees and by students’ families, and increasing well-being and reducing teenagers’ psychologi- low- and middle-income families or immigrant students cal distress and future mental health risks (Tejada-Gallardo are not adequately represented. The percentage of adoles- et al., 2020, 2022). cent immigrants has significantly increased during the last decade in Barcelona area, and they represent between 18 and 26% of the total students (IDESCAT, 2022). Therefore, public high schools are more representative of the sociode- mographic diversity of Spanish society and its adolescents. 13 1176 School Mental Health (2023) 15:1173–1184 In total, 37 high schools were initially selected based on 2021, while post-test data was collected at the conclusion these criteria. In February 2021, we randomly contacted of the intervention in June 2021. The researcher responsible ten schools that met these inclusion criteria, but only five for leading the intervention visited the schools to administer responded to the call, and finally two agreed to participate in the survey and address any questions raised by the students the study. The main reason for non-participation at that time during the process. The study protocol was approved by the was related to the COVID-19 restrictions, as the brief MPPI university Ethics Committee and the management team of was originally designed to be implemented during synchro- the high schools. Informed consent was obtained from the nous face-to-face teaching. Since the program was not part parents or legal guardians of the adolescents, and all stu- of the high school’s curriculum, the teaching team decided dents recruited for the study returned the consent forms to that the intervention needed to be scheduled during tutor- participate in the research. ing classes. During these hours, students typically engage in personal work, such as homework, and are not missing Measures instruction in core subjects. The two final participating high schools were randomly assigned to either the intervention Anxiety or control group and no incentives were offered to the par- ticipants. To ensure the effectiveness of the study, we agreed To assess anxiety, we used the State-Trait Anxiety Inven- with the teaching teams of the two high schools to imple- tory (STAI; Spielberger et al., 1983) in its Spanish adapta- ment the intervention program with the youngest students tion (Buela-Casal et al., 2015), which is a commonly used, (12 years old) who were in their first year of high school. valid, and reliable measure (Cronbach’s α from 0.87 to This decision was based on evidence suggesting that this 0.93; Guillén-Riquelme & Buela-Casal, 2014). In the pres- age group is particularly vulnerable to experiencing anxiety, ent research, we only administered the 20-item state anxiety especially given the challenges they may have faced during (STAI-S) subscale to assess the temporary levels of anxi- the COVID-19 pandemic (Luijten et al., 2021). As many of ety, and not the stable-personality trait. Items are rated on a these students may have experienced prolonged periods of 4-point scale (“0 = Almost Never” to “3 = Almost Always”), lockdown during their final year of primary school, transi- with higher scores indicating greater state anxiety. The reli- tioning to high school may have represented an additional ability of STAI-S for the present sample was evidenced by a source of stress and anxiety (Golberstein et al., 2020). Cronbach’s α of 0.81 in the pre-test and 0.87 in the post-test. Participants Motivation To establish an adequate sample size for the study, a power To assess motivation, the Scale of Motivational Assessment analysis calculation was conducted using the Stata program. of the Learning Process [Cuestionario de Evaluación Moti- The calculation was based on detecting a large effect size vacional del Proceso de Aprendizaje] (EMPA; Quevedo- (f = 0.40; Cohen, 1988) with a 0.01 significance level and a Blasco et al., 2016) was used. This scale measures academic power of 0.95. With the objective of obtaining a final sam- motivation, a cognitive variable of central importance for pling error of 7%, under the assumption of maximum inde- student development since it is part of the learning process. terminacy and a confidence level of 95.5% (p = q = 0,5 and This instrument provides information using 33 items with 2 sigma), and considering the loss of participants that could Likert-type responses. It includes two subscales that mea- occur, we estimated and initial sample size of 200 partici- sure extrinsic motivation (Cronbach’s α = 0.80 in the pre-test pants (sampling error of 2.48%). With the final sample of and 0.83 in the post-test), intrinsic motivation (Cronbach’s 148 subjects, the sampling error was 8.22%. Thus, the final α = . 91 in the pre-test and 0.93 in the post-test), and also study sample consisted of 148 students between the ages of provides a global motivation score (Cronbach’s α = 0.92 in 12 and 13 (Mage = 12,45; 48% female). The intervention the pre-test and 0.91 in the post-test). school group comprised four different classes, with approxi- mately 23 students in each class, totaling 94 students, while Academic Performance the control school group was made up of two classes, with 27 students in each class, totaling 54 students. The schools had Baseline measures of academic attainment included two a similar distribution of participants, with around 18–26% variables for each participant: (1) overall average grade and having immigrant parents and 25–30% belonging to differ- (2) the number of failed subjects (e.g., mathematics). These ent ethnicities (mainly from North Africa, South America two performance indicators were obtained from each stu- and Romany). Data for the pre-test was collected online dents’ academic record of the second (April 2021) and third using Google Forms® prior to the intervention in April 13 School Mental Health (2023) 15:1173–1184 1177 trimester (June 2021), which were the academic records just setting has been recognized as essential to personal growth before and after the intervention. and achievement (Sheldon et al., 2002; Vázquez & Hervás, 2008), since goals represent a person’s energized initiatives The Brief MPPI Program to achieve positive self-change and an enhanced meaning and purpose in life (Ryff & Singer, 1998). Self-established In this study, we implemented a brief MPPI that was adapted goals have also been found to increase intrinsic motivation from a previous program developed by Muro et al. (2018) to (Deci & Ryan, 1985). improve adolescents’ school performance and motivation. It was based on positive psychology principles, including dif- ferent components and activities that are present in general Second to Fourth Sessions (1 h each) Exercises delivered MPPIs. The sessions and activities included in this previous in these sessions aim to cultivate positive emotions or MPPI can be implemented either individually or in groups. cognitions that help students increase their self-efficacy, However, most studies on MPPIs in adolescents indicate that self-concept, and attitudes about their academic experi- they are typically implemented in group settings (Shankland ence (Boniwell & Ryan, 2012). These activities include the & Rosset, 2017; Tejada-Gallardo et al., 2020). Therefore, following: the adaptation required for the original intervention was (a) the group format: individual intervention / classroom group intervention, (b) the reduced number of sessions: from 8 to 2nd Session: Writing a gratitude letter, practicing 5, and (c) the language, as it was originally developed in counting blessings and remembering / replaying posi- Catalan and it needed to be adapted to Spanish in case some tive academic experiences (e.g., Vázquez & Hervás, students could not understand the co-official language of 2008; Seligman et al., 2005). Catalonia (a Mediterranean region located in the northeast 3rd Session: Identifying personal strengths to develop of Spain). a better self-concept and self-esteem (Seligman et al., 2005, 2009). Sessions 4th Session: Writing about the best selves in the pres- ent and the future (King, 2001; Sheldon, 2006) and The final MPPI consisted of five session of one-hour each to providing a brief psychoeducation on anxiety accord- be delivered collectively during tutoring classes by a final- ing to Spielberger’s theory (2019). The objective is to year undergraduate psychology student who was doing empower adolescents with the knowledge to identify a final-degree research project on Positive Psychology anxious situations, including recognizing cognitive applied in Educational settings. This student was trained by and physiological indicators, as well as reactions to a member of our research team —a psychologist special- potential dangers and threats to self-esteem. Moreover, ized in applied positive psychology and adolescence. All it aims to provide education on consciously inducing materials, slides and booklets were provided to facilitate the relaxation and transforming thoughts and cognitions implementation of the group intervention. associated with self-efficacy to effectively cope with The five sessions covered the following areas: (1) set- these threats. ting academic goals (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Sheldon, 2002); (2) increasing positive emotions, such as gratitude or hope (Lykken, 2000; Platt et al., 2020); (3) identifying personal Session 5 (1 h) Overall evaluation of the intervention, strengths (Seligman & Csikszentmilhalyi, 2000); and (4) progress made, achievements, openness to new academic training cognitive factors relevant to self-esteem, such as goals, and closing exercises of gratitude and group positive self-concept and self-efficacy (Bandura, 1993, 1997; Selig- reinforcement. man et al., 2009). Additionally, we included (5) a session of psychoeducation on anxiety regulation, given the presence of general anxiety during the pandemic restrictions. Statistical Analyses First Session (1 h) First session exercises were designed Descriptive statistics were calculated to analyze gender, to set goals and to encourage students to develop a list of anxiety levels, motivation, and performance. The means academic objectives during the MPPI. Establishing goals and standard deviations were computed for these variables, helps students improve their academic achievement and including average grades and the number of failed sub- overall performance by regulating their academic experi- jects from students’ academic records. The data were fur- ence as they pursue these goals. Moreover, personal goal ther analyzed based on gender and condition (brief MPPI 13 1178 School Mental Health (2023) 15:1173–1184 Table 1 Sociodemographic data of the sample Results Control Intervention n = 94 n = 54 Descriptive Statistics and Baseline Comparisons Females 46 25 Males 48 29 The control group was matched and contrasted with the % of different ethnicities 26% 28% intervention group in terms of gender and percentage of the different ethnicities of immigrant students (see Table 1). Table 2 Means and standard deviations for age, average grades, and number of failed subjects by condition and gender Students’ specific ethnicity or origin was not recorded. Gender Intervention group Descriptive statistics and one-way ANOVAs were con- M (SD) M (SD) ducted to examine potential baseline differences between Female Male Intervention Control the groups. Table 2 provides an overview of these statistics, (n = 71) (n = 77) (n = 94) (n = 54) including means and standard deviations for age, perfor- Age 12.44 (0.50) 12.47 12.48 (0.50) 12.41 mance variables (average grade and the number of failed (0.50) (0.49) subjects) and anxiety. The data is presented based on the Average grades 5.94 (1.38) 5.41 5.61 (1.42) 5.75 (1.23) (1.16) experimental condition and gender of the groups. Number of 3.10 (1.93) 3.22 3.17 (1.92) 3.15 The one-way ANOVA, after controlling for gender, no failed subjects (1.99) (1.95) group differences were found concerning age (F(1,146) = 1.07; Anxiety 26.80 (6.17) 26.19 26.01 (5.70) 27.35 p = .30), performance in terms of the number of failed (5.77) (6.37) subjects (F(1,146) = 0.14; p = .70), anxiety (F(1,146) = 0.38; Global 98.57 (21.56) 102.60 105.83 89.65 motivation (20.36) (20.20) (17.79) p = .54), intrinsic motivation (F(1,146) = 0.85; p = .36), extrin- Intrinsic 68.88 (14.61) 71.05 72.91 (14.54) 64.80 sic motivation (F(1,146) = 1.83; p = .18) or global motivation motivation (14.04) (12.47) (F(1,146) = 1.36; p = .24). However, we found significant Extrinsic 29.69 (8.30) 31.55 33.91 (7.54) 24.85 differences in performance (average grades) at pre-inter- motivation (8.37) (6.38) vention (F(1,146) = 6.21; p = .01), with girls showing higher average grades than boys (see Table 2). A second ANOVA, vs. control). Further, an analysis of variance (one-way controlling for the intervention/control condition, revealed ANOVA) complemented the descriptive statistics to rule no differences in age, performance at pre-intervention, or out baseline group differences in age, anxiety, motivation, anxiety. On the other hand, significant baseline differences and performance. In these baseline comparisons, we only were also observed in motivation factors (intrinsic, extrin- controlled for the gender variable since age was almost the sic, and global) with higher baseline scores in the experi- same for all participants (12–13 years old). To examine the mental group. The two groups could be matched on these effectiveness of the intervention, a General Linear Model confounding variables prior to the intervention. No signifi- (GLM) of repeated measures was employed. This analysis cant interaction was observed between gender and group compared the pre- and post-intervention results, focusing condition. on anxiety (H1), motivation (H2), and performance (H3) in terms of both average grades and the number of failed Impact of the MPPI on Anxiety, Motivation, and subjects. The analysis controlled for the influence of gender. Performance Partial eta-square (η2) and observed power were also calcu- lated. Finally, multiple regression analyses (using a stepwise Anxiety method) were conducted to determine the best predictors of students’ anxiety, motivation, and performance which will Regarding H1, the results indicated a significant reduc- complement the answers to our proposed hypothesis (H4). tion in anxiety scores within the brief MPPI group Statistical tests were bilateral, with type I error set at 5%. (F(1,146) = 7,82; p = .001; η2 = 0.05; observed power = 0.79). The statistical package SPSS 25 was used to conduct all In contrast, anxiety scores in the control group increased, analyses. albeit not significantly, at the post-intervention assessment. The between-group analysis of variance showed that the differences in anxiety scores at post-intervention were also significantly lower in the brief MPPI group than the con- trol group (F(1,161) = 10.76; p = .001; η2 = 0.07; observed power = 0.90). These results supported our third hypothesis. 13 School Mental Health (2023) 15:1173–1184 1179 Intrinsic, Extrinsic, and Global Motivation power = 0.91). However, the between-subjects analysis revealed that this improvement was significantly greater Regarding the second research question (H2), the analysis in the brief MPPI group (F(1,146) = 4.49; p = .04; η2 = 0.03; showed a significant increase in intrinsic motivation within observed power = 0.56). We also observed a significant the brief MPPI group (F(1,146) = 28.63; p < .0005; η2 = 0.16; decrease in the number of failed subjects in both groups at observed power = 1). The between-subject analysis of vari- post-intervention (F(1,146) = 4.38; p = .04; η2 = 0.03; observed ance yielded significant group differences in this type of power = 0.55). However, the between-subject analysis motivation, showing a reduction in the control group post- revealed a marginal difference between the brief MPPI intervention. Hence, pre- post-intervention differences in and the control group (F(1,146) = 3.33; p = .07; η2 = 0.02; intrinsic motivation were only found for the brief MPPI group observed power = 0.44). These results partially support our (F(1,146) = 31.45; p < .0005; η2 = 0.18; observed power = 1). third hypothesis. Pre- and post-intervention means and stan- For extrinsic motivation, significant within-subject differ- dard deviations for the variables of interest are displayed in ences were observed. However, between-subject analysis of Table 3. variance indicated that the brief MPPI group obtained sig- nificantly higher scores than the control group for extrinsic Predictors of Academic Achievement, Motivation, motivation at pre- and post-intervention (F(1,146) = 75.82; and Anxiety p < .000; η2 = 0.34; observed power = 1). Regarding global motivation, the GLM also yielded significant within-sub- Table 4 displays the predictors of the study’s dependent ject differences in the brief MPPI group (F(1,146) = 13.68; variables as indicated by the linear regression models. Par- p < .0005; η2 = 0.09; observed power = 0.96), with partici- ticipation in the brief MPPI was found to predict improved pants obtaining higher scores in global motivation at the academic achievement, which can be attributed to the end of the intervention. Significant between-subject differ- reduction in anxiety levels (H1), the increase in intrinsic, ences in global motivation were also observed between the extrinsic, and global motivation (H2), and the decrease in brief MPPI and the control groups (F(1,146) = 54.29; < 0.000; the number of failed subjects (H3) post-intervention. Higher η2 = 0.27; observed power = 1.00), with the brief MPP group levels of anxiety at the end of the intervention were predic- showing higher scores of general motivation. These results tive of poorer academic performance, including an increase supported our second hypothesis. in the number of failed subjects and a decrease in average grades post-intervention. Notably, participating in the brief Academic Performance MPPI was associated with a lower number of failed sub- jects. Furthermore, the number of subjects failed prior to A GLM (repeated measures) was used to address the H3. the intervention and anxiety levels post-intervention were A significant within-subject effect was found, with both significant predictors of the number of failed subjects at the groups showing an increase in performance in terms of post-intervention assessment. Similarly, the pre-interven- average grade (F(1,146) = 10,98; p = .001; η2 = 0.07; observed tion average grade, the number of failed subjects prior to the intervention, and anxiety levels post-intervention were Table 3 Means and standard deviations for anxiety, intrinsic, motiva- predictive of the average grade at post-intervention. tion, and performance at pre- and post-test in the experimental and control group Intervention group Control group Pre-test Post-test Pre-test Post-test Discussion M (SD) M (SD) M (SD) M (SD) Anxiety 26.01 (5.70) 23.54 27.35 (6.37) 28.22 The present study aimed to implement a brief MPPI in a (6.12) (6.69) high school setting during the third wave of COVID-19. It Motivation also aimed to assess the impact of this intervention on psy- Intrinsic 72.91 76.33 64.8 (12.47) 61.39 chological distress (anxiety) and on other academic indica- motivation (14.54) (11.65) (10.52) tors (motivation and performance) in a sample of Spanish Extrinsic 33.92 (7,54) 39.15 24.85 (6.38) 29.46 motivation (7.79) (6.92) adolescents studying in a high-school of the Barcelona area, Global 106.83 115.48 89.65 90.85 which was heavily affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. motivation (20.20) (16.75) (17.79) (13.69) Our findings supported all three hypotheses, demon- Performance strating that the brief MPPI had a positive impact on ado- Average grade 5.61 (1.42) 6.74 5.75 (1.16) 5.86 lescents’ anxiety reduction (H1), increased motivation (1.31) (1.56) (H2), and improved academic performance (H3) during Number of 3.17 (2.26) 1.32 3.15 (1.79) 2.19 the pandemic. The intervention group showed significant failed subjects (1.45) (1.67) 13 1180 School Mental Health (2023) 15:1173–1184 Table 4 Linear regression results for anxiety, motivation and perfor- the intervention increased both their intrinsic and extrinsic mance motivation, thus this result further reinforces the hypothesis Dependent Predictors in the B T p R² variables model that the program was effective, since the greatest motiva- Anxiety at Anxiety at pre-test 0.61 7.63 < 0.001 0.38 tional differences between pre and posttest were observed post-test precisely in the experimental group. Furthermore, regression Participating in the -4.07 -4.44 < 0.001 analyses showed how participating in the brief MPPI was MPPI a significant predictor for changes observed in the various Motivation behavioral outcomes measured. The brief MPPI accounted Intrinsic Intrinsic motivation 0.83 13.48 < 0.001 0.68 for a significant portion of variance in adolescents’ anxiety motivation at pre-test at post-test levels, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, global motiva- Extrinsic motivation − 0.25 -2.11 0.04 tion, and academic performance. These results are consis- at post-test tent with previous studies, indicating the effectiveness of Participating in the 9.47 6.92 < 0.001 (brief) MPPIs in academic settings, promoting well-being MPPI and academic performance even during health crises such Extrinsic Extrinsic motivation 0.36 2.88 0.01 0.49 motivation at pre-test as pandemics (Bolier et al., 2013; Muro et al., 2018; Platt at post-test et al., 2020; Shankland & Rosset, 2017; Tejada-Gallardo et Participating in the 4.00 3.62 < 0.001 al., 2020, 2022). Furthermore, our results also align with MPPI those of previous studies suggesting that lower anxiety is Anxiety at pre-test 0.24 3.00 0.004 associated with higher academic performance and motiva- Average grade at − 0.45 − 0.17 0.01 tion (Balogun et al., 2017; Singh & Jha., 2013; Tang et al., pre-test 2023; Vitasari et al., 2010a, 2010b). Global motivation at 0.12 0.30 0.02 pre-test We also find support in pre-pandemic studies conducted Global Global motivation at 0.86 9.53 < 0.001 0.66 in American, English, and Italian samples (Boniwell et al., motivation pre-test 2016; Platt et al., 2020; Ruini et al., 2009; Seligman et al., at pos-test 2009), as well as pioneering Spanish studies that used more Extrinsic motivation − 0.52 -2.19 0.03 extensive MPPIs (Argüís et al., 2012; Muro et al., 2018; at post-test Tejada-Gallardo et al., 2022). Our findings contribute to the Participating in the 13.20 6.56 < 0.001 MPPI growing body of empirical evidence supporting the appli- Gender (female) 3.85 3.02 0.04 cation of MPPIs in Spanish educational settings and West- Performance ern societies. Although the effects of this brief MPPI were Average Average grade at 0.88 26.36 < 0.001 0.84 small, they were in line with our expectations considering grade at pre-test the limited duration of the intervention. A more extensive post-test and comprehensive follow-up program may yield greater Failed subjects at 0.37 5.23 < 0.001 pre-test benefits for students. Therefore, further replications are Failed subjects at − 0.41 -4.60 < 0.001 needed before drawing firm conclusions regarding the effi- post-test cacy of MPPIs. Nevertheless, our results suggest that brief Anxiety at post-test 0.03 2.13 0.04 MPPIs can serve as a systemic and cost-effective psycho- Number Number of failed 0.57 11.42 < 0.001 0.50 educational strategy in academic settings to help students of failed subjects at pre-test cope with increased anxiety following a pandemic or other subjects at post-test adverse circumstances. By supporting public health ser- Participating in the − 0.51 -2.45 0.02 vices and contributing to mental health prevention efforts, MPPI these interventions can play a significant role in promoting Anxiety at post-test 0.32 2.18 0.03 students’ well-being (Kauhanen et al., 2022; Luijten et al., 2021; Pizarro-Ruiz & Ordóñez-Camblor, 2021; Ravens- changes, with moderate to high effect sizes, in all three indi- Sieberer et al., 2021; Viner et al., 2022; WHO, 2020). In cators: a significant increase in average grades (η2 = 0.03; conclusion, MPPIs, such as the one implemented in our observed power = 0.56) and motivation (η2 = 0.27; observed study, have the potential to protect adolescents from mental power = 1.00), and a significant decrease in anxiety levels health complications, as they address crucial aspects of aca- (η2 = 0.07; observed power = 0.90) compared to the con- demic experience and anxiety management during challeng- trol group, where no significant changes were observed in ing times and global crises (Barbosa-Camacho et al., 2022; these indicators. Although baseline motivational levels were Cassady & Johnson, 2002; Fatih & Dadandi, 2020; Hossain higher among the participants of the experimental group, et al., 2021; Spielberger, 2019). 13 School Mental Health (2023) 15:1173–1184 1181 Limitations 30 students per class) could be considered a cost-effective alternative for mental health prevention, but also one that The results of the present study should be interpreted with could be implemented in high schools as a psychoeduca- caution due to certain limitations. Firstly, the sample size tional strategy to upskill students in wellbeing management. was relatively small, which may have limited our ability to Finally, the present results also highlight the impor- detect significant group differences of substantial magnitude. tance of high-school as a space for safeguarding mental Additionally, the participants were from the first academic health and facilitating adolescents’ optimal development grade of high school (12–13 years old), thereby restricting since the school setting is key for mental health education the generalizability of the findings to other stages of adoles- and a highly influential context in adolescents’ psychoso- cence, such as late adolescence. Further studies are needed cial development (Fazel et al., 2014; Platt et al., 2020). As to replicate this program with larger sample sizes covering a such, brief MPPIs could be included in school curricula to wider range of developmental stages in adolescence across facilitate adolescents learning mental health strategies that various cultural contexts. Secondly, we acknowledge that will be useful across their lifespan (Seligman et al., 2009; the demographic characteristics of the schools were not col- Spratt et al., 2006). However, these findings require further lected in this study, which prevented their inclusion as con- replications, especially during uncertain times such as pan- trol variables in the analyses. Considering these variables in demics or other anxiety-inducing catastrophes that carry a future research endeavors would provide valuable insights high global psychological threat and can quickly lead to a into their potential influence on the outcomes of interest. deterioration in the mental health and performance of the Thirdly, we relied on self-report measures in adolescents, most vulnerable groups in society, such as adolescents and which can be subject to various biases such as social desir- children (Peek et al., 2018; WHO, 2020). ability. Therefore, using the reports of close relatives or teachers could provide more accurate measures of our study Funding Open Access Funding provided by Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona. variables. Finally, it is important to note that follow-up assessments were not conducted, since we only assessed the Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons measures at two time-points (pre- and pos-test). Further fol- Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, low-up assessments (six and twelve months later) should be adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, included to determine whether the effects of the intervention as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate program remain stable over time. Given all these limita- if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this tions, more tightly controlled studies are necessary to reach article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless more definitive conclusions regarding the efficacy of MPPIs indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not on academic achievement, motivation, and well-being. included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons. Implications and Conclusions org/licenses/by/4.0/. The most notable implication is of the present study is the potential implementation of MPPIs in high schools to References positively impact students’ anxiety, motivation, and per- formance. Consistent with previous studies conducted in Ahmetović, E., Bećirović, S., & Dubravac, V. (2020). Motivation, Anxiety and Students’ Performance. 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