Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2023) 15:11 https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-022-01707-y ORIGINAL PAPER Dietary reconstruction of the Bronze Age necropolis of Cova des Pas (Minorca Island): evidence from δ13C and δ15N analyses T. Sotiriadou1 · C. Tornero2,3 · A. Malgosa1 · P. Sureda4 · X. Jordana1,5 Received: 31 January 2022 / Accepted: 2 December 2022 / Published online: 29 December 2022 © The Author(s) 2022 Abstract Current paleodietary studies about the Naviform and Talayotic groups that took place in Minorca (Balearic Islands) during the Late Bronze Age–Early Iron Age (ca.1600–850/800 BC) have suggested a mixed and variable diet, largely depending on terrestrial sources of vegetables and meat. This study explores the nutritional pattern of the individuals buried in the Cova des Pas site (Minorca Island, Spain), a cave used as a collective sepulcher and the most exceptional and major human assemblage found in the Balearic Islands during this period. Carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen (δ15N) stable isotopic signatures were measured on extracted bone collagen from 49 individuals. Further, faunal remains from the Son Mercer de Baix site, the closest contemporaneous village to the collective sepulcher, were also analyzed to provide a baseline corpus of data to interpret human isotopic data. The results indicate a human diet based mainly on C ­ 3 plants with an important consump- tion of animal protein. The δ15N values of infants up to 4 years were high, indicating the enriched isotopic signature of breast milk, and weaning is assumed to occur around this age. Differences between sexes and the age subcategories were not statistically significant, assuming that the different groups of society had the same access to food. The data obtained in this isotopic study provides insight into the palaeodietary pattern of the human groups dated to the Late Bronze Age–Early Iron Age ages in the island of Minorca, contributing to the present debate on the emergence and development of complex societies on the Balearic archipelago. Keywords Bronze Age · Balearic Islands · Stable isotopes · Human diet · Social complexity Introduction * T. Sotiriadou filiana.sotiriadou@gmail.com Diet is one of the most important factors to understand * C. Tornero ancient human populations, which is not only a means of Carlos.Tornero@uab.cat survival but a cultural and social phenomenon as it reflects 1 BABVE Department, Bioscience Faculty, Unitat the socioeconomic dynamics involved in subsistence strat- d’Antropologia Biològica, Universitat Autònoma de egies and access to food consumption (Gumerman 1997). Barcelona, 08193 Cerdanyola del Valles, Spain The necessity of archaeological research to better approach 2 Department of Prehistory, Autonomous issues of economy and ideology in antiquity quickly led to University of Barcelona (UAB), Edifici B, the study of food, its origins, its production, and its con- 08193 Bellaterra (Cerdanyola del Vallès), Spain sumption. The analysis of stable isotopes from bones offers 3 Institut Català de Paleoecologia Humana I Evolucio Social a direct way to reconstitute an organism’s diet and hence is (IPHES-CERCA), Zona Educacional 4, Campus Sescelades URV (Edifici W3), 43007 Tarragona, Spain a very optimal way to overcome the current limitations of 4 traditional osteological approaches (Tykot 2004; Knudson Institute of Heritage Sciences (Incipit), Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), Edificio Fontán, Bloque 4 // Monte & Stojanowski 2008). Gaiás s/n, 15707 Santiago de Compostela, Spain During the Bronze Age (ca.1600–850/800 cal BC), the 5 The Tissue Repair and Regeneration Laboratory (TR2Lab), Balearics witnessed the emergence and development of Experimental Sciences and Methodology Department, complex societies, including the Naviform culture (docu- Faculty of Health Science and Welfare, University mented in the whole archipelago) and, later during the of VicCentral University of Catalonia, Sagrada Família, 7, Early Iron Age, the Talayotic culture (ca.1100–600 cal BC, 08500 Vic, Spain 13 Vol.:(0123456789) 11 Page 2 of 16 Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2023) 15:11 exclusively in Majorca and Minorca) (see Lull et al. 1999; a better approach and comparative analysis of the samples Guerrero Ayuso et al. 2002; Anglada et al. 2014; Depal- of the site and witnesses its uniqueness. mas 2014). The dietary pattern of these periods corre- CdP is a small burial cave located on the left side of the sponds to a controversial issue. The traditional hypothesis Trebalúger ravine, near the town of Ferreries in Minorca that had been launched was that its subsistence strategy (Balearic Islands, Spain). It is a small cavity, approximately focused on animal husbandry (Cerdá, 1978; Roselló-Bor- 6.5 m wide and 4.5 m long, situated in the wall of the ravine doy 1968), with plant cultivation remaining of minor sig- about 15 m above the ground (Fullola et al. 2008) (again nificance. However, bioarchaeological studies dealing with see Fig. 1). It was used as a collective sepulcher during the zooarchaeological, archaeobotanical, and anthropological Late Bronze Age (1100–800 BC) by the Talayotic culture remains (Hernández-Gasch et al. 2002; Pérez-Jordà et al. of Minorca (Bergadà et al 2015). The cave was discovered 2018) pointed out a mixed farming and herding economy, by three speleologists, Pere Arnau, Pep Riera, and Monica without a systematical use of marine or freshwater food Zubillaga during the spring of 2005. During the excavation items in Majorca and Minorca. Contrarily, in the island of works in 2005–2006, the site was completely dug up, and an Formentera, ­C4 plants such as millet and marine resources, important set of burials in the cave was recovered (Fullola including fish and mollusks, were apparently consumed by et al. 2007; Armentano et al 2010). prehistoric human groups (Sureda et al. 2017a). First stud- The environmental conditions of the cave allowed an ies using the isotopic δ13C and δ15N measurements from exceptional state of preservation of the skeletal remains human and animal bone samples measured for radiocarbon (Armentano et al. 2010). Anthropological studies identify dates (14C) suggested similar results (Van Strydonck et al. a total set of 66 different individuals (Fig. 2). The burial 2005). Palaeodietary studies using elemental analysis on shows a picture of age (35 adults and 31 subadults) and sex human bones recovered from the necropolis of the Cova structure (25 women, 26 men, and 15 more of unknown sex) des Càrritx (1400–800 cal BC) in Minorca show that con- highly representative of the population of the island more tribution on diet was proportional between vegetables and than 3000 years ago, associated with the Talayotic period meat (Pérez-Pérez et al. 1999). Multi-element analysis on (Armentano et al 2010; Simón et al. 2016). Health status was human and animal bones of the neighboring necropolis also reconstructed revealing an extensive record of diseases of S’Illot des Porros (ca. 1400–850 cal. BC) revealed a that include other pathologies, from congenital alterations mixed diet with a high consumption of marine food, seeds, to tumors, fractures, inflammatory alterations, or injuries and cereals (Subirà & Malgosa 1992a). Dental microwear due to activity (Malgosa et al. 2011). On the taphonomic studies of a Talayotic population such as the Son Real (ca. level, the studies carried out have been able to recognize a 800–600 cal. BC) population (Majorca, Spain) found also complex treatment of the corpse (Cañas Cortés 2012) and a mixed diet, but depending on abrasive plant foods and the conditioned burial space itself. The great relevance of a reduced amount of meat intake (Jarošová et al. 2006). this burial chamber lies in the relative preservation of human Very interesting in those studies was that archeobiochemi- organic tissues, compatible with muscles, brain, and lungs, cal data presented no nutritional difference between males for instance (Armentano et al. 2012; Prats-Muñoz et al and females in Cova des Càrritx (Pérez-Pérez et al. 1999) 2013). At the genetic level, the results indicate the exist- and S’Illot des Porros (Subirà & Malgosa 1992b), while ence of important endogamy at the level of mitochondrial an increased vegetal or cereal food intake by females in DNA, which could indicate a closed and isolated population comparison to males is hypothesized in Son Real (Jarošová (Simon et al., 2016). et al. 2006). Son Mercer de Baix (SMB) is an open-air settlement The Cova des Pas (CdP) is one of the most important located on the edge of the Fideu ravine (Ferreries, Min- prehistoric sites in Minorca and the Balearic archipelago orca Island). It is, possibly, one of the most emblematic (Fig. 1). During its excavation, a unique collection of burials naviform villages in the Balearic Islands, due to the state was recovered. Although other massive contemporaneous of conservation of its Naviform I, or “Cova des Moro” burial deposits have been documented up today in this area (Fig. 3). The village is composed of, at least, 4 naviform (e.g., Son Olivaret, Cova des Càrritx), this deposit allows structures (boat-shaped houses with cyclopean walls) and the major representation of complete individuals (Malgosa 2 other rectangular rooms connected to them (rooms 1 and et al. 2011). The possibility to study each individual as a 2). It was initially excavated by Mª Lluïsa Serra Belabre in whole allowed performing a variety of different diet studies, 1962 (Naviform II) and later in the 1980s by Cristina Rita such as dental or boning analysis, and comparing between and Lluís Plantalamor (Naviforms III, IV, and the connected them. Furthermore, all the paleoanthropological informa- rooms) (Plantalamor & Rita 1983; Rita 1982, 1987, Rita and tion available from previous studies (Fullola et al. 2008; Topp 1988). Finally, in 2001, conservation and consolida- Armentano et al. 2010; Van Strydonck et al. 2010; Malgosa tion actions were performed at Naviform I, including the et al. 2011; Cañas Cortés 2012; Simón et al. 2016) permits excavation of some exterior areas. Most of those materials 13 Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2023) 15:11 Page 3 of 16 11 Fig. 1  a Map showing location of Cova des Pas (CdP) and Son Mercer de Baix (SMB) sites in the Minorca Island, Balearic Islands, and Mediterranean Sea. b The 15-m-high entrance (arrow) to the Cova des Pas (CdP) in the Trebalúger ravine in Minorca Island (Balearic Islands, Spain). Picture from Prats-Muñoz et al. (2012) and archaeological contexts are still unpublished, although the naviform buildings but also by several archaeological recently, some research related to their naviform structures materials, including typical Naviform ceramic and metallic or metallurgical remains have been started (Garcia Amen- assemblages (globular bowls, truncated conical cups, quad- gual 2006; Sureda 2022). rangular chisel, riveted knife, bronze bracelet, or various Balearic Naviform villages are known to have a large crucibles). occupation sequence that could last several centuries as Furthermore, a specific Late Bronze Age/Early Iron the cases of Closos de Can Gaià (Majorca) (Servera 2005) Age (ca. 1200/1100–800 cal BC) occupation phase can or Cap de Barbaria II (Formentera) (Sureda et al. 2017b). be inferred in the site, re-using some of the old buildings SMB presents a first Bronze Age (Early Naviform) occu- (Naviforms II, III, IV, rooms 1 and 2) and generating new pation phase (ca. 1600–1200/1100 cal BC), represented by archaeological features and sedimentary deposits, especially 13 11 Page 4 of 16 Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2023) 15:11 Fig. 2  The total set of individuals buried in Cova des Pas (CdP) (image re-drawn from Cabanes and Albert 2011) represented by the presence ceramic sets of large barrels and site in order to interpret the isotopic data retrieved from the large pots composed by globular shape and flat base, known anthropological collection from CdP. Due to the absence of to be “index fossils” for Balearic LBA (Guerrero, 2008). reliable chronological data from SMB, we also present here Besides, other Minorcan naviforms such as Cala Morell or two new radiocarbon data to assure the chronological utility Son Blanc have provided similar archaeological contexts of CdP and SMB selected samples. with radiocarbon dates (ca. 1200–900 cal BC) associated The results of all the previous studies carried out on this with this set of materials (see SI Table 1). site, providing information on the population groups (i.e., The faunal remains that were found at SMB include age, sex, funeral rite, deposit, health status), render this Ovis sp., Capra sp., and a considerable number of Sus sp. study exceptional and allow much deeper project research. No signs of agriculture were initially detected (Fernán- In addition, isotopic values of faunal remains were also ana- dez Miranda, 1997), but this should be reconsidered as lyzed to provide baseline values of the local trophic food several grinding stones were recovered from the site, today chain and to explore whether domesticated animals had hosted at the Museu de Menorca (Minorca, Balearic Islands; access to marine foods. Spain). The SMB represents an appropriate context to be used as an isotopic referent for CdP cave. It is the closest Stable isotopes and palaeodietary reconstruction contemporaneous site largely excavated in the area (less than 600 m distanced from the CdP and over 3 km from the sea), Carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen (δ15N) stable isotope ratio analy- and it represents a domestic habitat co-existing with the CdP ses of the bone collagen are the method most used for the funerary cave. reconstruction of dietary protein patterns in archaeological The present research aims to study the dietary pattern populations (Schoeninger 1995; Katzenberg 2000). of the prehistoric population buried in the CdP site, inves- Collagen isotopic values reflect the diet of the last tigating the type of protein contribution to the diet and the 10 years, approximately, before the death of the organism degree of exploitation of marine resources for human con- being studied. This is because in every living organism, the sumption, as well as the potential differences in access to bone tissue is continuously remodeled by the interaction of food resources among population groups (considering sex osteoblasts and osteoclasts, cells responsible for this process and age of sampled individuals). For this purpose, direct (Hedges et al. 2007). For the biochemical reconstitution of information will be obtained from the isotopic composition the human diet, carbon and nitrogen stable isotopes are the of the major number of individuals by measuring the iso- most used isotopic markers (Katzenberg 2000). The basic topic signal of carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen (δ15N) on the principle of these approaches is that “we are what we eat” skeletal remains. At the same time, this study will investigate (Kohn 1999); that is, the basic units that make up all body a corpus of faunal remains recovered from the SMB open-air tissues of any animal, including bones, come from the foods 13 Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2023) 15:11 Page 5 of 16 11 Fig. 3  Son Mercer de Baix and its landscape: a SMB navi- forms and associated structures distribution (modified from Plantalamor and Rita 1983). b, d, and e Different views of the “Cova del Moro” Naviform in SMB. c General view of fhe Fideu’s ravine where SMB is located they have ingested during their lifetime. Several experimen- (i.e., ­C3 and C ­ 4 plants) in human diet since the ranges of tal studies have shown that as an organism processes the their δ13C values do not overlap each other (Deines 1980; amino acids, it has consumed to create the protein it needs, Van der Merwe & Vogel 1978): ­C3 plants from temperate and a difference in the carbon isotope ratio between the die- and cold areas with values of about – 26.5‰ such as wheat, tary protein and collagen is created by ~ 4 to 5‰ from bulk and ­C4 plants from tropical, dry, or semi-dry regions with diet to collagen consumer (Ayliffe et al 2004; Ambrose & values around – 13 ± 2 ‰ such as millet (Vogel et al. 1978; Norr 1993; Schoeninger & DeNiro 1984) and ~ 1‰ from Winter 1981; Kohn 2010). Moreover, carbon isotopes can collagen diet to collagen consumer in a mono-isotopic diet also detect a diet based on terrestrial or marine foods with (Bocherens & Drucker 2003). However, the nitrogen iso- values approximately at − 20‰ and – 12 ± 1‰, respectively topic fractionation increases by ~ 3–5‰ for each trophic (Schwarcz & Schoeninger 1991; Richards & Hedges 1999). level (Minagawa & Wada 1984). Something similar occurs with the stable nitrogen isotopes. Stable carbon isotope values are able to distinguish the The δ15N composition of human bone can determine the presence of plants with different photosynthetic pathways trophic level position on the food chain, with the values 13 11 Page 6 of 16 Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2023) 15:11 Table 1  List of human Human sample Bone Sex Age (years) δ13C %C δ15N %N C:N specimens sampled for collagen analysis 1 Rib Female 25–35 − 19.5 36.2 9.7 13.0 3.3 6* Rib Female 6±1 − 22.2 8.7 9.4 2.3 4.3 2–5 Phalange Male 30–40 − 19.5 37.0 9.6 13.0 3.3 3 Phalange Female 30–40 − 19.6 39.1 10.1 13.9 3.3 4 Rib Male 15–16 − 19.8 30.3 8.7 10.9 3.3 8 Rib Male 45–50 − 19.5 36.0 9.3 12.9 3.2 9 Rib Female 12 ± 1 − 19.9 41.0 10.1 14.4 3.3 11 Rib Male 45–55 − 19.6 36.6 9.0 13.2 3.2 13 Rib Male 43–55 − 19.8 42.4 10.2 15.3 3.2 16–17 Rib Male 16–17 − 19.8 39.3 8.4 14.3 3.2 18 Rib Female 50–60 − 19.6 40.1 9.4 14.6 3.2 20 Rib Male Indet − 19.4 35.4 9.3 12.9 3.2 23 Rib Male 35–38 − 19.6 39.7 9.4 14.5 3.2 24 Rib Male 12–13 − 20.1 28.1 8.3 10.2 3.2 25 Rib Indet 9–10 − 19.4 36.1 9.2 13.9 3.0 26* Rib Female 13 ± 1 − 26.2 1.0 -1.5 0.2 6.2 27 Rib Indet 10 ± 1 − 19.2 36.5 9.7 12.5 3.4 29 Rib Male 21–24 − 19.7 34.0 8.4 12.3 3.2 30 Rib Female 35–45 − 20.0 36.0 9.4 13.2 3.2 31 Rib Female 20–22 − 19.5 37.5 10.0 13.5 3.2 32 Rib Male 30–34 − 19.4 31.9 8.5 11.8 3.2 33* Cranium Female 24–29 − 21.8 11.8 8.4 4.0 3.4 34* Rib Female 30–40 − 22.8 11.7 6.9 4.2 3.3 36 Phalange Indet Indet − 20.1 39.6 10.0 13.8 3.3 37 Rib Indet 2 ± 8 months − 19.2 38.5 9.8 12.8 3.5 38 Rib Indet 1–5 − 19.6 40.9 10.0 14.7 3.2 39 Rib Indet 3 − 19.4 32.4 12.4 11.3 3.3 41 Rib Female 35–45 − 20.5 38.1 9.0 13.3 3.3 43 Rib Male 21–23 − 19.5 35.4 10.0 12.9 3.2 44 Rib Female 45–60 − 19.6 26.8 8.7 9.5 3.3 47 Rib Male 40–45 − 19.7 37.9 9.5 13.5 3.3 48 Rib Indet 7±1 − 19.3 37.8 8.7 13.5 3.3 49 Rib Indet 3–4 − 18.9 38.4 12.0 14.0 3.2 50* Rib Male 40–50 − 26.4 1.8 2.2 0.3 6.6 51 Rib Female 45–55 − 19.4 40.1 8.9 14.7 3.2 55* Rib Female 2 − 19.4 1.1 -1.9 0.2 5.1 57 Rib Indet 8±1 − 20.0 31.3 9.1 11.5 3.2 58* Fibula Female Indet − 28.1 2.0 2.7 0.9 2.5 59 Rib Female 40–50 − 20.0 30.6 9.2 11.2 3.2 60 Rib Indet 8±1 − 19.6 38.1 9.8 13.4 3.3 61 Rib Male 45–60 − 19.8 29.3 8.8 10.7 3.2 62 Rib Male 30–45 − 20.4 21.8 8.3 7.8 3.3 63 Rib Male Indet − 20.0 30.7 8.8 11.1 3.2 64* Cranium Indet 22–24 − 19.4 6.9 6.8 1.6 5.1 65 Rib Indet 1.5–2 − 19.8 39.3 11.4 15.1 3.0 66* Rib Indet 4–5 − 22.5 2.3 7.8 0.7 4.0 68 Rib Indet 22–24 − 20.3 28.3 9.0 10.4 3.2 69 Rib Female 12 ± 1 − 19.4 41.4 8.6 15.2 3.2 70 Phalange Indet 3±1 − 19.8 37.4 9.3 13.3 3.3 Type of bone, sex and age of sampled specimens, collagen carbon (%C) and nitrogen (%N) contents, col- lagen carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen (δ15N) isotope compositions, and collagen carbon:nitrogen atomic ratio (C:N). The samples that were excluded from further discussion due to their poor collagen preservation are presented with an asterisk 13 Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2023) 15:11 Page 7 of 16 11 increasing by 3–5‰ with each ascending step of the food or taking measurements for comparison. Ovis sp. and Capra chain (Bocherens & Drucker 2003; O'Connell et al. 2012). sp. samples were classified following osteological criteria in The local baseline background of the trophic food chain Boessneck (1980), Payne (1985), and Prummel and Frisch (faunal and floral remains) is required to build a more relia- (1986). The faunal set is compound of 33 samples (Table 2) ble interpretation of the nitrogen isotope values in the human and comprised samples of Caprinae (Capra hircus/Ovis diet (O'Connell et al. 2012). In the same time, carbon and aries) (n = 11), Bos Taurus (n = 5), Capra hircus (n = 6), nitrogen isotopic values in human and animal tissues could Ovis aries (n = 7), and Sus domesticus (n = 4). Further, also reflect environmental factors affecting the soil–plant two faunal samples recovered from room 1 in SMB were system at the base of the food chain, such as temperature, selected for radiocarbon dating and measured at the CNA- precipitation, aridity, salinity, soil composition, or manuring, CSIC research center (Spain). The first of these (SMB03) as well as physiologic and metabolic factors (Szpak 2014; corresponded to an upper Ovis sp./Capra sp. molar, while Reitsema 2013). the second (SMB06) was a second phalanx of Sus sp. Bone collagen extraction Materials and methods Sample preparation and collagen extractions were performed Sample preparation at the biomolecular laboratory at the Catalan Institute of Human Palaeoecology and Social Evolution (IPHES) held Cova des Pas (CdP) in Tarragona, Spain. The protocol has been developed in an innovative way in IPHES for remains of different chronology A total of 49 human specimens were measured by stable iso- and relative preservation of the organic fraction, from the tope analysis. The rest of the samples recovered from the site remains of the Middle Pleistocene (Ramírez-Pedraza et al. did not proceed to analysis due to the lack of enough yields 2019), Upper Pleistocene (González-Guarda et al. 2018) during the extraction procedure. Samples were selected con- to the Holocene times (Jordana et al. 2019). This protocol sidering previous paleoanthropological data from Armen- allows working with very small samples of bones while tano et al. (2010), Malgosa et al. (2011), and Simón et al. ensuring optimal extraction of fractions of collagen fibers, (2016) among others. For each specimen, age and sex were including those samples that by a diagenetic or fossilization provided from previous studies (Armentano et al. 2010; process preserve very little quantity. A small bone fragment Simón et al. 2016) (Table 1). The sampling procedure was of each specimen was mechanically cleaned using a Drem- carried out by careful selection of rib bone fragments for mel rotating tool equipped with a circular diamond-coated almost all individuals, except in five cases (samples 2–5, blade to remove all visible contaminants. Briefly, the bone 3, 33, 36, 58, 64, and 70) where rib bones were not avail- collagen was purified according to the acid–base-acid proto- able and then skull bone or phalanx or fibula was selected, col proposed by Longin (1971) and modified by Bocherens depending on the bone available for each specimen. Ribs et al. (1991). Bone shards (ca. 300 to 350 mg) were soaked have a relatively fast cortical turnover rate, depicting an indi- in 0.5 M HCl for demineralization, in NaOH (0.125 M) to vidual’s diet from a more recent period prior to death (Cox remove contaminants, rinsed with distilled water several & Sealy 1997; Fahy et al. 2017). times, and gelatinized with 0.01 M HCl at 100 °C for 17 h (pH 2). Once filtered after the gelatinization process and Son Mercer de Baix (SMB) frozen, samples were freeze-dried at the Institute of Chemi- cal Research in Catalonia (ICIQ). Gelatin-collagen samples Faunal samples for isotopic analyses belonged from rooms weighing about 300 μg were analyzed using a Thermo Flash 1 (level III) and 2 (sector 1, Capa 1) and UE 1008. These 1112 elemental analyzer (EA) coupled to a Thermo Delta archaeological contexts are stratigraphically linked to the V Advantage isotope ratio mass spectrometer (IRMS) with Late Bronze Age/Early Iron Age (ca. 1200/1100–800 cal a Conflo III interface, at the Institute of Environmental Sci- BC) occupation of the site. Before selection, faunal samples ence and Technology (ICTA), Universitat Autònoma de Bar- were identified and classified following zooarchaeological celona (Barcelona, Spain). The international standard labo- criteria. The osteological analysis focused on the study of ratory IAEA 600 (caffeine) was used as a control. Analytical the taxonomic and body part representation, age-at-death, precision was checked using the international standard labo- and potential pathologies observed in order to obtain as ratory IAEA 600 (caffeine), and the average analytical error much information as possible about these animals when was < 0.15‰ (1σ) calculated for each isotopic measurement, they were alive. Sex information was not possible to record δ13C and δ15N separately. The standard utilized for δ13C was due to the high fragmentation of the bones that prevented Vienna PeeDee Belemnite (V-PDB), and the standard used observing possible diagnostic traits (such as in the pelvis) for δ15N was air ­N2 (AIR). The isotope ratios are expressed 13 11 Page 8 of 16 Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2023) 15:11 Table 2  List of faunal Sample Bone Species identification Age (years) δ13C %C δ15N %N C:N specimens sampled for collagen analysis 32.2 Metacarpal Capra hircus/Ovis aries Sub-adult − 20.3 33.1 8.8 11.6 3.3 42.1 Radium Capra hircus/Ovis aries Sub-adult − 21.7 38.1 8.7 13.1 3.4 42.2 Humer Capra hircus/Ovis aries Sub-adult − 20.7 39.9 6.6 14.0 3.3 42.3 Metacarpal Capra hircus/Ovis aries Sub-adult − 20.8 36.9 7.0 13.1 3.3 42.4 Metatarsal Capra hircus/Ovis aries Sub-adult − 20.8 31.6 9.6 11.2 3.3 42.5 Calcaneus Capra hircus/Ovis aries Sub-adult -21.8 40.6 8.6 13.8 3.4 42.6 Metacarpal Capra hircus/Ovis aries Sub-adult − 21.2 29.7 8,0 10,5 3,3 42.7 Metacarpal Capra hircus/Ovis aries Sub-adult − 21.2 29.8 9.0 10.9 3.3 02.1 Femur Capra hircus/Ovis aries Sub-adult − 21.5 31.4 7.3 10.9 3.4 39.1 Metatarsal Capra hircus/Ovis aries Sub-adult − 19.7 40.3 7.0 13.8 3.4 43.4 First phalange Capra hircus/Ovis aries Sub-adult − 20.9 35.5 6.3 12.2 3.4 01.1 Metapodial Bos taurus Sub-adult − 20.7 31.6 7.1 11.7 3.2 41.1 Mandible Bos taurus Sub-adult − 21.4 37.2 6.9 13.3 3.3 41.2 Scapulae Bos taurus Sub-adult − 20.9 37.7 6.3 13.4 3.3 41.4 First phalange Bos taurus Adult − 21.1 36.8 5.9 13.2 3.3 41.5 Ulnae Bos taurus Adult − 21.6 36.0 5.7 12.9 3.3 37.1 Mandible Capra hircus Sub-adult − 19.1 37.2 5.4 13.1 3.3 43.1 Humer Capra hircus Adult − 19.4 39.4 6.5 13.6 3.4 43.7 Talus Capra hircus Adult − 20.0 31.2 5.3 10.7 3.4 43.8 Scapulae Capra hircus Adult − 19.7 31.1 6.2 11.4 3.2 39.2 Talus Capra hircus Adult − 19.8 31.4 7.3 10.9 3.4 43.6 Femur Capra hircus Adult − 19.2 41.7 6.7 14.6 3.3 32.1 Metacarpal Ovis aries Adult − 20.5 32.2 6.2 11.9 3.2 32.3 First phalange Ovis aries Adult − 20.7 42.1 6.0 14.6 3.4 39.5 Ulnae Ovis aries Adult − 20.7 30.1 6.6 10.2 3.4 39.3 Radium Ovis aries Adult − 21.0 36.9 6.6 12.7 3.4 39.4 Radium Ovis aries Adult − 20.7 32.3 6.5 11.6 3.3 43.2 Humer Ovis aries Adult − 21.0 36.5 6.5 13.0 3.3 43.5 Scapulae Ovis aries Sub-adult − 20.3 40.4 7.0 14.0 3.4 44.1 Ulnae Sus domesticus Sub-adult − 20.1 33.6 7.4 12.8 3.1 44.2 Metapodial Sus domesticus Adult − 20.2 32.1 6.4 11.5 3.3 44.3 Lateral metapod Sus domesticus Sub-adult − 19.6 38.6 7.5 13.5 3.3 44.5 Second phalange Sus domesticus Sub-adult − 20.7 33.3 6.0 11.8 3.3 Type of bone, species identification, age of sampled specimens, collagen carbon (%C) and nitrogen (%N) contents, collagen carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen (δ15N) isotope compositions, and collagen carbon:nitrogen atomic ratio (C:N) (Pr = probably) for carbon as δ13C vs. Vienna Pee Dee Belemnite (V-PDB) distribution. As for the age, the samples were grouped as two and for nitrogen as δ15N vs. atmospheric nitrogen (AIR): δ different subcategories, one including the individuals over χ¼ ­(Rsample/Rstandard−1) × 1000‰, where χ stands for 13C or 13 years old and the other those with age under 13 years old. 15 N and R stands for 13C/12C or 15 N/14 N. The reliability of the isotopic signatures of the collagen extracts was addressed using several criteria (yield of extraction ≥ 10 mg·g−1, per- Selection of radiocarbon dates from Son Mercer de centages of C ≥ 30% and N ≥ 10%, and the atomic C/N ratio Baix 2.9 < C/N > 3.6). When evaluating the differences in the stable iso- Two faunal samples from Son Mercer de Baix were selected tope results between samples, statistical significance was for radiocarbon dating. These samples proceed from room 1 tested using the T test and the ANOVA and MANCOVA and level 4, collected during the 1978 excavation campaign. tests, setting the significance p value < 0.05. Nonparamet- It is expected that these samples correspond to the oldest ric tests were used when the data did not follow a normal archaeological context documented in this area. 13 Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2023) 15:11 Page 9 of 16 11 Results Faunal isotope results Radiocarbon dates from Son Mercer de Baix The faunal stable isotope data are provided in Table 2. The mean of carbon and nitrogen faunal isotope values From the results of both dates, it can be proposed that room I are − 20.6 ± 0.72‰ and 6.9 ± 1.05‰, respectively. The of SMB was in use, at least, between 1643 and 1412 cal BC mean results per species are the following: Capra sp. (Table 3). In the same way, it is interesting to note that the δ 13C =  − 19.5 ± 0.36‰ and δ15N = 6.23 ± 0.77‰, Ovis construction of rooms I and II as well as that of the Naviform sp. δ 13 C =  − 20.7 ± 0.25‰ and δ 15 N = 6.5 ± 0.32‰, IV, to which they have adhered, would necessarily be prior Caprinae δ 13C =  − 21 ± 0.62‰ and δ 15N = 7.9 ± 1.11‰, to 1504 cal BC and its abandonment, necessarily posterior B o s s p . δ 1 3 C =    − 2 1 . 1 ± 0 . 3 7 ‰ a n d δ 1 5 N to 1514 cal BC. Also, these dates define a terminus post 6.4 ± 0.61‰, and Sus sp. δ 13 C =  − 20.1 ± 0.45‰ and quem for all the selected fauna remains which are necessarily δ 15N = 6.8 ± 0.74‰. There were statistically significant younger than those levels. differences between faunal and human isotopic values for both isotopic signals (δ 13C: ANOVA test: F = 49.2; Collagen preservation p < 0.001; δ 15 N: Kruskal–Wallis: x 2 = 44, p < 0.001). Capra sp. seem to differ significantly from other ani- The results of the stable isotopes and collagen quality indi- mal categories in δ 13 C isotopic values (ANOVA test: cators are reported in Tables 1 and 2. In the faunal samples, F = 28.8; p < 0.001), while no differences in δ15N val- yields were ranging from 25 to 159 mg/g. In the human ues were observed (Kruskal–Wallis: x 2 = 20.3; p = 0.09). samples, all the selected bones yielded collagen which was Some juvenile Caprinae (samples 32.2, 42.1, 42.4, 42.5, ranging from 6 to 169 mg/g. Five samples 5 (24, 44, 61, 62, 42.6, 42.7) showed significant differences in both δ 13C and 68) show slightly low C or N% values lower than these and δ 15N isotopic values in relation to the adult animal limits but showed C:N ratios ranging within the interna- samples (ANOVA test: δ 13C: F = 5.67; p = 0.02; δ 15N: tionally accepted limits and were considered for discussion. F = 76.0; p < 0.001). However, nine samples (6, 26, 33, 34, 50, 55, 58, 64, and 66) presented both C and N contents, and C:N ratios out of Human isotope results the accepted limits were discarded for final interpretation. Excluding these nine samples, the mean carbon and nitro- Results from the isotope analysis of bone collagen from gen contents (%C and %N) of the bone collagen extracts human specimens are presented in Table 4. The mean of were 35.7 ± 4.64% and 12.8 ± 1.68%, respectively. The carbon and nitrogen isotope values are − 19.7 ± 0.34‰ and mean atomic C:N ratio of samples used for interpretation is 9.5 ± 0.91‰, respectively. The carbon isotope results range 3.2 ± 0.09. These results are indicative of collagen suitable from − 20.5 to − 18.9‰, while those of nitrogen isotope for isotopic analysis supporting markers of good collagen range from 8.3 to 12.4‰. preservation (DeNiro 1985; Ambrose 1990). The δ13C and δ15N data for adult sample are plotted in Fig. 4. 95CIs and mean values are presented in Fig. 5, where sexes do not show statistically significant differences. Con- sidering both isotopic signals separately, as well as, jointly, Table 3  Results of radiocarbon dating of samples of Son Mercer de there were not significant differences between sexes in both Baix cases (δ13C: T test: 0.228; p = 0.822; δ15N: T test: 1.306; ID ID lab BP CAL 2σ d13C C:N p = 0.205; and MANCOVA test: Wilks’ Lambda = 0.903, p = 0.342). SMB03 CNA4965 3300±30 1643–1504 − 16.42 3.2 The δ13C and δ15N data for all samples between differ- SMB06 CNA4966 3190±30 1514–1412 − 18.16 3.2 ent age categories are plotted in Fig. 6. The differences The results were calibrated with OxCal 4.4 software (Bronk Ramsey between the three subcategories (16 to 25 years old, 25 2009) and curve IntCal20 (Reimer et al. 2020) to 45 years old, and over 45 years old) for the individuals Table 4  Statistical summary of the δ13C and δ15N data according to sex of the adult sampled specimens Males Females All adults N Mean SD Min/Max N Mean SD Min/Max N Mean SD Min/Max δ13C(‰) 15 − 19.7 0.26 − 20.4/ − 19.4 9 − 19.7 0.35 − 20.5/ − 19.4 26 − 19.8 0.31 − 20.5/ − 19.4 δ15N(‰) 15 9.1 0.6 8.3/10.2 9 9.4 0.5 8.7/10.1 26 9.2 0.57 8.3/10.2 13 11 Page 10 of 16 Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2023) 15:11 Discussion The local faunal baseline The isotopic analysis of faunal samples offers a more reli- able interpretation of the human isotopic values. In this study, considering the mean and ranging δ 13C values (− 20.6 ± 0.72‰; max − 19.1, min − 21.8‰) of all faunal samples, it can be demonstrating a livestock diet based on ­C3 plants. However, it is noteworthy the enrichment of the carbon isotope values of Capra sp. (samples 37.1, 43.1, 43.7, 43.8, 39.2, 43.6). This could be explained by the broad range of variation in C ­ 3 plants, since this plant group includes most of the species known, nearly all trees, herbs, and cold climate grasses. Further, C ­ 3 plants can also vary due to a wide range of environmental effects like radiation, water availability, soil nutrients, temperature, or salinity, among others (O'Leary, 1995; Farquhar et al. 1989; Tieszen and Boutton 1989; Ehleringer and Monson 1993; Heaton, 1999), Fig. 4  Scatter plot of δ13C and δ15N of adult human samples from and plants adapted to dry environments tend to show greater CdP between sexes. Blue symbols represent the male samples and water use efficiency (hence, higher δ13C). red symbols the female samples, while green circles the samples with δ15N values in faunal adult samples provided a mean indeterminate sex value of 6.5 ± 0.60‰ and maximum and minimum values of 7.5‰ and 5.3‰, respectively. However, it is interesting the over 13 years old were not statistically significant in both fact that juvenile Caprinae (samples 32.2, 42.1, 42.4, 42.5, δ13C and δ15N (δ13C: Kruskal–Wallis: x2 = 0.25; p = 0.880; 42.6, 42.7) show high values (max. value 9.6‰). Consider- δ15N: ANOVA test: F = 0.195; p = 0.825) (Fig. 7). ing their low δ13C value (from − 20.3 to − 21.8), the values The δ 15 N results show that three out of six speci- of these specimens could be explained by the breastfeeding mens (39, 49, and 65), classified in the age category effect. Moreover, some subadult animal specimens (sam- under 4 years old, present high values (12.4‰, 12‰, ples 2.1, 39.1, 1.1, 41.1, 43.5, 44.1, and 44.3) show slightly and 11.4‰, respectively). This observation is shown in enriched δ15N values (7.1‰, 7‰, 7.1‰, 6.9‰, 7.1‰, 7‰, Fig. 8, where δ 15N values are distributed only for indi- 7.4‰, and 7.5‰, respectively) in relation to the adult sam- viduals under 13 years old. In this case, the graph shows ples. These values could indicate the weaning effect and that young specimens under 4 years old have high δ15N the introduction to the adult diet. However, their difference signatures and that this value is decreasing on sampled is not statistically significant and strong enough to make a specimens between 0 and 13 years old. powerful conclusion (Kruskal–Wallis: x2 = 3.51; p = 0.06). Fig. 5  Mean and 95CIs of δ13C (left) and δ15N (right) by sex of human samples from CdP (δ13C: T test: 0.228; p = 0.822; δ.15 N: T test: 1.306; p = 0.205) 13 Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2023) 15:11 Page 11 of 16 11 These values in the case of the samples 32, 48, 51, and 69 (− 19.4‰, 19.3‰, 19.4‰, and − 19.4‰ respec- tively), accompanied by low δ 15N values (8.5‰, 8.7‰, 8.9‰, and 8.6‰ respectively) not expected in marine ecosystems, could suggest a minor proportion of C ­4 plants in the diet of those specimens, although current uncertainties on bulk collagen isotope must be taken into account. Because C ­ 4 plants are naturally scarce or absent in Minorca Island today and in the past (Mateu, 1993; Pyankov et al 2010), a simple explanation will suggest consumption of domestic C ­ 4 plants on the diet of Talayotic individuals buried in the CdP site. Millet is the early C ­ 4 plant introduced in the Iberian Peninsula, but its introduction on the human diet during the Middle and Late Bronze Age is still an open debate (see López- Costas et al. 2015, for instance), and its introduction in the Balearic Islands is only suggested for the Naviform period in Formentera (Sureda et al. 2017a), while its presence in the other islands is still unknown. Fig. 6  Scatter plot of δ13C and δ15N of all human samples from CdP Alternatively, some of these enriched δ13C values (e.g., between different age categories sample 27; − 19.2‰) could be the consequence of another carbon source diet. Indeed, these adult specimens like 3, Human dietary reconstruction 8, 18, and 25 show also higher δ15N values in collagen (≥ 10‰), potentially revealing the influence of marine The isotopic results of the human samples from the CdP site food products on their diet. indicate a main diet based on terrestrial resources. Consid- At this point, it must be stressed that previous δ13C and 15 ering data from faunal remains, the mean δ13C value of the δ N analyses (Van Strydonck et al. 2005) clearly indicated bone collagen in adult samples (− 19.7‰ ± 0.31‰) fits well that the diet in the Balearic Islands during the prehistory with a consumption mainly based on ­C3 plants compounds was not predominantly based on marine resources. This in their diet, while the mean δ15N value (9.2‰ ± 0.57‰) lack of a clear evidence of consumption of marine foods will suggest a significant contribution of animal protein in has also observed in other studies from Majorca (Davis the human diet (e.g., Lanting and van der Plicht 1996a, b). 2002; Garcia et al. 2004) and the Mediterranean region in Interestingly, some of the δ13C results obtained from bone general (Craig et al. 2006), all of them during prehistoric adult samples, like in the case of samples 20, 25, 27, 32, times, although that does not mean that human groups did 37, 39, 48, 51, and 69, representing the 34% of the samples not consume a small amount of it, undetectable by current tested, show slightly enriched values (≥ − 19.4‰). bulk collagen isotope analysis. Fig. 7  Mean and 95CIs of δ13C (left) and δ15N (right) by age subcategories for the human individuals over 13 years old. δ13C: Kruskal–Wallis: x2 = 0.25; p = 0.880; δ.15 N: ANOVA test: F = 0.195; p = 0.825 13 11 Page 12 of 16 Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2023) 15:11 14 p < 0.001; δ15N: F = 3.34; p = 0.002), where CdP samples tend to show higher δ15N but lower δ13C values than the 12 majority of the other sites. It is interesting the fact that CdP shows considerably lower values than those obtained in the 10 two human samples from the close Ses Arenes site from δ15 N (‰) Minorca (Fig. 10). Unfortunately, although the number of 8 sites is important to elaborate this comparison, the limited number of samples per site and the quality of the information 6 provided for each sample (i.e., unknown data about sex and age of specimens sampled) make it difficult to reach more 4 deep interpretations. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 The age information about the samples of Son Blanc and Age (years) Binipati Nou is unknown (Van Strydonck et al. 2005), but taking into account that they show the same high δ15N val- Fig. 8  Plot of δ15N values measured on human samples from CdP ues as the infant samples of CdP, and it can be assumed against age of samples aged less than 13 years old. Dotted lines show that they share the same range of age. Otherwise, it could maximum, mean, and minimum δ15N values measured on adult indi- viduals from CdP indicate the consumption of an unknown terrestrial dietary item or a diet containing juvenile animals not fully weaned and thus N-enriched (Jay & Richards 2006). Other socioeconomic glints of light Differences on diet between males and females are not sta- tistically significant, the fact that does not allow concluding for variation between sexes in the access to food. The scat- ter plot in Fig. 4 confirms that males and females up to date measured share close values in both δ13C and δ15N results. These results agree with those of previous studies in differ- ent sites of Minorca such as the Cova des Cárritx (Pérez- Pérez et al. 1999) or the Binipati, Es Tudons, and southern Rafal Rubí (Van Strydonck et al. 2002). This can be explained by the general trend that the Navi- form and Talayotic societies—both in Majorca and Minorca Islands—consisted of egalitarian communities (e.g., Gasull et al. 1984; Lull et al. 1999) with no sign point the existence of a hierarchical society or constituted by units of population Fig. 9  Scatter plot of δ13C and δ.15 N of human samples from CdP differentiated within a settlement by its social function or its (1100–800 BC) and faunal samples from Son Mercer de Baix of Min- economic resources (Fernández-Miranda 1991). orca Island (1400–1000 BC) However, Anglada et al. (2014) proposed that some of the human communities that inhabited Minorca between the Comparing the adult samples of the CdP with other con- late 2nd and early 1st millennium cal BC were immersed in temporaneous samples (1100–800 BC) (Fig. 9) from Min- an incipient process of increasing complexity and maybe orca and Majorca Islands (Fig. 10), it can be observed that social inequality, suggesting that a kind of an elite group the samples from the CdP share, basically, the same mixed was connected to the control of storage and redistribution of diet of animal products and vegetables as the other contem- agricultural products. This seems not to relate to the popula- poraneous sites (Van Strydonck et al. 2005) (data about sam- tion of the CdP, since differences in the access to food do ples used is provided in Table C1 of SI). not appear to exist either between sexes or the different age However, considering both isotopic signals jointly, differ- categories. Paleodemographic and taphonomical studies of ences between the different sites were statistically significant the CdP indicating the same life expectancy and burial treat- (MANCOVA test: Lambda de Wilks = 0.331, p < 0.001). ment between sexes (Armentano et al. 2010; 2012) confirm When evaluating the values of δ13C and δ15N separately, it this social equality. seems that these differences are statistically significant for The nitrogen isotopic signal of the infant samples #37 both δ13C and δ15N values (ANOVA test: δ13C: F = 4.57; (2 years ± 8 months old), #38 (1.5 years old), #39 (3 years 13 Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2023) 15:11 Page 13 of 16 11 Fig. 10  Scatter plot of the mean values of δ13C and δ15N of different sites of Minorca and Majorca Islands during Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age periods (1100–800 BC) (Van Strydonck et al. 2005). Τhe analysis was performed between 11 different sites (Table 1 of Supplementary Information) and comprised samples from Cova des Pas (n = 40), Binipati Nou (n = 1), Rafal Rubí (n = 6), Son Blanc (n = 1), Cala Morell (n = 1), Cova Gregoria B (n = 1), Es Tudons (n = 1), Ses Arenes (n = 2), Ses Aritges (n = 5), Ses Roques Llises (n = 4), and Alcaïdus (n = 2). The appropri- ate bars for standard deviation have also been included old), #49 (3–4 years old), and #65 (1,5–2 years old), 9.8‰, δ15N values of infants up to 4 years were high, indicating 10‰, 12.4‰, 12‰, and 11.4‰, respectively, was highly the enriched isotopic signature of breast milk, while it is indicating the enriched isotopic signature of breast milk hypothesized that weaning occurred around this age in (see again Fig. 8). Fogel et al. (1989), attempting to evalu- this population. Differences between males and females ate nursing and weaning, demonstrated that infants feed- were not statistically significant, assuming that both men ing on mothers’ milk exhibit enrichment δ15N values and a and women had the same access to food. The same pat- decrease to levels similar to those of mothers shortly after tern seems to occur between the age subcategories. The breastfeeding stopped. Taking into account that samples #25 paleodietary data obtained here is important in broadening (9–10 years old), #48 (7 ± 1 years old), and #57 (8 ± 1 years the debate on the emergence and development of com- old) do not follow the same pattern as #37, #38, #39, #49, plex societies in the Balearic archipelago, providing direct and #65, and it can be assumed that breastfeeding was occur- information about the way how these societies managed ring until around the age of 4 years, at least. A major number diet habits and how insularity conditions affected the way of samples are required to investigate this point to exclude they were socially organized. other reasons for these values, such as potentially ill or mal- nourished infants whose isotope values could have been Supplementary Information The online version contains supplemen- tary material available at https://​doi.o​ rg/​10.​1007/s​ 12520-​022-0​ 1707-y. influenced by metabolic processes or not enough isotopic information from infants under and above the age of 4 years Acknowledgements This study was supported by the Institut Menorquí old. However, these data could add some light on the dura- d’Estudis (IME) from the Consell Insular de Menorca (Balearic Islands, tion of the breastfeeding period and weaning process of the Spain) through a research grants called “Estudi isotòpic del sepulcre funerari de la Cova des Pas: reconstrucció del patró d’alimentació prehistoric population of the Cova des Pas. de Menorca fa 3000 anys” led by CT, AM, and TS and “La produc- ció metal·lúrgica menorquina en època Naviforme. Una aproximació arqueometal·lúrgica” led by PS. A preliminary version of this study was Conclusions presented as Final Project of TS at the Master in Biological Anthropol- ogy (Autonomous University of Barcelona, Spain). Research at IPHES is framed in the CERCA program. This research was supported by The foregoing analysis uses the stable isotope of carbon the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation through the “María (δ 13C) and nitrogen (δ15N) in order to make inferences de Maeztu” excellence accreditation (CEX2019-000945-M). CT was about the diet pattern of the individuals buried in CdP site. supported by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation through the “Ramon y Cajal” program (RYC2020-029404-I). AM and XJ The isotopic data from human samples show a human diet are members of the GREAB supported by Generalitat de Catalunya based largely on C­ 3 plants with an important contribution (Ref. 2017 SGR 1630). PS was supported by the Xunta de Galicia- of meat revealing a mixed diet of plants and animals. The GAIN (IN606C-2021/002) and the Spanish Ministry of Science and 13 11 Page 14 of 16 Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2023) 15:11 Innovation through the “Juan de la Cierva-Incorporación” programme Bocherens H, Drucker D (2003) Trophic level isotopic enrichment of (IJC2020-042714-I/ AEI/https://d​ oi.o​ rg/1​ 0.1​ 3039/5​ 01100​ 01103​ 3). We carbon and nitrogen in bone collagen: case studies from recent and want to thank Damià Ramis for providing some of the SMB pictures. ancient terrestrial ecosystems. Int J Osteoarchaeol 13(1–2):46–53 Bocherens H et al (1991) Isotopic Biogeochemistry (δ13C, δ15N) of Funding Open Access Funding provided by Universitat Autonoma de fossil vertebrate collagen: implications for the study of fossil food Barcelona. web including Neandertal man. 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