Regional Environmental Change (2023) 23:26 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-022-01996-y REVIEW Socio‑ecological vulnerability in rural Spain: research gaps and policy implications Francesco Facchini1 · Sergio Villamayor‑Tomas1 · Esteve Corbera1,2,3 · Federica Ravera3,4,5 · Gerard Pocull‑Bellés1 · Gerard Lluís Codina1 Received: 25 March 2022 / Accepted: 20 October 2022 © The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2023 Abstract Through a systematic review of scientific literature, we investigate the nature and the contents of vulnerability research in rural Spain. The studies reviewed (n = 137) are unevenly distributed across the country, with almost half conducted in the autonomous communities of Andalucía and Catalunya. We identify two main strands of research depending on the methodological approach (quantitative vs qualitative). The scale of analysis varies, from national to local level, while only 14% of the studies are grounded on vulnerability concepts (exposure, sensitivity, adaptive capacity) and related analytical frameworks. Climate change is the most studied driver of vulnerability, often considered in conjunction with other stressors such as environmental degradation, unsuitable policies, or unfavorable terms of trade. The studies reviewed pay minimal attention to sensitivity factors and to adaptive capacity, which often only appear in qualitative studies that focus on social systems. In the light of these findings, we identify research gaps and discuss the ambivalent role of rural development policy in either enabling or hindering adaptive capacity in Spanish rural areas. Keywords Vulnerability · Climate change · Multiple drivers · Adaptive capacity · Literature review Introduction Communicated by Helmut Haberl European governments have been increasingly concerned * Francesco Facchini about how environmental and social stressors like climate francesco.facchini@uab.cat change, economic crises, and demographic changes are * Sergio Villamayor‑Tomas affecting rural livelihoods (Grêt-Regamey et al. 2019; Salvia sergio.villamayor@uab.cat et al. 2019). In Spain, increased aridity and average tempera- Esteve Corbera tures over summer periods are expected to affect ecosystems esteve.corbera@uab.cat as well as many economic sectors—e.g. agriculture, forestry, Federica Ravera industry, tourism—in distinct but significant ways (IPCC federica.ravera@uvic.cat 2021; Moreno et al. 2005). Climate change can reduce water 1 Institute of Environmental Science and Technology, availability, leading to crop productivity losses (Camps and Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (ICTA-UAB), UAB Ramos 2012; Iglesias et al. 2012) and land abandonment Campus, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain (Ustaoglu and Collier 2018). Indirectly, it can also promote 2 Institució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats (ICREA), specific forms of agricultural intensification (e.g. irrigation Passeig Lluís Companys 23, 08010 Barcelona, Spain and land concentration) (González de Molina et al. 2019). 3 Department of Geography, Universitat de Girona, Pl. Ferrater Furthermore, the citizens of rural areas—now representing i Mora, 1 Campus, Barri Vell 17004 Girona, Spain less than 24% of Spain’s total population (Collantes and Pin- 4 Institut de Medi Ambient, Universitat de Girona, C/ Maria illa 2019)—have been out-migrating for the past 70 years, Aurèlia Capmany, 40 ‑1 Campus Montilivi, 17003 Girona, leading to aging, masculinization, gender inequality, and Spain job precariousness (Camarero et al. 2009), thus aggravating 5 FRACTAL Collective, San Remigio 2 28022 Madrid, Spain agricultural intensification and land abandonment (ibid.). 13 Vol.:(0123456789) 26 Page 2 of 15 Regional Environmental Change (2023) 23:26 In this article, we systematically review how environ- one’s adaptive capacity. In contrast, adaptation ‘barriers’ mental, socio-economic, and demographic changes con- are conditions that contribute to the reduction of adaptive tribute to rural vulnerability in Spain. We do so to gain capacity and/or hamper adaptations. When vulnerability is a better understanding of the processes that explain such analyzed in relation to a specific socio-ecological system, vulnerability, the resulting impacts, and both existing and exposure is usually associated to an external dimension, foreseeable adaptation strategies. Specifically, we ask the e.g. a climate stressor, while ‘sensitivity’ and ‘adaptive following: (i) Which are the main environmental and social capacity’—or adaptations—are seen as internal dimen- drivers of Spain’s rural vulnerability as covered in the lit- sions, related to features of the communities exposed to the erature? (ii) Which factors mediate rural populations’ sen- stressors of concern (Füssel and Klein 2006). sitivity to these drivers? And (iii) Which factors enable or We acknowledge that the concept of vulnerability has hamper adaptation to these drivers? The review is grounded been mobilized by various disciplines, from economics and on existing vulnerability approaches as applied in political anthropology to psychology and engineering, among others. ecology and climate change science and in the study of the These disciplines have increasingly cross-fertilized over time human dimensions of global environmental change more but put distinctive relative weight on the influence of expo- broadly (McLaughlin and Dietz 2008; Janssen 2006), add- sure, sensitivity, or adaptive capacity on vulnerability and, ing to the growing body of research concerned with climate particularly, on the role of political economy and culture in change impacts, the need to adapt, and consequences of shaping vulnerability (McLaughlin and Dietz 2008). Within adaptations (Jafino et al. 2021; Clark et al. 2000). All these these studies, there has also been a transition from a focus on approaches share a concern for understanding how and why a single environmental stressor (e.g. floods, or droughts) or various social groups or communities are exposed to envi- global phenomenon (e.g. climate change), towards a focus ronmental and socio-economic shocks and stressors, how on multiple drivers of vulnerability, including non-environ- they are differentially affected, and how spatial, physical, mental drivers (e.g. demographic, economic, sociopolitical, and social characteristics influence vulnerability (Miller or technological processes) (Füssel and Klein 2006). For et al. 2010; McCarthy et al. 2001). example, O’Brien and Leichenko (2000) introduced the We understand vulnerability as the degree to which a concept of ‘double exposure’ to analyze the interconnected human social and/or ecological system is affected by some impacts of globalization and climate change. Although form of hazard (Turner et al. 2003), and we consider ‘expo- concepts such as ‘multiple stressors’ (Adger 2006; O’Brien sure’, ‘sensitivity’, and ‘adaptive capacity’ as key compo- et al. 2004; Turner et al. 2003), ‘multiple exposures’ (Ben- nents of such vulnerability (Adger 2006; Gallopin 2006; nett et al. 2015; Belliveau et al. 2006), and ‘other stressors’ Kasperson et al. 2005). While the concept of exposure refers (Tschakert 2007) have also been proposed, the development to the degree to which a system experiences a given trend or of this stream of research is relatively new—mostly thriv- shock, sensitivity can be defined as the susceptibility of this ing since 2010—and many studies are not explicit about the system to the effects of such exposure (Bennet et al. 2016; interpretations and conceptualizations they use (Räsänen Adger 2000). A given stressor (or a few combined) can be et al. 2016). Moreover, interactions among drivers should be unevenly experienced by various similarly exposed groups, analyzed more systematically to clearly demonstrate which as a result of their diverse characteristics (e.g. gender, age, stressors should be targeted simultaneously (ibid). The iden- social class, race, livelihoods) and entitlements (O’Brien tification of archetypes or pathways of vulnerability—i.e. and Leichenko 2000). Finally, adaptive capacity has to do recurrent configurations of factors that generate vulnerability with ‘the ability to respond to challenges through learning, to socio-economic and ecological change (Kok et al. 2016; managing risk and impacts, developing new knowledge and Sietz et al. 2011)—across case studies can be regarded as an devising effective approaches’ (Marshall et al. 2010:5). As important research frontier in that regard. for sensitivity, adaptive capacity is determined by entitle- The ‘Methods’ section below describes the data collec- ments (including also human, social, physical, financial, and tion and review protocols. The ‘Results’ section presents the natural assets), capacity to organize, leadership, learning results: we show the geographic and analytical patterns of and knowledge, and other resources (Bennett et al. 2014; the studies reviewed; we analyze how the literature accounts Bussey et al. 2012; Cinner et al. 2009; Folke et al. 2003). for vulnerability dimensions (i.e. exposure, sensitivity, and Therefore, we assert that adaptive capacity encompasses adaptive capacity); and, finally, we identify six literature the set of conditions that facilitate one’s ability to under- clusters that differ in their conceptual and/or empirical take adaptations (i.e. actions that may contribute to reduce lenses. The ‘Discussion’ section discusses these findings, vulnerability), and we call such conditions adaptation ‘ena- identifies research gaps, and highlights the policy implica- blers’ because they either build-up or contribute to realize tions that derive from the systematic review. 13 Regional Environmental Change (2023) 23:26 Page 3 of 15 26 Methods c) A coping and/or adaptive strategy of human systems, at whatever scale of social organization (farm, community, Data sources and selection process government, policy, etc.), which may or has emerged in response to the above-referred drivers—labeled as The methodology we followed to select, screen, and code ‘response’ in Appendix. the articles that conform this review was inspired by the PRISMA framework proposed by Moher et al. (2009). We We also excluded articles that were: aimed to identify English-written, peer-reviewed inter- national academic literature exploring the drivers of and a) Focused on public or animal health (e.g. how increased responses to rural vulnerability in Spain. We did so to capture temperature may affect human mortality, or how expo- the widest range of vulnerability studies conducted in Spain, sure to pesticides may affect animal herds’ health); without discriminating across disciplines, theoretical and b) Methodological (e.g. studies comparing different esti- methodological approaches, the stressor(s) chosen, and the mation models, or indexes, or spatial data analysis pro- criteria selected to quantify or qualify exposure, sensitivity, tocols) and lacked a specific linkage with farming and and adaptive capacity. However, since our primary interest cropping practices, productivity, or other adaptations; was to understand the relationship between an environmental c) Not based in Spain or did not include Spain as a case and/or social stressor and rural vulnerability, we discarded study country; studies focused only on ecological and biophysical systems d) Focused on urban/peri-urban contexts, since this study and those that did not have a specific social framing or refer- was only concerned with rural regions—and despite we ence to rural livelihoods. Additionally, by excluding other acknowledge that global change can also affect cities and relevant research published in Spanish, Basque, Catalan, or other densely populated regions. Galician, we also acknowledge that this review cannot be considered exhaustive and our conclusions should be thus We included studies focused on coastal systems because taken with caution. we assumed that some rural areas are also coastal, particu- We ran a targeted keyword search in Scopus in January larly in north-western Spain, unless it was very clear that 2021 combining concepts and drivers of the vulnerability they focused on urban areas only. literature as they appeared in the Title, Abstract, and/or Disagreements between pair members in the process of Keywords of the article. The search string included the fol- deciding whether an article had to be included for analysis lowing: ‘Spain’ AND (‘Vulnerability’ OR ‘Exposure’ OR were resolved collectively: all authors read the correspond- ‘Adaptive capacity’ OR ‘Adaptation’ OR ‘Sensitivity’ OR ent abstract together and decided whether it should or not ‘Resilience’) AND (‘Climate change’ OR ‘Depopulation’ be included. Of the 1220 articles initially identified, only OR ‘Land intensification’ OR ‘Land concentration’ OR 137 matched the conditions outlined above and were subse- ‘Desertification’ OR ‘Food security’ OR ‘Price volatility’ quently coded. Many of these selected articles did not make OR ‘Aging population’ OR ‘Biodiversity loss’ OR ‘Soil ero- an explicit distinction between ‘exposure’, ‘sensitivity’, and sion’). We tried other combinations of search strings in order ‘adaptive capacity’ which, as shown below, entailed specific to maximize the number of hits while including the most challenges for data coding and interpretation. Inspired by the relevant studies. However, these other search strings pro- flowchart proposed by Moher et al. (2009), Fig. 1 outlines vided different sets of articles that diverged from the issue the articles’ selection process. of concern and were thus discarded. Our search rendered 1220 articles. We split these between Coding procedure and data analysis authors’ pairs, who then read the abstract of each article independently (see Appendix). In doing so, each of us noted The coding addressed five domains, each comprising a set if the abstract identified or made reference to at least one of of variables (see code book in Appendix). Three of the five the following elements: domains corresponded to exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity issues. The other two related to auxiliary informa- a) A process of environmental and/or socio-economic change tion (“papers overview’ and ‘research attributes’). The vari- affecting human systems, presumably analyzed with pri- ables included in each domain were refined throughout five mary or secondary data in the article, and/or included as rounds of pilot coding of eight articles that had been selected narrative framing—labeled as ‘impact’ in Appendix; randomly from the full sample. In each round, the group b) A proximate or distal cause of such impact(s)—labeled members coded the articles individually and later met to as ‘driver’ in Appendix; discuss the coding exercise, proposing modifications and 13 26 Page 4 of 15 Regional Environmental Change (2023) 23:26 Fig. 1  Phases of the selection process and criteria for inclu- sion and exclusion of articles clarifications to specific variables. These rounds of pilot correspondence analysis (MCA, the correspondent of PCA for coding also served to create a common understanding of a large database with categorical data) and hierarchical cluster the variables. Eventual doubts or problems during the for- analysis (HCA) were applied to explore the linkages and asso- mal coding process were resolved in group meetings and ciations between different variables and similarities between exchanging views with the lead author. cases, respectively. To define the number of axes retained for The coding process first required an understanding of the the HCA, we employed two criteria: scree test (Cattell 1996) information through the lenses of a driver/impacts/adaptation and eigenvalue. We used Euclidean distance as the dissimilarity causal model. This was necessary to ensure reliable coding but matrix coefficient and Ward’s method as clustering technique to was also challenging given that a fair amount of the studies minimize the error in sum of squares (Ward 1963). To contextu- were not necessarily framed within the vulnerability framework alize the clusters, we explored associations between the groups and/or covered attention to multiple drivers and adaptations and the variables included in the analysis (fisher exact tests), in historical perspective. The coding of policy measures was according to the motivation and objective of our study. particularly difficult as these could appear as both drivers of change and adaptations. In the ‘exposure’ component, we identified the drivers of Results vulnerability proposed in the studies, the way they are measured by the authors, eventual interactions among them, as well as Geographic and analytical overview of the literature the impacts of the drivers on ecosystems and especially social groups. As for sensitivity, we identified the factors that make Figure 2 maps out the geographic distribution of case studies some groups-areas particularly prone to be affected by the driv- across the 17 Spanish autonomous communities and shows that ers considered by each article, as well as their interactions and Andalucía and Catalunya encompass a relevant share of the the distributional aspects related to the unequal diffusion of socio-ecological systems analyzed. Twenty-two percent of the sensitivity among social groups, genders, and territories. Last, articles analyze vulnerability issues at the autonomous com- we explored the adaptive capacity component by distinguishing munity level, while 12% do so at the municipal level and 7% at the characteristics of the adaptation actions considered in the the ‘comarca’ level, i.e. an administrative division that encom- articles, identifying adaptation enablers and barriers, as well passes several municipalities. Fifteen percent of the articles as eventual differences in the distribution of adaptive capacity address vulnerability issues at the provincial or national level, among social groups, genders, and territories. The choice to including sometimes a comparison with research conducted in focus on adaptation actions, barriers, and enablers—rather than other countries. Seven percent of the articles address vulnerabil- more specific aspects of adaptive capacity proposed by other ity issues in more than one autonomous community and 21% authors (cfr Cinner et al. 2018)—was driven by the acknowl- consider simultaneously distinct administrative scales, e.g. the edgment of the above-mentioned limitations of the reviewed autonomous community and the municipal levels. articles. The reviewed articles place their analytical focus on inner Information was compiled in Excel (Microsoft Office) and land social-ecological systems (24% of the studies reviewed), data was analyzed in XLSTAT® (Addinsoft) (see database in coastal areas (23%), and river basins (19%), while mountains online Supplementary materials). To explore patterns in the lit- (9%) and islands (5%) are less represented. Some articles do erature, we run descriptive and multivariate analyses. Multiple not focus on a specific socio-ecological system (20%), as they 13 Regional Environmental Change (2023) 23:26 Page 5 of 15 26 Fig. 2  Distribution of the reviewed articles across Spain’s autonomous communities. Color intensity indicates a higher number of studies in the correspondent community target a very large geographical region, such as a province, an while 26% draw on both quantitative and qualitative and only autonomous community, or even the whole country. 13% are based solely on qualitative approaches. Socio-economic Fifty-four percent of the considered studies were pub- and/or ecological systems modeling—appearing in close to 60% lished between 2016 and 2020 and 37% between 2010 and of the articles—is by far the most used methodology. 2015, leaving only 9% of the publications before these dates (Fig. A1). Fifty-two percent of the articles reviewed focus prin- Multidimensional vulnerability cipally on the vulnerability of agricultural systems, while the other predominant sectors of analytical concern include water Exposure management—i.e. the large-scale control of water resources for human consumption and irrigation—and tourism, consid- Figure 3 represents the drivers of vulnerability identified ered in 16% and 15% of the cases, respectively (Fig. A2). in the review sample, in which climate change is the most Only twenty of the articles in our sample (n = 137) rely on an recurrent one. In 48% of the studies reviewed, climate change explicit vulnerability framework to organize the research (14%). appears as a single driver of vulnerability, while in another Drawing on the typology of vulnerability frameworks developed 35% it appears in combination with another driver (i.e. double by McLaughlin and Dietz (2008), we inferred that six of these exposure) or with more than one in 9% of the articles (i.e. articles adopt a ‘biophysical perspective’, i.e. they focus only multiple exposure). Environmental degradation processes— on the degradation of biophysical conditions and extrapolate e.g. soil erosion, contamination of water and soil, etc.—are how such degradation may directly (or indirectly) impact on the second most analyzed vulnerability driver (9%), followed human systems (Liverman 1990). This biophysical emphasis by policy and market-related dynamics such as price volatility was common in early vulnerability studies and has been criti- and the influences of international markets. cized for neglecting the social, economic, and political factors Overall, 40% of the articles consider more than one driver shaping exposure to environmental change and its impacts at a time. As shown in Fig. 4, the most frequent combina- (McLaughlin and Dietz 2008). Ten studies adopt a ‘human- tions of drivers are climate change and environmental deg- ecological perspective’ that sees human systems as embedded radation (25%), climate change and drought (15%), climate within ecological processes and make explicit reference to the change and policy (13%), and climate change and market- three components of vulnerability as in the authoritative IPCC related dynamics (9%). However, not all the studies inform- definition of the concept (McCarthy et al. 2001). The remaining ing about multiple drivers explore how these are interre- four articles adopt a political ecology and constructivist perspec- lated and can reinforce each other, e.g. neoliberal policies tive and reflect on the role of political economy, power, culture, (category: policy) can foster industrialization of agriculture and agency in shaping rural vulnerability. (category: market-related). Sixty-five percent study these Methodologically, quantitative approaches predominate in interactions, while the rest just hint at their co-occurrence. the review sample: 61% of the articles rely on quantitative data, Out of the studies considering interactions, most focus on 13 26 Page 6 of 15 Regional Environmental Change (2023) 23:26 Fig. 3  Recurrence of the dif- ferent drivers of vulnerability in the reviewed literature how the effects of climate change are interconnected with Impacts of a given driver (or combination of) on social- environmental degradation (21%), policy (12%), and markets ecological systems are addressed explicitly and investigated (12%). in detail in 66% of the reviewed articles. In 74% of these, Fig. 4  Recurrence of combina- tions of drivers of vulnerability in the reviewed literature 13 Regional Environmental Change (2023) 23:26 Page 7 of 15 26 impacts are predominantly measured through quantitative relating to water resources (e.g. decreasing water avail- methods, including models, statistical analysis of second- ability and increasing water demand, among others) are the ary sources, and agronomic measurements and experiments, most researched (28%), followed by agricultural impacts while 18% use qualitative methods, and 9% mix both quan- (22%)—mostly negative ones over crop yields, climatic titative and qualitative approaches. (16%)—especially in terms of increasing extreme events and During the coding process, we also identified and cat- temperature and precipitation changes, and socio-economic egorized the main impacts explicitly investigated in the arti- and cultural impacts (e.g. economic and cultural heritage cles, and analyzed their magnitude (see Table 1). Impacts losses) (15%). Table 1  Recurrence of impact categories Type of category Count Frequency Impact category Count Frequency Agriculture 43 22% Change in farm types 2 1% Decrease in farming economic benefits 6 3% Impacts on agricultural production (negative) 23 12% Impacts on agricultural production (positive) 2 1% Impacts on agricultural production (both positive and nega- 2 1% tive) Seasonal shifts and changes in suitable areas for agriculture 8 4% Other economic sectors 12 6% Impacts on animal husbandry (negative) 3 2% Impact on silviculture production (negative) 3 2% Impacts on tourism (positive) 2 1% Impacts on tourism (negative) 4 2% Water 54 28% Conflicts water use 2 1% Decrease in water availability 34 17% Decrease in water quality 1 1% Increase in water demand 14 7% Salinization 3 2% Ecosystems 25 13% Impact in ecosystems (inc. degradation and biodiversity loss) 10 5% Contamination of soil and water with pollutants 3 2% Invasive species 1 1% Overexploitation 3 2% Changes in soil structure and properties (inc. erosion) 7 4% Afforestation 1 1% Meteorological and generic environment 31 16% Decrease in carbon stocks 3 2% Change in precipitation 6 3% Change in temperature 4 2% Increase in evapotranspiration 2 1% Droughts 5 3% Extreme events (e.g. floods, sea-level rise, storms) 8 4% Increase in wildfires (frequency and intensity) 3 2% Cultural and socio-economic (social) 30 15% Loss of cultural heritage 4 2% Loss traditional agriculture, rural practices and TEK 3 2% Rural abandonment 4 2% Casualties and damages 6 3% Economic benefits 1 1% Economic losses 9 5% Health problems 1 1% Impacts on infrastructure efficiency 2 1% 195a 100% 195 100% a Multiple impacts can emerge from each study 13 26 Page 8 of 15 Regional Environmental Change (2023) 23:26 Sensitivity planning issues (e.g. plans/policies not tailored enough to climate change) stand out as barriers, while the availability Sensitivity is the least explored vulnerability component in of resources (mostly economic in the form of subsidies), the reviewed studies. Forty-three percent of the articles do appropriate regulatory frameworks (mostly associated with not present any information about this component. Among EU action) and sufficient involvement of local authority/ the studies which do mention it, the main sensitivity factors non-governmental organizations (e.g. from decentraliza- concern agricultural and water management issues (men- tion, and participatory decision-making) are more salient tioned in 33% of the articles). These issues, in turn, mostly as enablers. In the category ‘other’, we find barriers such as include crop characteristics and irrigation practices that the organizational and logistical complexity of adaptation mediate the extent to which a given impact—e.g. changes actions and enablers such as the external feasibility provided in temperature and precipitation caused by climate change— by international regulations. affects harvests and, consequently, farmers. Topographic and soil characteristics of the geographic context where the Distributional aspects research has been conducted are considered key sensitivity factors by 21% of this sub-set of studies. The social dimen- Less than half of the reviewed articles pay attention to sions of sensitivity are even less explored: market integra- the uneven distribution of sensitivity and adaptive capac- tion and dynamics (e.g. price volatility or household char- ity factors across territories, social groups, and genders. acteristics), population density and urbanization patterns, as Thirty-three percent of the studies in the sample high- well as policy and governance factors (e.g. the lack of local light that the geographic location of the analyzed system rule enforcement or the miscoordination among authori- influences sensitivity strongly. A recurring example is the ties) were considered in approximately 10% of the studies identification of contrasting impacts in terms of precipi- that referred to sensitivity issues. Finally, land use change tation changes and water availability across downstream (e.g. agricultural abandonment or intensification), climatic or upstream areas in river basins (e.g. Vargas Molina and variability (related to local climate conditions rather than Paneque 2019; Esteve et al. 2018; Garcia Galiano et al. anthropogenic climate change), and the relative degree of 2015). Fifteen percent of the studies also consider this geographic isolation were also mentioned, but to a lesser spatial aspect a determinant factor in the distribution of extent (5%) (Fig. 5). adaptive capacity. Specific adaptations, such as the early sowing of maize, would for example counter the nega- tive impacts of climate change on crop yields in north- Adaptive capacity conditions: adaptation enablers ern Spain but not in southern regions (Rosenzweig and and barriers Tubiello 1997). Ten percent of the articles identify uneven distributions The analysis of or reference to adaptive capacity factors that of both sensitivity and adaptation across social groups. For may either enable or hinder such capacity mostly appears in instance, small-scale diversified farmers are considered the the reviewed articles that focus on social systems and rely most vulnerable and least able to adapt to climate variabil- on qualitative methods. Policy and governance aspects, such ity and price volatility in Navarre, while large-scale inten- as subsidies and public policy support, represent by far the sive farmers—also thanks to their inclusion in a large- most important adaptation enablers (highlighted in 51% of scale irrigation project—seem to be the least vulnerable the studies). The next most important category of enablers to these threats (Albizua et al. 2019). Gender is basically only covers 14% of the data (economic enablers, e.g. the absent from the analysis of distributive issues related to access to credit). Policy and governance aspects are also sensitivity and adaptive capacity. identified as key constraints (29%), or adaptation barriers. Lack of funding and economic barriers are also considered Cluster analysis key obstacles to adaptation in 23% of the studies, together with lack of awareness about the issues that these actions To explore patterns in the literature, we run an MCA and would tackle or their negative perception among specific a HCA. The variables included in the analysis are dis- social groups (20%) (Figs. 6). played in Table A1. The MCA resulted in a preliminary A more detailed look at policy-governance enablers and identification of 6 groups of variables (Fig. A3) and a barriers unveils a relatively asymmetrical distribution across preliminary understanding of the variables that would dis- the two categories (Fig. 7). Coordination deficits (e.g. among criminate the most between clusters (e.g. type of system public authorities and between these and private actors) and studied, temporal frame, methods, economic sectors). The 13 Regional Environmental Change (2023) 23:26 Page 9 of 15 26 Fig. 5  Recurrence of the sen- sitivity factors emerging in the reviewed literature Fig. 6  Recurrence of the adaptation enablers and barri- ers emerging in the reviewed literature Fig. 7  Recurrence of policy and governance enablers and barri- ers in detail cluster analysis resulted in 6 groups of studies (Fig. 8). more quantitative approach. The dendrogram also presents Table A2 includes only the variables that revealed signifi- homogeneity between pairs of clusters within these groups. cant differences across the clusters for any of the values For example, cluster 3 and 5 share a forward-looking, of each variable. modeling approach and are interested in climate change As shown in Fig. 8, clusters 1, 2, and 6 are more similar impacts, while clusters 2 and 1 share a focus on social sys- to each other and can be distinguished from the clusters 3, tems. We describe these clusters below according to their 4, and 5. The former group is characterized by a qualita- relative contribution to the review sample, from more to tive and mixed methods approach, while the latter adopts a less common. 13 26 Page 10 of 15 Regional Environmental Change (2023) 23:26 Fig. 8  Dendrogram and vari- ance decomposition resulting from cluster analysis (6 clusters) Climate change impacts modeling studies investigate the impact of climate change on yields and water use of two crops—maize and wheat—with different responses Among the forward-looking, modeling clusters interested to increased CO2 and which represent contrasting agricultural in climate change impacts, cluster 5 stands out for its inter- systems in Spain. The study finds that impacts will variate est in the combined impacts resulting from the interaction depending on the crop, its associated irrigation practices, and of climate change with other drivers of vulnerability. Most the location of the cultivations. The simulations suggest that articles in this cluster focus on the water management sec- summer irrigated crops such as maize will suffer yield reduc- tor. For example, Schmitz et al. (2017) analyze the interde- tions and may be forced out of production in some regions, pendence between environment and society in the island of while for winter dryland crops such as wheat, productivity Fuerteventura, and apply a quantitative model to identify may increase in other regions, leading to a northward shift of indicators of human–landscape relationships and subse- area suitable for wheat production in future climates. quently predict potential shifts based on simulated envi- ronmental changes. The authors show that temperature and Quantitative ecological studies precipitation change (‘climate change’ driver), changes in population origins and distribution (‘urbanization’ driver), Cluster 4 encompasses another set of articles mostly con- and changes in predominant economic sectors (‘market- cerned with ecological systems. These, however, do not related’ driver) result is specific impacts such as the accel- employ models to forecast climate change impacts. For erated warming and decreases of rainfall, deagrarianization, example, Fuentes et al. (2018) investigate how prescribed deruralization, rural abandonment, and the decoupling of burning may contribute to reducing wildfire occurrence in local people from their natural environment. Interactions Pinus halepensis forests of northeastern Spain. The authors between market-related and urbanization drivers are also find that prescribed burning effectively reduces fuel loads identified, as tourism dynamics contribute to attract non- and results in less flammable forests without significant native inhabitants and foster urbanization, which also rein- short-term changes in biodiversity. In turn, Arenas-Corraliza force deagrarianization and the decoupling of local popula- et al. (2019) analyze how the shade resulting from the devel- tions from their environment. opment of agroforestry systems may affect cereal produc- Studies in cluster 3 are mostly concerned with ecosystem tion. They find that commercial wheat and barley cultivars dynamics and share an interest in the identification of sen- can adapt well to shade and, consequently, they argue that sitivity factors. A large share of these articles concern the tree planting in cereal fields can contribute to climate mitiga- agricultural sector. For example, Iglesias and Minguez (1997) tion without affecting productivity. 13 Regional Environmental Change (2023) 23:26 Page 11 of 15 26 Qualitative social studies level (Räsänen et al. 2016). More importantly, 40% of the reviewed articles reported the co-existence of more than one Among qualitative studies focused on social systems, cluster driver of vulnerability, which reflects the increased interest 1 encompasses research analyzing natural disasters and/or of vulnerability researchers in the study of multiple exposure demographic change, with an almost exclusive interest in the patterns (Füssel and Klein 2006). Climate change, the most water sector. Hagenvoort et al. (2019), for example examine frequent driver by far, was observed in coexistence with the the potential reuse of treated waste-water for agricultural abovementioned social processes almost as frequently as purposes in one of Valencia’s acequias as an adaptation alone; and this was an explanatory factor for three of the strategy to climate change and the increased frequency of clusters identified (cluster 6 and clusters 3 and 5). We also droughts. They adopt a circular economy perspective, and found that interactions among drivers are addressed by a mainly draw on interviews to explore the technological, relevant share (65%) of the studies that deal with multiple agronomical, and social implications of the strategy. stressors (see further below). However, the analysis of these The remaining studies fall within a less specific social interconnections often plays a marginal role in the authors’ systems cluster (cluster 2), which ignores driver interactions narratives, and more in-depth and precise research in this and is mainly interested in the tourism sector. For example, direction is needed. Torres-Bagur et al. (2019) investigate how the risks of cli- A clear gap in the reviewed articles is the lack of atten- mate change are perceived by key tourism stakeholders in tion to social and institutional sensitivity aspects. Forty-three the Muga River basin of north-eastern Catalonia. They find percent of the articles do not include information about this significant differences in such perceptions, depending on the component of vulnerability, and its associated factors were type of establishment and location, and with most interview- not very meaningful in the creation of the clusters (only ees believing that governments should be those planning, appearing in cluster 3 as a distinguishing element). Sensitiv- funding and implementing adaptation actions. ity is strongly associated with distributional aspects, which probably explains why we did not find much evidence on Qualitative socio‑ecological studies focused on driver these aspects either. These insights suggest that there is rela- interactions tively little research that addresses social sensitivity factors systematically and their connection to distributional aspects Finally, cluster 6 stands out for a socio-ecological systems (Atteridge and Remling 2018). This gap is particularly sali- approach and an interest in interactions between environ- ent given the well-established fact that climate change and mental degradation, policy, market and population-related other drivers of global change are reinforcing social injus- drivers of vulnerability. Most studies focus on ecosystem tices worldwide (Alexandrescu et al. 2021; Martinez-Alier services and the agricultural sector. For example, Fernandez- et al. 2016; Schlosberg and Collins 2014). The vulnerability Gimenez (2015) investigates interactions between ecosystem framework and its attention to sensitivity offers a platform change—from herbaceous vegetation cover to shrublands to trace such injustices back to specific social, biophysical, in the Pyrenees, grazing practices, the decline of livestock and institutional preconditions, an opportunity which is yet herds and depopulation. The author documents the way to be untapped in the Spanish context. sheppards experience and actively act upon these observed However, the absence of an explicit reliance on vulner- socio-ecological changes, and reveals the emotional and cul- ability definitions and frameworks was partially expected tural aspects attached to these processes. given how loosely this concept has been used in the socio- environmental literature at large (Janssen and Ostrom 2006) and its increasing integration with other concepts such as Discussion resilience and adaptation (Janssen et al. 2006). The lack of a unified analytical framework reflects the multiple episte- Multiple drivers, missing sensitivity, and diverse mologies that have to date engaged with rural vulnerability epistemologies issues, in Spain and elsewhere, yet this may hamper a more systematic, complementary, and thorough advancement of Although environmental phenomena such as climate change rural vulnerability research (Räsänen et al. 2016). For exam- and environmental degradation still stand out as the most ple, we found it difficult to organize the data into a common recurring drivers of rural vulnerability, social and insti- model of exposure-sensitivity-adaptation since a fair amount tutional processes such as policy, market-related dynam- of papers only covered one piece of the model. Most stud- ics, and depopulation seem to receive increased attention ies either consisted of impact evaluations of specific driv- in Spain’s rural vulnerability literature. The prevalence of ers, and ignored sensitivity and adaptive capacity issues, or biophysical stressors over social ones, however, contra- focused only on the latter (i.e. building on previous find- dicts other reviews on vulnerability literature at a global ings or assumptions about impacts). A lower but significant 13 26 Page 12 of 15 Regional Environmental Change (2023) 23:26 number of the papers also included policy both as driver and effect of climate-change droughts on groundwater resources in adaptation strategy and were not clear about the chain cause- an overexploitation context (Castaño et al. 2013). effect. Finally, some papers included multiple drivers but did These interactions and critical feedback loops have impor- not clarify how they affected rural vulnerability. tant implications for rural development. The latter should In addition to these observed shortcomings, the cluster be better coordinated and integrated in ways that attend analysis also shed light on two relatively distinguishable for both impacts, feedback loops, and potentially multiple, and meaningful bodies of vulnerability research in Spain. yet complex adaptations. This would be crucial given the The two principal clusters identified differ mostly from each existence of unattended distributional effects and trade-offs other as a result of contrasting methodologies: one relies pri- when dealing with different sustainability threats (Huitema marily on modeling techniques and quantitative methods (3, et al. 2016; Eakin et al. 2009). As mentioned earlier, future 4, 5), while the other draws on qualitative or mixed methods research would benefit from a more systematic engagement and is not model-oriented (1, 2, 6). Other common charac- with vulnerability, which should also translate into more spe- teristics within these two groups of clusters are the interest cific and integrative adaptation policies (Räsänen et al. 2016). in the interactions between climate change and other driv- Furthermore, rural policy and related investments should pay ers of vulnerability, researching also the resulting impacts careful attention to the factors that mediate exposure and pro- (clusters 3, 5), and the focus on social systems (clusters 1, duce different levels of sensitivity to the interactions of dif- 2). This contrast can be traced to the larger disciplinary ferent stressors and their compounded feedback loops and divide between environmental and engineering sciences on impacts, and to the existence of distinct adaptive capacities one hand (keener on quantitative methods and a relatively across social groups and rural actors. Vulnerability indicators strict application of the scientific method), and the social may help identify who is at risk so interventions can be well sciences on the other (reliant on qualitative methods and targeted, and a critical understanding of why they are at risk diverse epistemologies). Thus, while reflecting interdiscipli- will tell us what can be done about it (Ribot 2011). narity deficits, our review also points to an opportunity for In this regard, the review suggests that policy and gov- methodological cross-fertilization (Zimmerer 2015). ernance issues can act as both adaptation enablers and con- straints, and thus become key determinants for an effective Policy implications reduction of rural vulnerability. Public administration at dif- ferent scales—from municipal to national governments, as Despite the interest of a significant number of the reviewed well as the EU—can support adaptation through financial studies in multiple drivers of rural vulnerability (i.e. the co- and other resources, and it should encourage further stake- occurrence of climate change and other drivers of change), holder involvement and public debate in rural vulnerability information about whether and how these drivers interacted and development issues. However, when doing so, gov- was relatively scarce. The most salient exception were analy- ernments should also be aware they can hinder adaptation ses of climate change-policy interactions in the water-agricul- through coordination and planning deficits. In other words, tural sector.1Lessons from these studies point to the potential barriers are not just the absence of enablers. Doubling sub- of water pricing and quotas to ameliorate the impact of cli- sidies to climate-smart infrastructure in the agricultural or mate change on water scarcity, although such policies may water sectors (e.g. through the EU’sNext Generation Funds) not necessarily reduce the overexploitation of water sources should be sensitive to the availability of human, administra- or guarantee agricultural profitability (Martinez and Blanco tive, technical, natural, and socio-cultural resources in the 2019; Rey et al. 2011; Varela-Ortega et al. 2011). The stud- targeted context to avoid implementation failures. ies that analyze climate change-environmental degradation Relatedly, the review has also shown that there is a stark interactions suggest the existence of critical feedback loops. contrast between the relative weight of EU regulatory action These include, for example the aggravated effects of climate as enabler, and the issues raised around planning (at country change–driven droughts due to ongoing shrub encroachment and regional levels) as a key barrier for adaptation. Most of processes in abandoned lands (Rolo and Moreno 2019); the the evidence about EU regulatory action in the reviewed stud- increased impact of climate-change storms and sea level rise ies concentrates on the water and agricultural sector, while in beaches and Deltas suffering from soil erosion dynamics evidence on planning issues is much more diverse sector- and/or saltwater intrusion (Toimil et al. 2018; Fatorić and wise. EU regulations in the water and agricultural sector are Chelleri 2012); or the additive (although comparatively small) core to the EU. Although they could be improved, they have had an important impact on Spain’s water planning and man- agement in rural areas since the country’s integration in the 1 EU (Iglesias et al. 2012). This has not been the case in the The evidence on climate change-markets interactions was rather scattered covering very different understandings of markets (e.g. tourism or urbanization contexts, which have indeed gone water markets, agricultural markets, pricing…). through processes of erratic regulation (Escuela et al. 2018) 13 Regional Environmental Change (2023) 23:26 Page 13 of 15 26 and deregulation (Colantoni et al. 2016), respectively. Adapta- lack grounding on vulnerability definitions and frameworks, tion in these contexts may benefit from more EU regulatory which limits their comparability and blurs their contribution action. to the advancement of vulnerability theories and methods. We acknowledge, however, that failure in governmental Third, we have shed light on two main typologies of studies action for adaptation is not a unique feature of the Spanish that diverge in their methodological approach (quantitative case (Huitema et al. 2016; Biesbroek et al. 2013; Eakin and vs qualitative) and that reflect larger disciplinary divides Lemos 2006). Policy-makers, as well as firms, NGOs, and between environmental and engineering sciences on one other stakeholders, all bring ideas about vulnerability reduc- side and social sciences on the other. Finally, we have sug- tion, in order to shape institutions according to their respec- gested that the interactions among vulnerability drivers and tive interests (Blyth 2002). This heterogeneity complicates potential feedback loops point at the need to better coordi- coordination and may result in the appropriation of adapta- nate and integrate rural investments and public policy. The tion by the same interests that produce social vulnerability role of the latter is still ambivalent when it comes to reduce (Barnett 2020). For instance, Barnett (2020) claims that the their sensitivity to global change and enhance rural people’s ‘developmentalism’ of adaptation based on infrastructure adaptive capacity, inasmuch as policy is found to be both an projects enables governments to demonstrate a response to enabler of social adaptation—by providing resources and environmental change while avoiding more politically risky ensuring stakeholder involvement, and a barrier as a result regulatory responses, and satisfying the interests of capital of policy coordination and planning deficits. by channeling money into the hands of construction firms. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplemen- In an historical period in which neoliberal globalization is tary material available at https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​s10113-​022-​01996-y. shaping state capacity and delivering increased governance tasks to private companies and NGOs, re-distributive policy Acknowledgements We are grateful to Gerard Pocull, Gerard Codina, could represent an important tool to increase adaptive capac- and Daniel Gaitán-Cremaschi who participated in data coding. ity among those who may be more negatively affected by Funding This research has been funded by the Social Observatory of the climate change and other stressors (Eakin and Lemos 2006). ‘la Caixa’ Foundation as part of the project LCF/PR/SR19/52540011, and it contributes to the ‘María de Maeztu’ Programme for Units of Excellence of the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation (CEX2019-000940-M). FF acknowledges the financial support provided Conclusion by the ‘Plan Estatal de I + D + I’ of the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation (PRE2019-087557). SVT and FR acknowledge the support Rural areas, which used to concentrate the largest share of the Ramon y Cajal Fellowship of the Spanish Ministry of Science and of human populations until the mid-twentieth century, are Innovation (RyC-2017–22782 and R yC2018-025958-I respectively). experiencing profound transformations. Environmental, socio-economic, and demographic changes affect rural livelihoods and wellbeing in complex ways. This article References was set out to investigate how environmental, socio-eco- Adger WN (2000) Social and ecological resilience: are they related? nomic, and demographic processes impinge upon rural Prog Hum Geog 24:347–364. https://​d oi.​o rg/​1 0.​1 191/​0 3091​ vulnerability in Spain. 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