Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 2023, 28, 171–177 https://doi.org/10.1093/deafed/enac044 Advance access publication date 27 November 2022 Empirical Manuscript Co-viewing an Educational Video: A Pilot Study About Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jdsde/article/28/2/171/6847610 by Universidad Autonoma Barcelona - Online Products user on 11 January 2024 Mother–DHH Child Interaction Cristina Cambra1, *, Núria Silvestre1 and Josep-Maria Losilla2 1 Departmentof Basic, Developmental and Educational Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain 2 Departmentof Psychobiology and Health Sciences Methodology, Faculty of Psychology, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain *Correspondence should be addressed to Cristina Cambra, Department of Basic, Developmental and Educational Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra (Cerdanyola del Vallès), Spain. E-mail: cristina.cambra@uab.cat Abstract This study analyzes the mother–child interaction that takes place after co-viewing an educational video, comparing a group of 12 Spanish hearing mothers of deaf or hard of hearing (DHH) 7- to 9-year-olds and a group of 12 Spanish mothers of an age-matched cohort of children with typical hearing (TH). The results show that, in order to ascertain what the children have understood from the video, the mothers of the DHH children ask significantly more questions than the mothers of children with TH. Regarding the strategies that they use to prompt their children to explain the video, the mothers of the DHH children make reference most of all to shared experiences and focus their attention on contents of the video, whereas the mothers of children with TH tend to encourage their children to begin or continue the explanation of the video. The age of the hearing mothers was not found to have any effect on these results. Despite the importance of audiovisual media in our everyday (Barkin et al., 2006; Nathanson, 2001). According to Carson and lives, relatively few studies exist that attempt to answer questions Kuzik (2021), electronic devices (e.g., cell phones/smartphones, related to family education, such as: How do adults contribute to tablets, iPods, televisions, computers, and video game consoles) the educational use of the audiovisuals that their children regu- interrupt parents’ conversations and activities with their larly consume? The role of adults in other interactive situations preschool-aged children multiple times per day. In the same of joint attention which favor learning and language acquisition is vein, the systematic review of studies about the impact of comparatively well studied, with much of the literature following devices on parent–child language carried out by Ewin et al. (2020) from the seminal 1962 work of Vygotsky (Carpendale & Lewis, showed that they have a negative impact on parent language. 2004; Plessow-Wolfson & Epstein, 2005; MacGowan et al., 2021). While parents were viewing media with children, they offered In this tradition, Bruner coined the concept of scaffolding to significantly less language, reduced language variation, reduced describe the structure of the interactions which an adult uses story-related comments, and reduced verbal responsiveness to to facilitate a task for a child. Subsequently, he described some children’s speech compared to toy play. typologies of scaffolding, which he called formats, one of which is The difference between storytelling and watching videos is not storytelling (Bruner, 1972, 1981). Currently, the conceptualization only based on the nature of the contexts in which they take of scaffolding is also applied to other kinds of learning, such as place but also on the fact that during storytelling the parents can that of prosocial behavior (Dahl et al., 2017). stop the story whenever they want to ask questions and make Storytelling is one of the most studied formats for analyzing comments about the images in order to check comprehension. In mother–child interactions (Bruner, 1981). It consists of looking contrast, watching a video at home is usually a dynamic process at and commenting on illustrations in books, especially before without pauses or interruptions. the children have learned to read (Danis et al., 2000; Symons Studies have shown that learning through a video is not auto- et al., 2005; Laible & Song, 2006; Garner et al., 2008; Korat & matic, especially when children are young (DeLoache et al., 2010; Or, 2010). In this context, the mother acts as a facilitator and Kirkorian et al., 2016; Robb et al., 2009; Troseth et al., 2017; Troseth conduit for the social, emotional, and cognitive knowledge of her et al., 2018), and that adult mediation is necessary to focus a child (Carpendale & Lewis, 2004; Laible, 2004; Howe et al., 2010; child’s attention on certain contents of the video and help them Bakar et al., 2010; McGinty et al., 2012). In contrast, the act of to better interpret the information (Cambra & Silvestre, 2016). In watching television has aroused less interest among researchers, a school context, teachers act as mediators, and thanks to their even though it is an activity that children spend more time feedback skills, the students’ self-regulated learning can improve doing (Rideout & Hamel, 2006). In fact, children usually watch (Linebarger, 2009; Baadte, 2019). At home, it is the parents who television alone, in their bedroom or in non-common areas of act as mediators, which they can do in different ways (Aierbe their homes (Saxbe et al., 2011; Sormunen et al., 2016). Parents et al., 2006): restrictive mediation (regulation of the time and the might be around, but they rarely interact with children or talk types of programs), co-viewing (watching programs together and about the television program before, during, or after viewing talking about them), instructive mediation (explaining aspects of Received: May 10, 2022. Revised: October 6, 2022. Accepted: October 20, 2022 © The Author(s) 2022. Published by Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. For permissions, please email: journals.permissions@oup.com 172 | Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 2023, Vol. 28, No. 2 the program and its characters), and unfocused mediation (letting between 15 and 35 decibels. The DHH children from the sample them watch any program at any time). did not have any additional disabilities which affected their With the aim of investigating whether the same types of language abilities and were schooled in regular inclusive schools parental interactions that increased preschoolers’ vocabulary following the same academic curriculum as their classmates with learning from storybooks also increased vocabulary learning and TH, without individual adaptations. They communicated orally story comprehension from videos, Strouse et al. (2013) trained 81 in Catalan, and their language abilities were tested using The Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jdsde/article/28/2/171/6847610 by Universidad Autonoma Barcelona - Online Products user on 11 January 2024 parents of 3-year-old children to use Whitehurst’s dialogic reading Reynell Developmental Language Scales III (Edwards et al., 1997). The questioning techniques when watching videos during 4 weeks. The DHH participants were selected from three CREDAS (Educational parents watched the videos with their children in one of the Resource Centers for Deaf or Hard of Hearing Children) in following four conditions: dialogic questioning (pausing, asking the geographical area of Barcelona (Spain). These centers are questions, and encouraging children to tell parts of the story), responsible for providing in-school speech-language pathology to directed attention (pausing and commenting but not asking DHH students and providing guidance on how to communicate questions), dialogic actress (showing the videos with dialogic with DHH children to families as well as teachers (e.g., preferential questioning by an on-screen actress), or no intervention (showing seating for DHH children, use of remote microphone systems, the videos as usual). After 4 weeks, the results of the study etc.). The age of the mothers who participated in the study indicated that preschoolers learned more from videos when ranged between 34 and 53 (mean = 41.63; SD = 4.35), and there adults scaffolded their learning by discussing the story and asking were no statistical differences between the two groups of children children questions (dialogic questioning). (Table 1). A limited number of studies have explored parental media- All families of the children were informed in writing of the tion when viewing videos with children with disabilities, such objective of the research and gave their signed consent for their as autism (Kuo et al., 2015). Nonetheless, as far as we know, children to participate in the study, following regulations estab- besides the study cited above (Cambra & Silvestre, 2016), there lished by the Ethics Committee for Human and Animal Experi- are no studies about parents’ mediation of educational videos mentation at the Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona. with deaf or hard of hearing (DHH) children, in contrast with the investigations carried out in the context of storytelling. Material In a school context, studies support the use of interactive The study featured an educational video about dolphins that videos and teacher mediation in teaching language and literacy lasted 110 s. The video was obtained from a documentary program skills to DHH children (Mueller & Hurtig, 2010; Golos & Moses, from Channel 33 of the Catalan TV network (https://www.ccma. 2011; Ávila Caica, 2011) and the benefits to learning that result cat/tv3). It was broadcast in Catalan, the language used in the from viewing educational programming (Loeterman et al., 2002; regular inclusive schools of the DHH children, and was open cap- Golos, 2010). tioned in Catalan, word for word, in synchrony with the voiceover. The present study was conducted in an interactive context The video begins with an introduction in which dolphins are that is unique for two reasons. Firstly, an educational video with classified as mammals. Then, their physical characteristics are an expositive structure typical of academic content is used, as described (such as their skin, eyes, nose, and various fins) indi- opposed to a picture book with a typical storytelling structure. cating their functionality. It ends with a sample of the different Secondly, the video is not paused or interrupted during the acrobatics that dolphins can perform as well as other facts about viewing process, which is different from what occurs when their diet and behavior. parents start/stop during dyadic reading with their children (Lavellia et al., 2018). Procedure The main objective of this study is to analyze the mother– The viewing of the documentary took place in the participants’ child interactions of hearing mothers with their DHH children family home, in a quiet place. The mother and her child were after viewing an audiovisual documentary, using mother–child informed that they would watch a video, and at the end of the interactions in families with TH as a control. It should be noted viewing, the mother was invited to discuss the content of the video that the mothers have not participated in any previous specific with her child without giving any instructions about how to carry training regarding the discussion of audiovisual content with their out the discussion. children, nor have they been advised about how to interact in that The families viewed the documentary on a laptop and the situation. The specific questions that the study aims to answer are situation was filmed from the moment they started watching it as follows: until they finished the discussion about it. During the viewing of the video, there were no interruptions or pauses by any of the 1) What kind of interaction is established between the mother families. The oral interventions between mothers and children and her child after watching the video? were transcribed and classified into different categories which are 2) What strategies does the mother use to discuss the video specified below. with her child? Measures Per the proposed objectives, the mother–child interventions that Methodology occurred after watching the educational video together were clas- Participants sified into two blocks of categories: those that refer to the type The sample consisted of 24 children aged 7–9 (mean = 7.83; of interaction established between mother and child and those SD = 0.56) with hearing mothers, 12 of whom were DHH (9 girls related to the strategies that the mother uses to discuss the video. and 3 boys) and 12 of whom had TH (6 girls and 6 boys). The Regarding the first block of categories related to the type of DHH children had a severe or profound degree of hearing loss interaction, three aspects were analyzed: (a) if the mother com- (hearing loss over 70 decibels); eight of them used hearing aids mented on the video alternating her comments with questions and four had cochlear implants, and their aided thresholds were (she comments and asks questions); (b) if she only asks questions C. Cambra et al. | 173 Table 1. Statistical description of the sample Children with typical hearing Deaf or hard of hearing children Total sample n (%) n (%) n (%) Gender of the children Male 6 (50) 3 (25) 9 (37.5) Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jdsde/article/28/2/171/6847610 by Universidad Autonoma Barcelona - Online Products user on 11 January 2024 Female 6 (50) 9 (75) 15 (62.5) Mean (SD) [Min.–Max.] Mean (SD) [Min.–Max.] Mean (SD) Age of the children (years) 7.83 (0.56) [7–9] 7.83 (0.56) [7–9] 7.83 (0.56) Age of the mothers (years) 42.08 (4.35) [37–53] 41.17 (4.49) [34–49] 41.63 (4.35) Reynell (comprehension) 57.92 (2.50) [52–62] Reynell (expression) 52.50 (5.18) [44–59] Note: n: sample size; SD: standard deviation. Table 2. Maternal strategies for discussion of the video Strategies Definition Examples Type of questions Open questions which allow the child to answer broadly What are dolphins like? What do they have? What do they do? Questions which contain a wrong piece of information for the child Is the dolphin a fish? to contrast with the correct one—questions that set out a cognitive conf lict Semi-open questions that restrict the breadth of the answer What is their skin like? What do they like doing? What do they do with their teeth? Dichotomous questions which require a negative or positive answer Do they live with their mother? Questions which contain one of the two possible answers Is their back smooth or do they have something else on it? Type of prompts Referring to an experience previously lived by the child Dolphins don’t like being alone, they like being with their group, just like you. What do dolphins like . . . something that your brother likes doing a lot . . . Encouraging the child to start or continue her explanation . . . And what else? What did you like the most? Explicitly referring to what was seen in the video Did they say anything about . . . about the content of the video (she only asks questions); and (c) if Even though the distribution of the boys and girls in the sam- she only comments on the content of the video without asking any ples of each group was not homogeneous, the difference is not questions (she only comments). In the second block of categories statistically significant (χ 2 = 1.600; p = 0.206). With regard to the related to the maternal strategies for discussion of the video, the age of the mothers, a statistically significant difference was not types of questions and prompts were analyzed. The five types of found either (t = 0.507; p = 0.617). questions and the three types of prompts observed in the study The results pertaining to each of the objectives of the study are are described and illustrated with examples in Table 2. shown here below. Data Analysis Type of Mother–Child Interaction We carried out Pearson χ 2 tests to analyze the differences Figure 1 shows the distribution of the types of interactions that between the mothers of DHH children and the mothers of children the mothers used with their children after viewing the video. The with TH in the type of interaction they had with the children. type of interaction that was used most frequently by the mothers To analyze the differences between the two groups of mothers of the DHH children consisted of only asking questions about the in the number of questions and the number of prompts, both video (50%), while 33.3% of the mothers commented and asked by types and in total, Poisson regression models were adjusted questions, and 16.7% only commented on the video. In the case according to the age of the mothers. of the mothers of the TH children, none of them only commented Lastly, the total number of questions and prompts carried out on the video, 50% commented and asked questions and 50% only by the two groups of mothers was also compared by means of the asked questions. However, these differences are not statistically intrasubject comparison with the Wilcoxon signed-rank test, and significant (χ 2 = 2.400; p = 0.301). the linear relationship between the quantities of the two types of interactions was analyzed by means of the non-parametric linear Maternal Strategies for Discussion of the Video Spearman correlation test. Figure 2 shows the distribution of the different types of questions All the statistical analyses were considered significant with the that mothers asked their children after viewing the video. The level p < 0.05 and were carried out with Stata/SE v16 (StataCorp, DHH children were asked an equal or greater number of ques- 2019). tions across all question types, except for open questions. Semi- open questions were the most common for both groups, while questions containing the answer were the least common. In the Results case of the TH children, questions that laid out a cognitive conf lict Table 1 shows the statistical description of the sex and age of the were also very rare. Nonetheless, the Poisson regression analysis children and the age of the mothers from the study sample. shows that the differences do not reach the level of statistical 174 | Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 2023, Vol. 28, No. 2 Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jdsde/article/28/2/171/6847610 by Universidad Autonoma Barcelona - Online Products user on 11 January 2024 Figure 1. Type of interaction of the mothers with their children. Figure 3. Types of prompts by the mothers. Despite this, as can be seen in Figure 1, it was observed that among the mothers of DHH children, there were more who interacted with their children by only asking questions about the content of the video they had just watched than there were who combined questions and comments, while this disparity was not observed among the mothers of TH children. According to the results from the study by Strouse et al. (2013), this type of interaction that combines comments with questions to encourage children to continue explaining what they have seen in the video is the most effective way to help them understand the video and increase their vocabulary. Therefore, it seems that the mothers of DHH children show a maternal scaffolding style, which is based on checking their children’s comprehension through explicit questions about the Figure 2. Types of questions asked by the mothers. content of the video. This result is similar to the one observed by Brown and Remine (2004) when they explored the interaction significance, except for the higher total number of questions that of mothers with their DHH children in a play scenario. In their the mothers of DHH children asked (IRR = 1.612; 95% confidence study, the mothers of the DHH children tended to participate interval: 1.019, 2.550; p = 0.041). actively in the play, directly inf luencing the play objects and the Regarding the type of prompts (Figure 3), the mothers of the script and showing a controlling conduct during the interaction, DHH children tended to refer to previous experiences or refer whereas the mothers of the children with TH tended to observe explicitly to content from the video. On the other hand, the moth- their children’s play while commenting, suggesting, describing, ers of the children with TH most frequently tried to encourage explaining, and directing, without directly inf luencing what their their child to continue explaining the video. However, Poisson children did. This attitude of the mothers of DHH children in regression analysis shows that these differences do not reach the which they feel the need to inf luence their children’s play, instead level of statistical significance, either in the number of different of adopting a more relaxed attitude of observation, is similar types of encouragement or in the total number of prompts. to that observed in the mothers of the present study who need The intrasubject analysis via the Wilcoxon signed-rank test to assess their understanding of the video by asking their DHH of the differences between the number of questions and the children questions, rather than letting them take the initiative to number of prompts carried out by the two groups of mothers explain it. This overprotective style could be assessed negatively does not show statistically significant results (p = 0.751; p = 0.217). from an educational-constructivist point of view. The Spearman non-parametric rank-order correlation test on the Regarding the strategies used by the mothers to interact with relationship between the total number of questions and the total their children, the hearing condition of the children seemed to number of prompts that the mothers carry out does not show a have no effect either on the type of questions asked or the statistically significant result either (rho=0.164; p = 0.444). type of prompts to explain the video employed, but it did affect the number of questions. 50% of mothers in both groups used questions only, but the mothers of DHH children asked a greater Discussion number of questions overall. Thus, DHH children were asked a The objective of this study is to explore the mother–child interac- significantly higher number of questions than the children with tion that is established after co-viewing an educational video. TH, which reduces the opportunities that they have to express The results show that the mother–child interaction did not themselves (Brown & Remine, 2004). vary significantly depending on whether the mothers have DHH Semi-open questions, which limited the answer, were the most children or TH children, nor depending on the age of the mothers. common type of question for both groups. The least frequently C. Cambra et al. | 175 asked questions were those containing the answer. The mothers of semi-open, more than via comments, which were favored by the the children with TH also asked questions that set out a cognitive mothers of the TH children. The age of the mother was not found conf lict at a very low rate. All children should be prompted to to alter this relationship. In addition, to prompt their children think and ref lect more often (Zhao & Phillips, 2013), especially to explain the video, the mothers of the DHH children focused DHH children, since mother–child conversation contributes to the their attention on specific contents and established connections socio-cognitive development of the child (Morgan et al., 2014). to family experiences. Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jdsde/article/28/2/171/6847610 by Universidad Autonoma Barcelona - Online Products user on 11 January 2024 Open questions were also rarely formulated by the DHH According to Morgan et al. (2014), the mothers of the DHH children’s mothers. This could be interpreted as evidence that children would benefit from reducing the number of questions the mothers are conscious that their children have linguistic they ask during the interaction with their children, which would difficulties due to their hearing loss (Morgan et al., 2014), and create a more conversational environment. A way to achieve because of this, they want to avoid questions that require complex this would be through specific intervention programs for fam- narrative speech to answer. However, in our view, the fact that the ilies with DHH children, along the same lines as those applied mothers of the children with TH did not ask many open questions by Strouse et al. (2013) in families of children with TH, which either could indicate that the hearing condition of the children is aim to balance the number of questions and prompts in these not a determining factor, while the fact that the mothers perceive interactions. To this end, the interactive reading training pro- their children’s linguistic skills as limited due to their age could grams for parents of young DHH children have proven effective be explanatory for both groups. in developing children’s literacy (Wauters & Dirks, 2017; Dirks With regard to the prompts to explain the content of the video, & Wauters, 2018). In this sense, the reading strategies used in the mothers of the children with TH encouraged their children to programs for families with DHH children can serve as a model comment on the content of the video more often than the mothers and provide conversational strategies that facilitate parent–DHH of the DHH children. As mentioned previously, Brown and Remine child interaction in a context of co-viewing a video. (2004) obtained similar results in an interactive play situation in In other words, the objective would be to reach a dialogue- which the mothers of the children with TH often encouraged their like conversational style where the children could express their children to continue playing to draw their attention and keep the beliefs, emotions, and thoughts, rather than an assessment by game going. The mothers of the DHH children of the present study, the mother of the child’s level of comprehension of the video on the other hand, were more likely to use other strategies to get (Brown & Remine, 2004; Morgan et al., 2014; Desjardin et al., their children to explain the content of the video. One of these 2017). Therefore, a clear implication of the present study is the is establishing connections with previous knowledge by referring need to include guidelines that promote a sensitive maternal to family experiences. In line with this observation, Yuen et al. attitude toward the thoughts of the child in the orientation and (2022) emphasized the importance of sharing and commenting on counseling programs for families with DHH children (Lederberg leisure activities shared with the family to motivate DHH children & Prezbindowski, 2000). to express their emotions. Another prompting strategy that the mothers of the DHH children used was explicit references to the content they had Acknowledgements observed. This is also a strategy that school teachers use (Paul We would like to thank the mothers of DHH children and the & Wang, 2012). They may act like teachers because they assume mothers of children with TH of Jesuïtes Sant Gervasi-Infant Jesús that their DHH children will not be able to learn from the video school (Barcelona) who participated in this study, for their coop- without their intervention (Baadte, 2019; DeLoache et al., 2010; eration and availability. Robb et al., 2009). In our opinion, references to family experiences that are related to the contents of the video and explicit references to content in the video are good examples of the positive impact Funding that mothers can have on the socio-emotional development of This work was supported by the Spanish Ministry of Science, their children and of their role as educational mediators. Innovation and Universities (grant number PGC 2018-100675-B- I00). Limitations and Future Directions The small sample size should be considered a limitation of the study. Apart from that, in future investigations, it would be inter- Conflicts of Interest esting to control for other characteristics of the mothers, such No conf licts of interest were reported. as their educational level, or of the DHH children, such as their age of amplification. 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