Available online at www.sciencedirect.com Territories of life as key to global environmental sustainability ]] ]]]]]] ]] Leila V Zanjani 1, Hugh Govan 2,3, Holly C Jonas 4, Theodore Karfakis 5, Daniel M Mwamidi 6, Jessica Stewart 7, Gretchen Walters 8,9 and Pablo Dominguez 10,11,12 Territories and areas that Indigenous peoples and local Corresponding author: Dominguez, Pablo communities govern, manage, and conserve (hereafter (eco.anthropologies5@gmail.com) territories of life) are increasingly recognized by scientists, international agencies, nongovernmental, and Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 2023, 63:101298 grassroot organizations, as central to the future of a healthy and This review comes from a themed issue on Open Issue sustainable planet. Hundreds of thousands of such social–ecological systems exist worldwide, covering millions of Edited by Opha Pauline Dube, Victor Galaz and William Solecki square kilometers of land and seascapes on all five continents, For complete overview of the section, please refer to the article collection, “Open Issue” contributing to the conservation and sustainable use of a significant proportion of the world’s biodiversity. Nevertheless, Available online 1 June 2023 these systems are facing many threats and often have little-to- Received: 19 January 2022; Revised: 25 April 2023; no formal recognition or support from nation-state Accepted: 26 April 2023 governments. In order to address this growing need, this review https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2023.101298 provides the most complete, recent, and updated global 1877–3435/© 2023 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. overview of territories of life. The review advocates for a holistic approach of territories of life and identifies key opportunities for researchers to favor action- and policy-oriented research in support of such vital systems for global sustainability. Addresses 1 Concordia University, Department of Geography, Planning and What are the territories of life? Environment, Lab: Partners in Indigenous Conservation and Environmental Futures, Concordia University, Sir George Williams Territories of life is a concept developed for over a Campus, 1455 De Maisonneuve Blvd. W., Montreal, Quebec H3G decade of partnership and negotiations by the 1M8, Canada Indigenous and non-Indigenous partners of the ICCA 2 Locally Managed Marine Area (LMMA) Network International, PO Box Consortium (https://www.iccaconsortium.org/), an orga­ S-37, Superfresh, Suva, Fiji 3 nization to which all authors of this text are members, University of the South Pacific (USP), School of Law and Social Sciences (SoLaSS), Suva, Fiji and that has been proposed as a more tangible and in­ 4 ICCA Consortium, Chemin Très-chez-Roget 1, 1272 Genolier, spiring term than the more frequently used Indigenous Switzerland peoples and local Communities (hereafter IPLCs) Conserved 5 Kalamos Island biological field station, Kalamos Island, 31081 Levkas, Areas and territories or its abbreviation ‘ICCA’.1 It is Greece 6 important to note that IPLCs were front and center Laboratory for the Analysis of Social-Ecological Systems in a Globalised World (LASEG), Institute of Environmental Science and during the process formulating this new wording. In fact, Technology, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Spain the ICCA Consortium grew out of a movement in sup­ 7 Conserving Land and Seascapes Programme, UN Environment port of IPLCs and composed by many IPLC members Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC), pushing for greater equity and inclusivity in conservation 219 Huntingdon Road, Cambridge CB3 0DL, United Kingdom 8 Institute of Geography and Sustainability, University of Lausanne, during the decades around the turn of the Millennium. Lausanne, Switzerland This organization was officially established in Switzer­ 9 Department of Anthropology, University College London, London, land in 2010 as an International Association under the United Kingdom 10 Swiss Civil Code, and it is a civil society organization Laboratoire de Géographie de l’Environnement (GEODE), UMR 5602 membership-based and supported by an international CNRS - Université Toulouse 2, 5, Allée Antonio Machado, 31058 Toulouse, France 11 Departament d’Antropologia social i cultural (AHCISP), Universitat 1 Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain For example, CBD (https://www.cbd.int/doc/publications/cbd-ts- 12 Laboratoire Population-Environnement-Développement (USAGES), 64-en.pdf), the IUCN (https://www.iucn.org/news/protected-areas/ UMR 151 IRD - Aix-Marseille Université, Centre St Charles, case 10, 3 201905/iccas-biological-and-cultural-diversity), or the United Nations place Victor Hugo, 13331 Marseille, France Development Program (UNDP: https://sgp.undp.org/about-us-157/ partnerships/icca-gsi.html) www.sciencedirect.com Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 2023, 63:101298 2 Open Issue semivolunteer secretariat based in twenty-two countries. do simultaneously: “Anishinaabewin is an action, it is The ICCA Consortium defines territories of life (or embodied gkendaasowin (knowledge) that is lived, ex­ ICCAs) as “territories and areas conserved by IPLCs”, perienced, and attained through direct interaction with which share certain commonalities and three key char­ the land” [3]. These interactions and relationships are acteristics: (i) a specific community that maintains strong historic, and most often inscribed in the biodiversity of and deep-seated links with a specific territory or area; (ii) ecosystems [4] and ever-evolving into continuous di­ this community is a key actor in the process of decision- versification of life and adaptations of sustainable prac­ making relative to the territory or area and its resources; tices [5]. Consequently, Indigenous and local knowledge and (iii) this governance system contributes to the re­ systems rooted in their collective lands, waters, or terri­ sponsible and sustainable management of the ecosys­ tories are equally diverse and exclusive to the In­ tems and of the community’s tangible and intangible digenous peoples or local communities who produce and heritage [1]. The concept refers to age-old, widespread, sustain them [6]. Governance institutions embedded in diverse, and dynamic systems that have as many dif­ such territories are distinctive, time- and place-based, ferent names as the peoples and communities who sus­ and generally guided by the holistic values of respect, tain them around the world. For example, wilayah adat, reciprocity, relationality, and responsibility [3,7–9]. In kaw, himas, agdals, tagal, yerli qorukh, faritra ifampivelo­ fact, the cultural grounding and deep connection of mana, oran, ili, asang, rumak, qoroq-e bumi, sapari, baldíos, IPLCs with their territories and ecosystems has proved comunales, crofts, regole, cayolar, and aschii among thou­ to equip them with an array of resilience strategies in the sand others. In broader contexts, they may be referred to face of social and environmental change [10–13]. as, or encapsulated within, concepts with clear political and legal connotations such as commons, ancestral do­ Although the term ‘IPLCs’ is widely used (e.g. when mains, country, territorios autonomos comunitarios, territorios talking about ICCAs), there are important differences del buen vivir, or Locally Managed Marine Areas (LMMAs). between these two human groups that should be re­ However, as explained by [1] (p5) “For the custodians of spected, and they should not be conflated. Indigenous such ‘territories of life’, the connection between their peoples have internationally recognized rights arising community and territory is much richer than any single from their self-identification as Indigenous peoples (see word or phrase can express. It is a bond of livelihood, the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples energy and health. It is a source of identity and culture, adopted by the UN General Assembly in 2007), while autonomy and freedom. It is a link among generations, local communities are not yet a clearly defined group preserving memories from the past and connecting to under international law. However, a growing body of the desired future. It is the ground on which commu­ knowledge, policy, and law recognizes the rights of non- nities learn, identify values and develop relationships Indigenous communities whose identities, cultures, and and self-rule. For many, it is also a connection between ways of life are intimately connected with specific areas visible and invisible realities, material and spiritual and resources. While we fully acknowledge the differ­ wealth. With territory and nature go community life and ences in terms of historical rights and international re­ dignity, and self-determination as peoples”. cognition, in this article, ‘IPLCs’ are both considered in an effort to put the focus on the stewardship role of both The concept ‘territories of life’ is by nature generic, and groups within the notion of territories of life, as there are is only intended to provide an ‘umbrella’ for the sake of or can be many positive synergies between the two, intercultural understanding and communication about particularly in the context of their links between cultural phenomena that are necessarily place-based and con­ diversity and global sustainability. text-specific, each with its own name imbued with un­ ique values and practices, while providing more We fully recognize there are evolving concerns from identifiable meanings than most acronyms can. Indigenous Peoples around the complexities and im­ However, IPLCs are the ones who choose if to use it plications of the use of the term ‘IPLCs’2 [14]. There is strategically to advance their self-determined priorities also increasing awareness of the need for better re­ for their people and territories, including in nation-state cognition of both Indigenous and community govern­ policy and legal frameworks, both domestically and in­ ance and management, and their rights to lands and ternationally. resources, which are often not legally recognized. There are increasing threats to the lands and waters that are In the worldviews of many IPLCs, biological and cul­ under the care of IPLCs and both of these diverse tural diversity are uniquely linked [2]. Their identities, groups require support and appropriate recognition for cultures, and ways of life have most often been deeply their self-determined practices. Therefore, considering embedded in their relationships with the environments upon which they depend. For example, Awasis, an In­ digenous scholar from the Anishinaabe First Nations of 2 CBD, “Compilation of Views Received on use of the term Canada, explains that being Anishnaabe means to be and "IPLCs,” UNEP, Montreal, 2013 Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 2023, 63:101298 www.sciencedirect.com Territories of life for global sustainability Zanjani et al. 3 these two groups together in this article, is a means of such narrative review processes. In this sense, direct highlighting an important research gap that, that if ad­ quotes and inputs from IPLCs, as well as the consultation dressed well, could support key custodian communities step of indirect stakeholder involvement is represented of much of our planet (independently of if Indigenous here through the wide networks and well-established or not). relationships of the co-authors with IPLCs, as well as with some of the main international agencies and organizations that support such systems, who together have over two Aims decades of experience in collaborative research and ally­ A key aim of this review is to provide the most up-to- ship. In fact, the co-authors of this study include honorary date review on the state of territories of life and their members and the global coordinator of the ICCA Con­ values in terms of sustainability. Simultaneously, it aims sortium who are by profession academics at different re­ to identify existing key insights into policy, legal, and search centers, advisors to different international institutional developments, along with threats and organizations in this field, as well as experts in mapping challenges to both persistence and recognition of terri­ and registering territories of life in global databases (e.g. tories of life. A review of this scale with the aforemen­ https://www.iccaregistry.org/). tioned diversity of elements in a sole text is not frequent. Moreover, our review makes a special effort to To develop the search protocol, keywords were selected open the scope to highly valuable reports and other gray based on the three common characteristics of territories literature in this arena that are less accessible to the of life described in the introduction. Categorization of public and less considered in previous reviews. We have the literature identified the following main themes in taken into account over a dozen titles of this kind. At the which territories of life have been examined: spatial same time, readers can access more information through coverage, natural realms (terrestrial and marine), culture, the extra gray literature that can be found mostly in the policy, development, and sustainability. The following reports we reference in this article. One more novel as­ sections map evidence related to these themes. pect of our review is that it highlights the outstanding presence of marine territories of life that are frequently overlooked by researchers and policy/decision-makers Evidence base for Indigenous peoples’ and alike. Ultimately, the aim of this review is to identify local communities’ contributions to key opportunities for action and policy-oriented research biodiversity and nature conservation at global supporting the contributions of territories of life to scale conservation of global biocultural diversity and sustain­ IPLCs have developed complex and place-based ability efforts as reflected at the end of the paper. knowledge and governance institutions that enable sustainable use of resources and conservation of much of Methods the world’s biocultural diversity [19–21]. Here, we pro­ Narrative review vide some examples. The Kham peoples are situated at This article has chosen a ‘narrative review’ methodology the eastern end of the Himalaya between Qinghai-Ti­ due to the diversity of territories of life and the inter­ betan plateau and China and they comprise various disciplinary nature of engagement with them in the past ethnicities, linguistic ecologies with multiple shama­ decades, as well as the sheer number, type, and language nistic and animistic cultural practices, and lived experi­ of publications examining these systems directly or in­ ences [19]. The ecospiritual relationships of the Kham directly. Narrative reviews describe existing knowledge peoples of southwest China with their sacred natural on a specific idea for examining subjective, dynamic, and sites, knowledge of fauna and flora, and governance of situated realities [15]. This type of review is generally natural resources are inherently sustainable and unique used to identify gaps in knowledge and to offer insight [19]. Similarly, the Kitasoo/Xai’xais people of the west for future research and policy action [15,16]. This review coast of Canada consider the ocean sacred and their uses territories of life as a conceptual framework and the governance structure is based on their laws of “respect, contents are “separated according to dependent or in­ reciprocity, intergenerational knowledge, and inter­ dependent variables and their relationships” [16] and connectedness” [20]. The hereditary chiefs of the Ki­ has adapted the six-phase narrative review process pro­ tasoo/Xai’xais people take on the responsibility of caring posed by Greenhalgh et al. [17]: planning, search, for land and water and to ensure abundance of species as mapping, appraisal, synthesis, and recommendations. well as territorial health [20]. While Mwanda-Marungu pastoral commons in Taita hills, southwest Kenya, have This research conducted searches using ‘Web of been managed sustainably for centuries through cus­ Knowledge’, ‘Scopus’, ‘Google Scholar’, as well as gray tomary norms that have proved to continually provide literature through specifically selected keywords as de­ ecosystem services to the local communities, wildlife, scribed below. Simultaneously, Levac et al. [18] re­ and livestock [22]. Although there is a growing evidence commend including stakeholder consultation as part of base on the conservation contributions of IPLCs in www.sciencedirect.com Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 2023, 63:101298 4 Open Issue Figure 1 counterparts. Therefore, there is a relative scarcity of available literature on the spatial coverage of marine and coastal territories of life, as well as their contributions to conservation of biocultural diversity and sustainable use of resources [25,26]. Nevertheless, the approach of LMMAs3 is a powerful force in the Pacific Islands, Southeast Asia, Latin America, Western Indian Ocean, and East Africa. Despite low government support, the proliferation of LMMAs in the Pacific Islands of Oceania, where community-based protected areas make up 37.5% of protected areas [27], shows the potential of area-based approaches to achieve sustainable manage­ ment of some of the most biodiverse marine areas on the Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability planet, particularly coral reef ecosystems [28,29]. LMMAs are one example of territories-of-life-based management in the Pacific Islands of which the latest Spatial representation of the publications reviewed for this article (a total of 166 titles listed in Annex; the reference list provided in the survey has counted 662 examples covering 1028 com­ article’s Bibliography section (90 titles) is a summary of the most munities [30], which are usually based on customary key, instrumental, and recent sources that have had the major role in marine tenure or acknowledged Indigenous manage­ shaping the paper). Those in purple (106) correspond to IPLC site- ment rights over nearby coastal areas such as the Fijian based studies and the remaining 60 in yellow correspond to non-IPLC site-based studies that nevertheless focused on territories of life (e.g. traditional fishing grounds, Qoliqoli. Such rights may global reports, policy publications, etc.). even be acknowledged in the national constitutions (e.g. Vanuatu). But even where there is legal ambiguity, tra­ ditional governance and rights form part of plural legal specific territories or areas, there are still few studies systems [31]. Consequently, the extent of the planet that with a global scope, and even fewer encompassing the is actually governed, managed, and conserved by IPLCs two types together (IPLCs), which the notion of terri­ would be in fact even considerably greater than what has tories of life holistically addresses. In this sense, in an been spotted by all these different analyses, and effort to estimate the potential global extent and con­ granting so even greater importance to territories of life servation values of territories of life, the UN Environ­ as key to global environmental sustainability. ment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC) and the ICCA Consortium In terms of biodiversity value, territories of life could collaborated on a global spatial analysis [23]. This drew cover at least 33% of Intact Forest Landscapes as de­ on the best- available data, including from other spatial fined in footnote4 and nearly one-third (32%) of areas analyses, such as the companion report by UNEP- that are considered key to reversing biodiversity loss, WCMC and several other organizations [24], which itself preventing CO2 emissions from land conversion, and drew heavily on a pre-existing dataset of Indigenous enhancing natural carbon sinks [32]. Given the im­ peoples’ lands [36] ( Figure 1). portance of forests for sustaining livelihoods and climate mitigation, it is crucial to expand support to forested This UNEP-WCMC and ICCA Consortium analysis areas conserved by IPLCs [8]. For example, the Garo revealed that territories of life could cover at least 28 people of Bangladesh have been applying their ethno­ million km2, which is over one-fifth (21%) of the world’s botanical knowledge in agroforestry since time im­ land surface, and an area approximately the size of the memorial. Through their agrosilvopastoral5 system, the African continent. At the same time, over 17% of the Garo produce sustainable crops while maintaining forest world’s land is uniquely covered by potential territories of life, that is, territories of life that lie outside existing state and privately governed protected and conserved 3 Areas of nearshore waters and coastal resources that are largely or areas [23]. In another estimation, WWF et al. [24] re­ wholly managed at a local level by the coastal communities, land- port that 43 million km2 of terrestrial ecosystems (ap­ owning groups, partner organizations, and/or collaborative government representatives who reside or are based in the immediate area [89]. proximately 32% of the world’s land) is under the de facto 4 Following the definition of [90], an Intact Forest Landscape is a or de jure governance of IPLCs. seamless mosaic of forest and naturally treeless ecosystems with no remotely detected signs of human activity, and a minimum area of It is important to note that these estimates only cover 500 km2. They are large enough to maintain all native biodiversity and territories and areas in terrestrial systems. No marine are crucial for carbon storage and regulating hydrological regimes, as well as other ecosystem functions [90]. spatial data were used. The engagement of academic 5 As defined by United Nations Economic and Social Commission research with coastal and marine territories of life is for West Asia: Multiple land use including livestock breeding, forestry considerably small compared with their terrestrial and cultivation, integrated crops, trees, and pastures/animal systems. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 2023, 63:101298 www.sciencedirect.com Territories of life for global sustainability Zanjani et al. 5 cover and health [33]. Similar practices have been ob­ Territories of life are also key in sustaining cultural served in the Bedouin of the Negev Arid Highlands. practices, such as ceremony, language, and Indigenous The role of territories of life in mitigating the effects of technologies and knowledge systems [12,13,47]. Many climate change and monitoring climate drivers that are IPLCs consider well-being, mental and physical health, modifying landscapes and seascapes has also been re­ and good living to be a community issue rather than an corded by multiple scientists [34–38]. The National individual effort [48,49]. Community well-being is in­ Adaptation Strategy of Canada [91], includes key op­ tertwined with the health of ecosystems, promotion of portunities for national, provincial, and nongovern­ traditional practices, rituality, traditional medicines, and mental actors to invest in co-developed and co- diet, among other aspects of living on a given territory implemented (with Inuit, Métis, and First Nations) cli­ [49]. For example, the Mantheding Community in mate resiliency programs and nature-based solutions to Limpopo Province of South Africa [50] and the Sakha mitigate the effects of climate change [39]. Simulta­ peoples of Yakutia6 [51], carefully and collectively neously, IPLCs can also act as important monitors for manage and harvest medicinal plants and assure that climate change and thereby contribute directly to con­ their health is guaranteed by maintaining a diet from servation. A prime example comes from the Arctic with native crops. the Inuit, where they observed the significant changes happening and have contributed significantly to the debate about climate change using indicators as diverse Variable policy, legal, and institutional as caribou meat and weather patterns to migrations of recognition statuses of Indigenous peoples’ various animal species [39]. Other examples exist from and local communities’ contributions to mountains of Tajikistan and Indian Himalaya that il­ conservation lustrate the value of Indigenous communities in mon­ As local-to-global understanding of the contributions of itoring climate change and its impacts where a diverse IPLCs to biological diversity and nature conservation array of monitoring variables from animal migration has grown, so too have different forms of recognition and patterns to vegetation changes are reported providing support. This has occurred both in multilateral and in­ invaluable records for high-altitude areas (e.g. [40,41,56]) ternational contexts and within domestic contexts in (Figure 2). several countries around the world. Also, the notion of ecosystem services, although it Since 2004, the UN Convention on Biological Diversity could be considered an anthropocentric western-cen­ (CBD) and the International Union for Conservation of tered framing [42], is increasingly used to measure the Nature (IUCN) have recognized the rights and roles of effectiveness of protected and conserved areas, in­ IPLCs, including territories of life specifically, in several cluding under different governance and management decisions of their respective bodies [14], which has led to arrangements. In this context, for example, many rice several countries (such as Malaysia and Senegal) in­ agro-ecosystems of the Benguet and Ifugao peoples in corporating such language into national and subnational Northern Philippines are managed as sacred sites that policy and legal frameworks related to biodiversity and lay the ground for provisioning (food, income, etc.) and area-based conservation. In the 2011–2020 Strategic Plan regulating (purification of water and climate regulation) for Biodiversity and Aichi Targets and related decisions, while canalizing meaningful cultural practices (ritual CBD Parties adopted and subsequently defined a new purposes, rice wine-making, holy mass offering, edu­ term, “other effective area-based conservation mea­ cational information, and preservation of memories). sures” (abbreviated as OECMs). OECMs could possibly These systems are sustained through traditional wa­ provide another avenue for recognizing and supporting tershed management known as ‘Muyong systems’ Indigenous peoples’ and local communities’ contribu­ (woodlot planted with trees, which is owned by a clan tions to conservation [14] and for continuing to shift for generations). The vast contributions of Indigenous area-based conservation toward genuinely equitable and ancestral territories to maintaining ecosystem services effective conservation [52]. Some IPLCs in both marine have been also recorded in the Colombian, Peruvian, and terrestrial environments have used the concept of and Brazilian Amazon forest, in forested areas of OECMs to strengthen ties to their territories as they Myanmar (both conserved and degraded), Indigenous offer a venue for diversified governance and manage­ territories in northern Australia and Fiji, the Gangetic ment as well as decentralized conservation of natural basin in India, coastal and marine Indigenous territories resources recognized within state systems [53,54]. in Papua New Guinea, and Torres Strait islanders in However, given OECMs were only defined by the CBD Australia. These are a few examples where IPLCs in 2018, there is still relatively limited experience in sustain ecosystem services that benefit not only them­ selves but also larger populations on national and global 6 For more information on the health issues of the Sakha peoples, scales [40,41,43–46]. please refer to the publications of Yakut Research Centre for Complex Medical Problems SB RAMS, Yakutsk. www.sciencedirect.com Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 2023, 63:101298 6 Open Issue Figure 2 Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability Graphic depiction of some of the key findings of the global spatial analysis conducted by UNEP-WCMC and the ICCA Consortium [23] (The lead author and several other co-authors of this paper are also lead authors and co-authors of this 2021 Territories of Life Report by UNEP-WCMC and ICCA consortium, and are therefore also co-authors of the figure that is now brought into this paper.). The graphs on the left-hand side illustrate the estimation that potential territories of life cover more than one-fifth of the world’s land and over one-fifth of the extent of the world’s terrestrial Key Biodiversity Areas. The bar graph on the right-hand side shows that potential territories of life cover at least one-third of Intact Forest Landscapes globally and nearly one-third of areas that are considered key to reversing biodiversity loss, preventing CO2 emissions from land conversion, and enhancing natural carbon sinks. national contexts and there are concerns that some managing forests over centuries, and the presence of a countries might misuse the concept to meet spatial nationally recognized biodiversity zone, clearly demon­ conservation targets without ensuring proper application strates that when these territories have the right to self- of the standards and safeguards [52]. There are also govern, they can effectively manage their resources and concerns about sparse distribution, disconnectedness so contribute to the Global Biodiversity Framework as from officially recognized networks of protected and an OECM [56]. Multiple marine areas in Indonesia have conserved areas, and vague legal language that may lead been identified as potential OECMs, including the Kabu to governance disputes [53]. Nonetheless, they remain Kaya local communities. The Kabu Kaya have “in­ as an avenue for the recognition of IPLCs’ governance. creased harvest rates of mud crab fisheries and protected A proposed example is the section de commune in France, their forest through temporary fishery closure [57]”. numbering as many as 40 000. Having a pre-Roman heritage, they took their present form during the Middle In the UN CBD process to agree the post-2020 Global Ages when lords ceded land to peasants for management Biodiversity Framework, there was a strong push from as a common [90]. These collectively managed agri­ the Indigenous, youth, women’s, and civil society cau­ cultural and forest lands are often found in protected cuses to include clear recognition of Indigenous peoples’ areas and biodiverse habitats [55]. In one case, govern­ and local communities’ rights, including to free, prior, ance of a common by a Commission Syndicale, in charge of and informed consent, Indigenous and local knowledge, Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 2023, 63:101298 www.sciencedirect.com Territories of life for global sustainability Zanjani et al. 7 customary sustainable use, equity, and a rights-based territories of life [64] and Iniciativa Comunales devel­ approach to implementation of the post-2020 frame­ oped an innovative peer-reviewed protocol by local work.7 The Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity communities for the recognition of such systems in the Framework, agreed in December 2022, now recognizes8 UN-based ICCA Registry, which has integrated many of the rights of IPLCs, including their lands and territories, the practices led by this NGO. However, recognition of as well as their roles and contributions to conservation. It community governance is not the same case for other also recognizes the integrity and distinct nature of In­ European countries. For instance, commons are gen­ digenous and traditional territories to conservation be­ erally legally unrecognized and unprotected in most of yond the mainstream categories of Protected Areas and the European Union as well as in countries in accession OECMs, and the need for access to justice and protec­ talks, while they are thought to cover over 7% of its tion for environmental defenders. territory,9 with cases in the Balkans where local com­ munities have coproduced some of the largest mountain In several countries, IPLCs have advocated for policy, pastoral ecosystems in Europe, which have been even legal and institutional recognition, and support for their recognized as part of a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve, rights in general and in the specific context of con­ and still are turned into military grounds by simple de­ servation law and policy. Simultaneously, IPLCs have cree law, with no consultations involving local commu­ employed diverse and innovative approaches in re­ nities, and not even an environmental, socioeconomic, or covering and protecting their territories as well as in health public assessment (e.g. https://sinjajevina.org/). decolonizing research on conservation governance. In Or other commons in France, which are increasingly Canada, Indigenous Protected and Conserved Areas and appropriated by the public powers for other purposes the Indigenous Guardians Initiative are among such [65]. These territories have been threatened since the programs [58]. For example, the Tongait KakKasuangita French revolution, with regularly instated laws that favor SilakKijapvinga — Torngat Mountains National Park, private over common property [65] and in 2013, reducing was established with the negotiation and consent of the capacity of communities to self-govern, while placing Labrador Inuit, Nunavik Inuit, and in collaboration with most of these territories under the supervision of the Parks Canada, and is managed through a cooperative local authorities, without consultation again, and facil­ management board [58]. In the arctic, to fight against itating their transfer to state control. A coalition of historic loss of tenure, working within the Finnish legal elected officials, legal scholars, activists, and researchers context, some Sámi and Finnish villages purchase pri­ collaborate to change this legal framework to favor vate land and restore community rights enabling them to commons in France [66]. manage the land for biodiversity protection [59]. In Italy’s autonomous region of Aosta, collective pastures However, protected areas under cogovernance, shared and woodlands known as consortories were recognized for governance, and governance by IPLCs are expanding their role in protecting the environment, culture, and for worldwide [67]. Indigenous Protected Areas in Australia collective and intergenerational solidarity [60], and have and granting personhood to rivers in Aotearoa/New today a law (n° 19 August 1, 2022) laying down provi­ Zealand are a few examples of the diversification of sions on these consortia and other collective properties. conservation governance and management arrangements The increasingly favorable legal context appears to fa­ that are led by Indigenous peoples [68]. The Ngadju cilitate the recognition of territories of life in northern Land Claim received state recognition in 2014 after 2 Italy [61]. Switzerland also recognizes commons in­ decades of active engagement of the Ngadju peoples stitutions as a balancing act of maintaining decision- with the Australian legal system.10 “The Traditional making power and in working with the state, and in- Owners of a large part of the Great Western Woodlands, between traditional ways of organizing, and taking on the Ngadju People, retain their knowledge of and con­ new responsibilities related to land management [62]. In nection to the country11” and practice traditional fire Scotland, after historical enclosures of their commons, management within their territories. and in the interest of austerity, the government initiated the Community Empowerment (Scotland) Act 2015, In a number of countries in Africa, and even if the many which since 2017, among other things, has created the imperfections they have been object of, governments Community Asset Transfer scheme, allowing commu­ have recognized community contributions to conserva­ nities to buyout publicly owned land to create commu­ tion through decentralization and devolution of certain nity woodlands [63]. In Spain, the Valdeavellano de Tera Declaration vigorously called for the recognition of 9 Eurostat 2013: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/ index.php?title=Farm_structure_survey_%E2%80%93_common_land# Statistics_on_common_land 7 10 CBD, “Kunming Declaration: Available at: https://www.cbd.int/ Government of Australia: https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/ doc/c/c2db/972a/fb32e0a277bf1ccfff742be5/cop-15–05-add1-en.pdf. land/indigenous-protected-areas 8 11 Commitment number 10 and 15, P 4, Kunming Declaration (2021) https://ngadjuconservation.org/ www.sciencedirect.com Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 2023, 63:101298 8 Open Issue rights, for example, through communal conservancies in in Pacific herring populations, has become synonymous Namibia, wildlife conservancies and beach management with extreme sadness and depression [4]. These In­ units in Kenya, Wildlife Management Areas in Tanzania, digenous communities have long-standing reciprocal and Community Forest Management Areas in Zambia relationships with herring and the loss of access to this [69]. In Latin America, Colombia is among the leading species, due to prohibition of traditional harvest, large- examples with its resguardo system and Mexico with its scale commercial fishing, and so on, has resulted in the ejidos, although these are more generally rooted in land erosion of their lived cultural experiences. More re­ rights and Indigenous rights, than in conservation out­ cently, Indigenous communities have acted to maintain comes as such [70]. The high proportion of community- their cultural continuity such as negotiating with gov­ based (47.6%) and low level of government-managed ernmental organizations and commercial fishing compa­ protected areas (13.4%) in the Pacific Islands is partly nies, or demanding comanagement of fisheries and attributed to countries explicitly recognizing Indigenous Supreme Court cases [4]. tenure and access rights, or similar hybrid arrangements [27]. All in all, each of these country-specific forms of At the same time, lack, unclear, inefficient, or in­ recognition and support comes with potential benefits sufficient legal recognition of customary rights of IPLCs and opportunities as well as potential risks, gaps, and to their land, freshwater, and sea territories (and access drawbacks. But as international recognition of In­ to and use thereof) has led to many disputes with the digenous peoples’ and local communities’ contributions private and public sectors. For example, Indigenous to conservation continues to strengthen, it is likely that peoples in West Papua have had long-held strong claims pressure will increase on nation-state governments to do to forests that are subject to fast land use change in favor the same within their respective contexts. of expanding oil palm monoculture plantations. Since 2001, two laws (Special Autonomy Law) specifically re­ Threats and challenges cognized the governance institutions of Indigenous At least a quarter of Indigenous peoples’ and local peoples over “Tanah Adat or Tanah Ulayat (customary communities’ lands and territories could face a high level land)”. At the same time, in 2012, the Constitutional of future development pressure, particularly from com­ Court of Indonesia of which West Papua makes part, modity-based and extractive industries [24]. Extractive ruled that forests under customary land tenure are no industries threaten many resource-rich territories of life, longer under the control of the state. But the insufficient including on Arctic pastoral ecosystems, tropical forests elaboration of customary governance in these laws has in South America and Africa, and highly productive coral led to confusion, land disputes, and misinterpretation by reef systems [43,71,72]. Competing land use pressures different parties in their implementation [77]. Such land and expropriation from both industrial and conservation disputes have been recorded in multiple other commu­ sectors have made large parts of territories of life func­ nity-managed forests across the world. Even though tionally unavailable to their custodians, stemming in Indigenous groups in Bolivia and Ecuador have formal large part from lack of or insufficient recognition of their recognition of territory by state, extractive industries collective and individual rights12 [73]. Entire territories continue being a major threat to Indigenous sovereignty of life or large parts of them are under the increasing and governance over their territories and communities. threat of irreversible natural and cultural degradation, for This is due to lingering colonial structures and concep­ example, industrial agriculture encroaching on the win­ tions of sovereignty, resource management, ownership, tering grounds of the Shahsevan Nomadic Tribal Con­ and power imbalance [78]. Clarification of terms related federacy in Iran and reindeer herders in Sámi territory, to governance and management of customary lands and intensive ranching in the Brazilian Amazon, or industrial waters, and increasing the capacity of state laws and logging encroaching on the territories in Gabon structures to adapt to the many forms of territories of [68,71,74–76]. The access to wintering grazing grounds life, is essential for their continued existence and of the nomadic Sámi reindeer herding peoples of thriving as populations and resource-use pressures con­ northern Sweden is heavily disrupted by mining activ­ tinue to grow. ities. In 2018, 11 mining complexes were actively ex­ porting minerals from the wintering grounds while conducting exploratory studies in other grounds that are Key opportunities for action- and policy- part of the Sámi territories of life. Both Sámi and Finnish oriented research village territories in Finland have also been threatened Territories of life are key to equitably governing and by extractive industries as well as a lack of recognition of sustainably managing biological and cultural diversity for communal land tenure [59]. For the coastal Indigenous a healthy planet [5,23,24,79]. Researchers in relevant peoples of northwest America, the considerable decline fields may assist communities in a number of key con­ servation and policy-oriented studies. For instance, re­ search projects that are co-designed and co-created with 12 https://ipbes.net/global-assessment IPLCs often offer opportunities for communities in their Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 2023, 63:101298 www.sciencedirect.com Territories of life for global sustainability Zanjani et al. 9 self-determination and self-strengthening processes. It is • Further, the engagement and recognition of the ef­ important to note the growing diversity of such processes forts of Indigenous and traditional community mem­ on a global scale such as cultural revitalization and In­ bers in ecosystem and monitoring such as digenous resurgence, decolonization, and sustainable identification of species with respect to decision- self-determination [80]. Below are some of the key making for nature conservation and contributions to identified opportunities for action- and policy-oriented relevant scientific research. research in relation to territories of life that we have been able to distill from our review: Although territories of life exist all around the world and their contributions to maintaining biological and cultural • Support, share knowledge, and collaborate with IPLCs in diversity have been essential for millennia, nuanced various aspects of documenting their territories of life understanding of many of their aspects and dynamics is and biocultural diversity to help toward safeguarding still very limited, while transmission of their values to Indigenous languages and cultures [77,81] and to decision-makers is only in an emergent state, and sci­ strengthen self-awareness, mutual recognition, and entists can do a lot to revert this situation. Territories of support from other communities, as well as from re­ life are not only contributing significantly to global sus­ levant state authorities, where they wish to seek it tainability, but they are also under immense pressures [23,24,79]. from interconnected global social and environmental • Support communities to employ innovative approaches to changes. It is therefore important, necessary, and urgent documenting their territories and practices such as through for the research community to mobilize in solidarity with story mapping [82] or through submitting information an active support of IPLCs who are governing, mana­ to global platforms such as the ICCA Registry hosted ging, and sustaining their territories of life and to which by UNEP-WCMC. Mapping of biocultural diversity our global sustainability is linked. may also be in the service of safeguarding Indigenous languages [81], decolonizing mapping practices, Data Availability countermapping, and spatial justice [83]. • Create and hold equitable and inclusive spaces for No data were used for the research described in the ar­ researchers and scholars from IPLCs [84] to foster col­ ticle. laboration, colearning, and the reinforcement of community leaders. Declaration of Competing Interest • Support IPLCs to develop adaptable tools to commu­ nicate the diversity and nuances of their territories of The co-authors have no conflict of interest to declare. life, governance systems, and practices. • Explore the holistic views of many IPLCs, including Acknowledgments reducing the dominance of bio-/ecocentric views in Thanks to Alex Alvarez, Eleonora Fanari, Prabhakar Rajagopal, and June conservation [85]. Rubis for their initial feedback in the building of the abstract that was first submitted and accepted by COSUST in 2020, as well as to Tero Mustonen • Advancing supportive legal, policy, and institutional fra­ and Jean-François Joye for enlightening discussions about the Finnish and meworks at national and international levels, including Italian cases. the great conventions deciding on global matters, as well as through support from lawyers, legal practi­ Annex tioners, and decision-makers with relevant research The reference list provided in the article’s Bibliography and knowledge [86]. section is a summary of the most key, instrumental, and • Advance research on collaborative forms of conservation, recent sources that have had the major role in shaping value of Indigenous and local knowledge in sustainable the paper (90 titles). However, below, we provide as a resource management, and sociocultural and economic complement the total list of references consulted for this benefits as well as legalities of cross-natural realm gov­ review (166 titles) and to which the map of Figure 1 ernance and stewardship of territories of life [37,87]. makes reference to. • Providing relevant information and support tools for IPLCs to advocate for and secure their rights and ter­ • G. Sajeva, G. Borrini-Feyerabend and T. ritories of life on their own terms (e.g. in legal claims Niederberger, "Meanings and more. Policy Brief of the or court cases). ICCA Consortium no. 7. ICCA Consortium in colla­ • Critically assessing existing and potential forms of na­ boration with Cenesta," 2019. [Online]. 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