TYPE Original Research PUBLISHED 09 October 2023 DOI 10.3389/ffgc.2023.1181013 “Forest is integral to life”: OPEN ACCESS people-forest relations in the lower river region, the Gambia EDITED BY Xiangping Hu, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Norway REVIEWED BY Sarata Darboe 1, Lamin Manneh 2, Nataliya Stryamets 3,4, Paula Meli, Baiba Prūse 1,5, Andrea Pieroni 6,7, Renata Sõukand 1* and Universidad de Concepción, Chile David Mwesigye Tumusiime, Giulia Mattalia 1,8,9 Makerere University, Uganda 1 Department of Environmental Sciences, Informatics and Statistics, Ca' Foscari University of Venice, *CORRESPONDENCE Venice, Italy, 2 Department of Parks and Wildlife Management, Dumbuto, Gambia, 3 Faculty of Forest Renata Sõukand Sciences, School for Forest Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Skinnskatteberg, renata.soukand@unive.it Sweden, 4 Nature Reserve “Roztochya”, Ivano-Frankove, Ukraine, 5 Athena Institut, Vrije Universteit RECEIVED 06 March 2023 Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands, 6 University of Gastronomic Sciences, Pollenzo, Italy, 7 Tishk ACCEPTED 11 September 2023 International University, Erbil, Iraq, 8 Institut de Ciència i Tecnologia Ambientals, Autonomous University PUBLISHED 09 October 2023 of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain, 9 New York Botanical Garden, New York, NY, United States CITATION Darboe S, Manneh L, Stryamets N, Prūse B, Introduction: Forests play a crucial role in the lives of millions of people Pieroni A, Sõukand R and Mattalia G (2023) “Forest is integral to life”: people-forest worldwide by providing material and non-material contributions. Despite forests’ relations in the lower river region, the Gambia. paramount importance from ecological, economic, and cultural perspectives, Front. For. Glob. Change 6:1181013. the long-term relationship between forests and local communities living in their doi: 10.3389/ffgc.2023.1181013 proximity is often an undervalued contribution to our understanding of local COPYRIGHT © 2023 Darboe, Manneh, Stryamets, Prūse, ecological knowledge systems and forest changes. Pieroni, Sõukand and Mattalia. This is an open- Methods: We studied the interrelationships between the Mandinka peoples and access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License forests in an understudied area of West Africa, the Gambia’s Lower River Region (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction (LRR). Through 35 semi-structured interviews, we documented the forests’ in other forums is permitted, provided the contributions to local Mandinka peoples and their perception of forest changes. original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in We also used geographic information systems (GIS software) for remote sensing this journal is cited, in accordance with satellite imagery to establish a baseline for these complex connections and accepted academic practice. No use, changes. distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms. Results: This research revealed the crucial importance of the forest’s contributions to Mandinka communities and specifically to their psychological well-being. In addition, the interviewees revealed how ongoing socio-economic changes are affecting the human-forest relationship and possibly eroding the local ethnoforestry knowledge in the LRR of the Gambia. The most common forest contributions are those that provide material goods, serving as the driving force in connecting people with the forest, while non-material contributions are eroding due to complex socio-economic changes. Major socio-economic changes are also believed to drive the shift from dense forest to mixed forest and grassland. Discussion: In line with the state of the art, the knowledge and perception of changes documented in this article underline the quintessential need to include local communities’ views in shaping forest management, in order to better fine- tune the strategies to safeguard biocultural diversity across forest areas. KEYWORDS community forest management, ethnobiology, ethnoforestry, IPLC, nature contributions to people, West Africa Frontiers in Forests and Global Change 01 frontiersin.org Darboe et al. 10.3389/ffgc.2023.1181013 1. Introduction between people and forest, has been partially studied in other regions of the Gambia. For instance, Symington (2015) found that social Forest ecosystems are among Earth’s most important biodiversity system changes have altered various forest management practices hotspots (Kaltenborn et al., 2020). They play a fundamental role in the based on local knowledge in the Gambian West Coast Region. In the lives of people with material (e.g., food), non-material (e.g., supporting same region, Tomaselli et al. (2012) found that the Gambian Forestry identities), and regulating contributions (e.g., regulation of climate) Department generally supports communities in forest management, (Díaz et al., 2018; Kaltenborn et al., 2020). Worldwide, approximately yet various challenges (e.g., illegal activities) still have an impact. 350 million people live inside or close to dense forests, and they largely Nevertheless, only one document, an FAO report by Thoma and depend on these forests for subsistence and income (Chao, 2012; Htun Camara (2005), analyzed the relationship of local communities with et al., 2017). However, in several geographical contexts, the growing their forests in the Lower River Region. Therefore, this study focuses urbanization rate and development, namely land use change for on the interconnection between forests and the local communities of agriculture, and buildings for human settlements have weakened the the LRR of the Gambia. connection between the forest and the people (Nuissl and Siedentop, To this end, we: 2021). Nevertheless, traditional forestry knowledge, practices, and beliefs (also named ethnoforestry) have been used by indigenous • Identified the forest’s contributions to LRR communities and the people and local communities with customary rights to their forests frequency of visits to the forest by LRR community members. to manage and preserve the ecosystems for generations (Chao, 2012; • Analyzed the changes in the forest through the perception of LRR Ritter and Dauksta, 2013; Kaltenborn et al., 2020). The diverse roles communities and QGIS geographical maps. that forests have played in human societies and continue to play • Provide insight into the importance of participatory forest demonstrate the cruciality of the relationship between humans and management by the local communities. forests (Ritter and Dauksta, 2013). Many people’s identities and indigenous cultures are shaped by their interactions with the In presenting our results, we rely heavily on our interviewees landscape, including forests (Russell et al., 2013; Ryfield et al., 2019). through extensive citations. We did this to allow the Mandinka Nevertheless, the relationship between local communities and the people’s voices to be explicitly heard and thus go beyond the validation forest is dynamic and dependent on several ecological, economic, of their contributions. cultural, and socio-political factors (Huynh et al., 2022). The impact of major ecological, economic, and socio-political factors on forests is especially evident in Africa, in terms of both their 2. Materials and methods ecological and economic contributions (FAO, 2020). Local communities in the forested areas of the continent rely primarily on 2.1. Study area food and raw materials, such as non-timber forest products, from the forests, combined with agriculture (Shackleton et al., 2007; Egoh et al., The Gambia is a small country in West Africa (Figure 1). It has a 2012). However, deforestation greatly reduces the connection between total land area of 11,300 sq. km that extends as a narrow land strip the people and the forest (FAO, 2020; Kouassi et al., 2021; Sze et al., roughly 748 km inland from the Atlantic Ocean and follows the 2022). According to the FAO forest resource assessment, Africa had meandering Gambia River. It has a population slightly above 2 million the highest annual rate of net forest loss in 2010–2020, at 3.9 million with a density of 432.04 person/km2 (Net, 2019). The Gambia is a ha (FAO, 2020). This makes forest-dependent communities vulnerable. low-income country due to its high rates of unemployment and Among the West African countries, the Gambia is the smallest and poverty, which are over 45 and 35%, respectively (GBoS, 2018; forests occupied 51.3% of its total land area in 1975 (USGS, 2013). Dampha, 2021). Currently, forest occupies 40% of the country’s total They provide fuel wood, food, construction material, tea/herbs, and land area and is vital in providing basic needs to Gambians (Bojang, medicinal plants for local communities (Nget et al., 2012). According 2020; FAO, 2020). The Gambia’s forest cover (including Savannah to the African Energy Commission, fuel wood, which is derived from woodland, tree and shrub Savannah, and mangroves) is crucial to the the nation’s forest resources and accounts for approximately 82% of country’s environmental and economic growth (Bojang, 2020). the biomass, is the Gambia’s main energy source (AFREC, 2020). However, the fast expansion of human populations, unmanaged Indeed, due to the expansion in urban areas and the intensification of bushfires and firewood collection, overgrazing, and expansion of the use of natural resources, scientists are observing a reduction in the farmland and human habitation are putting forest resources under generation of forest contributions to people, which affects agricultural serious threat and pressure (FAO, 2020). productivity and rural livelihoods in the Gambia (Nget et al., 2012). The LRR is located along the south bank of the river Gambia at Considering forest loss and degradation mainly driven by the the latitude of 13° 24′ N and longitude of −15° 42′ W. It is expansion of agricultural land and aggravated by the impacts of predominantly inhabited by the Mandinka and Fula tribes, although climate change, a large portion of the Gambia’s forest ecosystems are other minorities live within the region, such as the Manjakos, Wollofs, vulnerable or on the verge of extinction (LDN, 2018; National Forest Jolas, and Sereres. The analysis covers two sub-regions in the LRR, Action Plan, 2018). namely Kiang and Jarra. This rural setting covers an area of 1,495 sq. For this reason, we selected as a case study the Lower River km (13.2%) out of the 11,300 sq. km total land cover of the Gambia, Region (LRR), which is an area of the Gambia characterized by with a population of 82,361 (GBoS, 2018). The region’s land cover expanding agricultural areas and comprising degraded savannah consists of forest (66,500 hectares, 44.5% of the total land area of LRR), woodland with dense mangrove belts along the Gambia River (Nget settlements, grasslands, rivers, and tributaries. Since 1987, the study et al., 2012). Ethnoforestry, and more precisely, the relationship area has harbored the largest national park in the Gambia (Kiang West Frontiers in Forests and Global Change 02 frontiersin.org Darboe et al. 10.3389/ffgc.2023.1181013 FIGURE 1 A map of the study location and study site. Produced by Sarata Darboe with QGIS software. National Park), covering an area of 19,526 hectares (13.1% of the total reserves, which the Department of Parks and Wildlife land area of LRR) of land currently managed by the Department of Conservation oversees. Parks and Wildlife of the Gambia (Nag, 2019). The forest ecosystem in the LRR has many rare and endangered wildlife species that The population can use these forests only with specific permission. contribute to the country’s biodiversity, including the Nile crocodile Such limitation undermines the relationship between the people and (Crocodylus niloticus), clawless otter (Aonyx capensis), marsh the forest. Conversely, according to the national forestry law, mongoose (Antilax paludinosus), many plant species, leopards indigenous peoples and local communities manage the next two (Panthera pardus), and West African manatees (Trichechus typologies (namely community and private forests). senegalensis) (Jaiteh, 2008). 2. Community forests: These are communally owned and maintained forests that provide 2.2. Forest governance in the Gambia fundamental needs such as fuel, food, medicine, the production of forest wood, grazing, shelter, and maintenance. Internationally, The Gambian forests are classified into three main categories, of community forests are managed under governance frameworks in which one, community forests, is the focus of our study (Gambia which communities participate fully or partially in decision-making Forest Act, 1998). and provide effort and expertise to maintain healthy forests and promote social well-being (Danks and Fortmann, 2004). 1. State forests (exclusively managed by the State) which include: 3. Private forests: • Forest parks: These are forests that the Gambia’s Department of These are forests that are grown or planted on privately owned or Forestry manages. Parks are used for producing goods, protecting leased property that follows applicable land regulations and whose endangered wildlife and flora species, training forestry workers, management is regulated. This includes private natural forests and and research. They are under the Department of Parks and private plantations. Wildlife Conservation. Community forests and private forests can be used to determine • Forest reserve: any forest under the control of the Forestry human-forest relations in the Gambia because of their accessibility Department, except for those in national parks and nature and management by local people. Rural people in the Gambia were Frontiers in Forests and Global Change 03 frontiersin.org Darboe et al. 10.3389/ffgc.2023.1181013 formerly restricted from accessing specific forest resources because of boundaries (see Gambia Forest Act, 1998; National Forest Action rigid forest regulations, which made it difficult for them to actively Plan, 2018). preserve and manage what was once referred to as “their forests” (Sonko and Camera, 2000). However, in the early 1990s, community forests were established and conceived as a partnership between the 2.3. Data collection and analysis government and local people at the community level (Heß et al., 2018). Approximately 350 communities established a forest management We collected primary and secondary data through semi- system in the Gambia from 1995 to 2017 (Heß et al., 2018). This structured interviews and GIS layers from remote sensing data. management initiative is called participatory forestry, targeting local people for sustainable forest management to improve livelihoods 2.3.1. Primary data through sustainable utilization of forest products and services In total, 30 semi-structured in-depth interviews were conducted (Jammeh, 2008). Despite the introduction of participatory forest in August with local people in the Lower River Region of Gambia management to transfer 80% of the forest benefits to the community, based on their experience interacting with the forest in their the State remains the exclusive forest manager (Jammeh, 2008). environment. The number of interviews was decided based on the In the Gambian context, community forests are characterized by average number of interviews from several ethnobiological studies. a participatory method of forest management. A community Indeed, in-depth semi-structured interviews allow one to obtain deep designates a forest within its customary territory for official knowledge about the selected topic. They also enable the participants management by the forestry department and community members to bring additional insights previously unknown to the researchers (Jammeh, 2008). The land tenure system, established on customary (Gill et al., 2008). Interviewees were chosen from among those who law and acknowledging community land ownership, is vital to lived in four communities in the forest enclave, namely, Manduar, community forestry (Jammeh, 2008). Traditional use or ownership Bureng, Dumbuto, and Karantaba, as representatives of the LRR rights are complicated by the limitation of state laws, which, combined (Figure 1). We adopted a convenient selection based on interviewee with population increases, also lead to the unlawful exploitation of availability. Thus, 30 local people from the identified settlements forest resources (Sonko and Camera, 2000). The communities are provided information about biocultural diversity concerning the given the right to manage and use the forest and its resources, but the forest and their perspectives on forest functions and values. In management practices are within the framework of state forest laws addition, five officials of the Gambian Ministry of Forestry (rangers) (Table 1). and community forest heads contributed to knowledge through To support the Gambia’s sustainable forest management and separate semi-structured interviews about the management aspects development, a comprehensive National Forestry Strategy (2019– and role of forests in the lives of people at the community level in LRR 2028) was outlined based on social fairness, economic growth, income in the Gambia. We followed the International Society of Ethnobiology distribution, and environmental values (National Forest Action Plan, (ISE) code of ethics, which recognizes local peoples, their various 2018). This forest plan’s primary goals are to address climate change, cultures, and control over their lands and languages and links it with dryland and wetland conservation, land degradation, drought, and the environment which is directly connected to biological diversity degradation and conserve forest resources across countries’ (International Society of Ethnobiology, 2006). We gave utmost respect TABLE 1 Community forest management systems in the Gambia (Jammeh, 2008; National Forest Action Plan, 2018). Community forest Characteristics management types Community forestry • Aims to regulate local communities’ access to forest resources by transferring exclusive forest resource ownership rights from the government to the communities to enhance the local communities’ well-being by incorporating ecologically adapted natural resource management practices • The strategy intends to manage 75% or around 240,000 hectares of the state’s forest cover, with local communities maintaining an estimated 200,000 hectares Joint Park management • Aims to ensure sustainable management of forest resources while meeting the basic needs of rural communities: creating jobs, generating incomes, and improving people’s living conditions • Establishes a long-term leading role in monitoring and analyzing changes in the production, use, and trading of forest products and the resources and services provided by forests • The managing partner is granted long-term access rights to specific forest resources under the terms of the agreement. The management comprises more than 240 villages in the Gambia, predominantly in the Central River Region, and it encompasses 17,300 hectares or 53% of the existing forest park area Community-controlled state forest • Trains communities to manage designated forest areas and conserve their forests, empowering and involving communities Participatory forest management • Promotes sustainable forest management by actively involving the local communities in mitigating forest fires • Enhances livelihoods via the responsible use of forest goods and services • Preserves the genetic diversity of ecosystems of seed trees and populations of essential wood species • Responds to international treaties and conventions • Reduces the financial and technical burden on the State Frontiers in Forests and Global Change 04 frontiersin.org Darboe et al. 10.3389/ffgc.2023.1181013 to the culture, integrity, and morality of the community members, as, i.e., energy for cooking and fodder for livestock; building material, for self-determination, respondents were given the right to speak for e.g., tree branches for fencing poles and roofing; and medicinal themselves, which was acknowledged by asking open questions. remedies from the roots, leaves, and bark of trees. The forest as a food Finally, the first author is from the study area; thus, she has prior source for sustaining livelihoods appeared across several narratives. A knowledge about communities’ morals, cultures, social norms, and female interviewee stated: “The basic benefit I get from the forest is fluency in the language (Mandinka, [mnk]) in which the interview that it is my main energy source. We used tree branches for cooking, was conducted. and apart from our agricultural harvest, the forest serves as a second The interview questions were administered to the following age source of food for my family” (N24, female, 20–30 years old). Table 4 groups: 20–30, 31–40, and ≥41 (Table 2). The interviews were gives the main material contributions. conducted in the first language of most of the interviewees, Mandinka, which is widespread in the Gambia. The interviews were conducted in person and recorded with the help of Modou Manneh and Lamin 3.2. The non-material contributions of Manneh from the Department of Forestry in the Gambia. As they are forests to Mandinka communities and part of the community, their contribution to this research was well- psychological experiences in the forest received by the local people. The recorded interviews were translated from Mandinka to English. Mandinka is not a written language Forests provide essential non-material contributions that (Janson, 2013); thus, the authors recognize the uttermost value in support local identity and culture. According to our interviewees, presenting the interviewees’ voices. forests are a crucial element of the identity and cultural The 35 semi-structured interviews (Table 2 for further details) expressions of the Mandinka communities. For example, some were transcribed and translated for analysis. The answers to each specific trees have bark and leaves that are used to dress the question were separately organized and analyzed while keeping anonymity. In our analysis, we separated the 30 answers from the local TABLE 2 Socio-demographic description of interviewees. community members from those from the five rangers, which were only qualitatively discussed as they were assumed to have a different Descriptions Community Rangers attitude toward the forest. members participants 2.3.2. Field data analysis Gender Male 16 5 The translated narratives underwent content analysis. The subjects Female 14 0 covered by the interviewees were grouped intuitively, and Language Mother tongue 27 3 systematically, without the use of any specific software. The similar (Mandinka) Not mother tongue 3 2 answers were counted. (Wolof, Fula) 2.3.3. Secondary data Age groups 20–30 9 2 Geographic Information System (GIS) layers were obtained from 31–40 17 3 the Google Earth engine with remote sensing data from the Landsat 41 and above 4 0 3,7, and 8 satellites to generate land use and land cover imagery data Total number 35 30 5 for the LRR of the Gambia. The satellite image was extracted using of participants Google Earth. QGIS was used to process and visualize the projection from 1979 to 2021. Land use and land cover classifications (LULC) are classified into eight types (Table 3). These are rivers, wetlands, dense TABLE 3 Description of land use and land cover classification (LULC) (Dampha, 2021). forests, bare land, settlements, grassland/cultivated, mixed forests (trees and shrubs), and farmlands. The generated imagery from the Classes of LULC Description Landsat satellites was processed in GIS software. The area of different Rivers/wetlands Rivers, tributaries called “bolongs” in the Gambia, classes of LULC was estimated using automated statistic tools in QGIS wetlands, and ponds by multiplying the number of pixels of each LULC class by the pixel Dense forest Woodland savanna trees, with 50% or more canopy size used (30*30)/1,000,000 to obtain an area that was a further cover percentage. The percentage values of the LULC classes from 1979 were subtracted from 2021 to find the net loss or increase of each LULC type. Bare lands Agricultural lands that are barren, unpaved roads, beaches along the river, plain lands in transition zones between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, and 3. Results football fields Settlements Houses or buildings 3.1. The material contribution of forests to Grassland/cultivated/ Grasslands, orchards (that include mango, orange, and Mandinka communities farmlands cashew plantations), horticultural gardens, ongoing deforested areas, and newly reforested areas The interviewees reported material and non-material forest Mixed forest Shrubs and trees together with grasslands. It can contributions to their livelihoods. Material contributions included the be regarded as an open forest in the Gambia context collection of food, e.g., fruits and bush meat; firewood and charcoal, Frontiers in Forests and Global Change 05 frontiersin.org Darboe et al. 10.3389/ffgc.2023.1181013 TABLE 4 The main material contributions of forests to Mandinka people and related narratives. Collected material Related narratives Firewood for energy, e.g., cooking, “I am a charcoal seller; I have an oven in the forest where I gather stems and big branches of trees and burn them to produce including charcoal charcoal” (N13, male, 31–40 years old) (Ripe) fruits, e.g., baobab “Once upon a time, I went to the nearby forest to collect some baobab tree fruits. I accidentally touched a beehive, and the bees started chasing me and biting all over my head and body. It took me 2 weeks to recover from that incident” (N6, male, 31–40 years old) Nuts “I collect some fruits and nuts such as palm tree fruits and locust beans for family consumption” (N24, female, 20–30 years old) Herbs (from trees) e.g. “borbori” “Sometimes I collect useful things like the roots of trees as traditional medicine and leaves of shrubs or trees for tea” (N25, male, (including traditional medicine from 31–40 years old) roots and bark of trees) Tree branches for fencing poles, “In construction, I sometimes used forest tree branches for roofing. It is not frequent, but on a few occasions, I cut branches of trees roofing, and furniture useful for building houses” (N22, male, 20–30 years old) Fodder and grazing “My family are cattle rearer; I am responsible for taking the cattle to the bush during the day for grazing and returning them home daily” (N21, male, 20–30 years old) Meat “I am the traditional hunter of this community. I go to the forest to hunt bush animals like antelopes, big birds, etc., and sell it to village people” (N6, male, 31–40 years old) Honey “I do a honey collection and sell it to community members” (N8, female, 20–30 years old) Commercial foraging “I am a vendor; I usually visit the forest to harvest sorrel and fruits for selling” (N9, female, 31–40 years old) Chewing sticks for cleaning teeth “(…) Sometimes I collect chewing sticks for cleaning my teeth” (N19 female, 20–30 years old) Barks and leaves as part of traditional “(…) [for] village festivals we also collect the bark and leaves of trees to dress our traditional masquerades called ‘kakuranwo’ and masquerades ‘cosewo’” (N24, female, 20–30 years old) Nursery bed for rice ”I go to the forest during the rainy season because our swamp (rice fields) is beside the forest. So, we make our nursery bed for rice within the forest before they are due for transplanting” (N26, male, above 41 years old) Locust beans ”I extract charcoal from and collect” pakiya dico busa” [locust beans from the forest]. I also collect tag grass for covering our houses” (N7, male 31–40 years old) Tag grass ”I can say the most important basic need I collect is tag grass. All my houses are covered with tag grass” (N10, male, above 41) Water Forests” provide good air and water” (N20, female, 31–40) traditional masquerades (as reported in Table 4). Indeed, the being opportune to live next to the forest, which I think is a blessing. forest provides non-material contributions to people as it is But also, in some parts of the forest, I feel scared because we believe deeply embedded in local culture and rituals, as well as in local that the devil possesses those areas. Such an environment, childhood memories as reflected by the community members in sometimes even the entire forest, is hot, but that place is always the following quote: “My roots are wood carvers, and I was told cold. So, we did not frequently visit that area unless we needed by a granny that before they cut any tree in the forest, they make something around that area that you must pass beside the area sacrifices and communicate with the devil to allow them to cut regarded as a spiritual area” (N5, male, 20–30 years old). that tree. Such places are possessed by the devil. According to her, Besides the psychological experiences, the forest is also a place of if you did not do that, the devil can hunt you in yours and disturb rituals. However, the interviewees express a change in those processes. your normal life” (N8, female, 20–30 years old). “We used to have rigid cultures, and they are observed in the forest, Peacefulness and happiness are some of the emotions the forest but these places are now too open. Sometimes you can be working provokes. Some interviewees reported contrasting moods. For there, but if you know that before they are cultural places, you will not example, a male interviewee added,” I feel happy whenever I am in even know. Those cultures are disappearing because many people no the forest. As I said before, it is a place of meditation for me. Some longer believe in them and did not observe them because of education specific parts of the forest serve as a place of reflection because it and modernization” (N8, female, 20–30 years old). always reminds me of my late parents. I always remember them teaching me trees that can be used for human consumption, forbidden fruits, and materials that can be used from the forest for 3.3. Forest” integral to [Mandinka] life”: medicinal purposes. Those reflections serve as an education that regulating contributions of forests I can also pass on to my children” (N4, male, 31–40 years old). However, interviewees also noted feeling scared, especially in link Interviewees shared numerous inputs on the forest’s to the devil. Eight interviewees noted the devil and referred to contribution to regulating the ecosystem (Table 5). For example, a specific place as a frightening area. The following quote summarizes male interviewee notes:” Forest serves to maintain the soil’s nutrient being scared in certain places or alone:” Sometimes I feel good balance. My family has different farmlands, around the forest, and Frontiers in Forests and Global Change 06 frontiersin.org Darboe et al. 10.3389/ffgc.2023.1181013 TABLE 5 Perceived regulating contributions of forests by Mandinka communities. Ecosystem function Supporting quote (interviewees) Prevents the damage from windstorms/ “As we all know, Gambia is always a victim of windstorms, some big strong trees are found in the forest for example, mahogany thunderstorms (mentioned by 13 trees serve as windbreaks thereby preventing our structures and houses from collapsing during intense winds” (N1, female 31– interviewees) 40 years old) Fresh air (mentioned by 10 interviewees) “Forest helps in providing good and fresh air to the community” (N4, male, 31–40 years old) Limits erosion, reduces flood risk, and “It reduces the risks of floods because if you observe around, areas with large gullies are deforested areas, but where there are so used for building dikes “tesito” many trees, those areas are unaffected by erosion” (N2, male, above 41 years old) (mentioned by 10 interviewees) Soil fertility (mentioned by 6 “(…) The leaf litter in the forest improves the soil fertility. It serves a long way to maintaining the nutrient capacity of the soil, interviewees) and it also helps the forest’s regenerative capacity as bushfires in the region are recurring every year.” (N5, male, 31–40 years old) Regulates temperature (mentioned by 5 “The forest is like a seal in terms of preventing us from windstorms, and it regulates the temperature in this settlement” (N9, interviewees) female 31–40 years old) the crop grows better” (N6, male, 31–40 years old). Protection from bushfires every year during the dry season. The forest is no longer flooding and windstorms was repeatedly highlighted. The most dense. In the 1970s, this part used to have thick forests. Even if you go widespread narrative was about forest protection against the damage to the forest, you used to be scared because of darkness, but now Jarra from windstorms and heavy thunderstorms and the contribution of East is the most deforested area in the Lower River Region. Some trees forests to fresh air and limiting flood risks. and animals are gone. Also, cutting down big trees for charcoal A male interviewee (20–30 years old) noted the following: “From production led to the extinction of our traditional trees. As the saying the training as a forest committee member conducted by the goes, the forest belongs to everyone in the community. Some of these Department of Forestry of the Gambia, I understand forest not only human activities make the forest lose its cultural value. But now the prevent flooding and windstorm but also this extremely excessive government is helping us reduce that indiscriminate tree felling for heat.” The interviewees repeatedly focused on good air and energy production.” temperature regulation. The following quote supports this: “It provides The Landsat data of the forest cover in the LRR of the Gambia good air. Trees increase the occurrence of rainfall in this settlement” showed a significant change in land use and land cover between 1979 (N27, female, 31–40 years old). and 2021 (Figure 2). In 1979, 32% of the total area of LRR was covered When describing the natural contribution of the forest toward by forest, but the entire green space, including grassland, was 60%. flooding, the interviewees explained the spatial component, as The analysis shows a net decrease of 6% in forest area in 2003 and reflected in the following quote:” This community is not far from the of 17% for the net change composition of relative land cover river, but the forest is between the settlement and the river. So, the description and percentage values from 1979 to 2021. In 1979, the community is not flooded by river inundation due to the forest acting western part (Kiang) and central part (Jarra) had some dense forest, as a barrier. So, this settlement is not experiencing flooding like other which eventually disappeared by 2003 and 2021 to a mixed forest of settlements in the Gambia” (N13, male, 31–40 years old). An shrubs and trees (Figure 2). On the contrary, settlements and bare interviewee (N14, male, 31–40 years old) adds: “Before my parents lands increased by 3% from 1979 to 2003 and 4% from 1979 to 2021. said that the community had lots of trees, they were not suffering The land use and land cover map indicates that settlements and from wind. Now, because our forest is deforested, every wind developments are more concentrated in the central part toward the damages lots of houses in our community.” Such an explanation east in the LRR. River encroachment and wetland increased by 15% shows how the ongoing forest transformation affects the from 1979 to 2021. local communities. The interviewees named several drivers of change, including natural phenomena and anthropogenic pressures. A male interviewee (N16, 31–40 years old) summarized the drivers of change as follows: 3.4. Changes across the forest ecosystem “There are changes to the forest. The forest size and thickness have and its impact on the local community reduced and are changing because of two main things. First, bushfires are consuming our forests every year. Old trees die, and new trees The land use maps and insights from the interviewees revealed replacing the old ones can easily be burnt by bushfires. We, the major changes across the forest. Interviewees’ narratives about changes livestock farmers, find it so difficult to feed our animals, especially can be categorized into morphological changes in forest cover and during the dry season. Second, many trees are cut by people either for changes in people’s socioeconomic and cultural life, respectively. timber, firewood, or charcoal production. These activities have a great Changes in forest cover concerning the physical structure of the impact on our forest cover.” The rangers also noticed the change in the forest and related to the disappearances of trees and wild fauna were diversity of the surroundings, which was reflected by one of the reported as one of the driving forces that reduced the interviewees’ interviewees: “Sometimes I feel sad for local people because involvement with the forest. A female interviewee (N1, 31–40 years deforestation is hitting the sub-region so much, and they are old) expressed that “There are changes in the overall ecosystem, such vulnerable because they depend on the forest for their livelihood” as the disappearance of some trees and animals due to occurrences of (Ranger 1). Frontiers in Forests and Global Change 07 frontiersin.org Darboe et al. 10.3389/ffgc.2023.1181013 FIGURE 2 Land use and land cover map of the LRR informing changes between 1979 and 2021 (data source: Landsat from USGS, 2013). An additional aspect of change was notable among the community forest members for tree planting to recover the comments linked to the cultural transformations of the damage to the forest. community’s lives. The following quote demonstrates the Nevertheless, with the introduction of technological appliances, many apparent change: “In the past, there was one big tree in the forest stay indoors, spending more time watching television programs, and where the community performed initiation of male children into typically depend on other community members for forest products by adulthood. In yearly initiation events, male children were purchasing firewood as a source of energy for cooking. Notably, the idea circumcised and stay in the bush (forest) for 1–2 months, when of change was recognized and discussed by the interviewees:” In the they get educated about communities’ cultures, how to respect present generation, life has changed, some cultural activities are becoming elders, and how to become responsible in the future. Elders a thing of the past, and people think they should embrace modern communicate to the kids in rituals and irony. Also, when the lifestyles to fit into modern society. This is leading to the disconnection of villages faced some natural hazards (too little or too much rain, people from the forest” (N9, female, 31–40 years old). wind, flooding), the elders gathered in the forest under the tree to supplicate according to our traditional beliefs to stop the hazard. Now that tree fell, it symbolized culture and peace for our 4. Discussion community. But now, because of modernization and formal education, Islamic religious beliefs, villages take their male Our results reveal four main findings. First, material and partially children to the doctors for circumcision, that culture is no longer non-material forest contributions are still fundamental to most of the practiced here” (N14, male, 31–40 years old). An interviewee members of local communities in the LRR, affecting the frequency with adds: “(…) but now those things are not happening, also during which they visit the forest. Second, the forest supports psychological the rainy season, when so many days have passed without rain, well-being, yet some forest areas are generally considered hazardous. the elders of the community used to go the forest to do some Third, major socio-ecological changes are affecting the relationship cultural rituals for the rain to come” (N6, male, 31–40 years old). between the LRR communities and forests. Fourth, such changes Besides the change in local rituals, the interviewees named “Kafo” contribute to the erosion of traditional forestry knowledge, resulting in (in the Mandinka language), a social age group that joins the changes in community forest management. Frontiers in Forests and Global Change 08 frontiersin.org Darboe et al. 10.3389/ffgc.2023.1181013 4.1. The fundamentality of the forest households’ earnings rise (Talpă et al., 2022). It is interesting to see contributions to Mandinka how people’s feelings and relations to the forest are underlying factors for their life with the forest if it is experienced as an outdoor activities The first result indicates that material and non-material forest of being-in-the-forest. Individuals’ moods in the forest depend on contributions are substantial and integral to the lives of local people their bodily interaction with the forest environment, shaped by in the LRR of the Gambia. Most respondents did not differentiate spiritual and cultural beliefs that guide their thoughts about the forest. between the contributions because of their interdependency This determines rural people’s attachment to the forest or detachment and connectedness. from some sections of the forest. Such bodily interaction entails We found that the specific forest contributions to the local people people’s life experiences in the forest. Häggström (2019) highlights determine their frequency of visiting the forest and their activities in that the phenomenological approach and cultural connections in the forest. How often they undertake those activities also depends on human-nature relationships have showcased the intertwined and their needs, moods, feelings, and perceptions about a particular complex internal and external experiences of being in the forest. section of the forest. According to Häggström (2019), human and Participants used bodily language to communicate their feelings of ecological perceptions of “seeing” and “being in” the forest are being in the forest, such as mood changes to happy, peaceful, or scared interwoven. Material forest contributions to people, especially food feelings that shape their understanding of reality or their perception and medicines, benefit human well-being, quality of life, food security, of the forest. Häggström (2019) demonstrates that feeling good in the and social cohesion (Pullanikkatil and Shackleton, 2019; Constant and forest is a sense of connectedness that infers a feeling of thoughts that Taylor, 2020). indicates the forest as a peaceful environment. Tuan (1977) found that The forest holds cultural and spiritual values for the interviewed feelings and thoughts construct our understanding of reality, and Mandinka people, and such forests are regarded as sacred forests. hence, these pauses for reflection may play a crucial role in the lived The forest is paramount in the identity of the communities because experience of being in the forest. Our interviewees stressed that their they perform(ed) rituals or traditional ceremonies that promote life experiences in the forest are a true manifestation of the past peace, harmony, and happiness among local people. These findings cultural activities of their communities, and they felt that those align with Constant and Taylor (2020), who state that ritual cultures are their identity, which is shaped by the forest. Some held ceremonies are also conducted to facilitate important social spiritual and cultural beliefs that they passed to the younger generation interactions with clan members and cultivate traditional forms of by teaching them ethics during initiation ceremonies in the forest. respect. Interviewees indicated that doing traditional prayers of Konczal (2013) suggests that understanding the relationship between supplication in the forest is a form of communicating to their people and forests may be crucial to appreciating a society’s identity. spiritual gods that illustrates their spiritual beliefs (mostly to In addition, the study finds that individual life experience of being in prevent natural disasters). This is common to other cultures in the forest is about their childhood experience where the community’s forested habitats [e.g., the blessing of medicinal plants among initiation ceremonies are held, and such memories are lifelong indigenous peoples of Amazonia (Custódio et al., 2019)]. For the memories (Konczal, 2013). interviewees, such connectedness to the forest was difficult to express in modern terms because of the tacitness (sensu Polanyi, 1966) of their bodily experience. They feel they have communicated 4.3. Socio-ecological changes affect the to gods if natural disasters have stopped because they feel that their human-forest relationship prayers have been answered. The third result relates to the major socio-ecological changes affecting the relationship between the LRR communities and their 4.2. The contribution of forests to forests. People reported having stronger spiritual beliefs and cultural psychological well-being bondage to the forest in the past (Roux et al., 2022). The present generation mainly considers material forest contributions because The second finding reveals that being in the forest is geared they are more instrumental to their well-being than non-material toward human well-being. This aligns with other research that people forest contributions. This is especially true for fuel wood because the visit the forest because it makes them feel good for primarily two forest is no longer a primary source of food or medicine for people in reasons: identifying and appreciating a particular forest activity and the LRR communities, as most of them depend on food and medicine enjoying the advantages of the serenity of the forest (Häggström, that is imported into the country. Therefore, local communities 2019). Others who visit the forest are resting and recharging their perceive that traditional forestry knowledge, practices and beliefs brains following the experiences they formerly had there (Stålhammar related to either forests’ material and immaterial contributions are and Pedersen, 2017). In this study, the “recharging of the brain” is an increasingly eroding. arbitrary term that describes people’s indifferent ways of reflecting or The analysis of land use indicates an overall decrease of 17% in pondering past activities in the forest. However, not all community forest cover from 1979 to 2021 (43 years), resulting in deforestation or members are physically involved in the activities mentioned earlier a change in the forest ecosystem in the LRR. Since 1946, human happening in the forest. Instead, they depend on other community activities and climate change impacts have destroyed nearly 50% of the members for forest goods because they have the purchasing power due Gambia’s forest cover according to 2019 estimates (Dampha, 2021). to improvements in their economic gains. According to another Conversely, from the land use and cover map results, the dense forest research study, the amount of forest products gathered and utilized, has completely disappeared and grassland increased from 3% in 1979 which is larger in middle-income families, fluctuates as people’s or to 7% by 2021. Such ecological succession has allowed grazing and Frontiers in Forests and Global Change 09 frontiersin.org Darboe et al. 10.3389/ffgc.2023.1181013 unsustainable agriculture (for example, abandoning lands after of change in people’s relationship with the forest is urbanization and exhausting soil fertility, leading to infertile barren lands that are rural-urban migration. This result is well documented in the literature, susceptible to erosion and deforestation). Grasslands that are regarded along with the expansion and development of urban cities in terms of as open access are being converted to farmlands and after several years infrastructures, social amenities, and modern technological facilities of exhausting the soil nutrients, the fields are abandoned as barren such as roads, electrification in urban cities, schools, hospitals, and job land that is susceptible to many forms of land degradation. This can opportunities. This also reduces rural people’s interaction with their be confirmed by the land use and cover classification as bare land and local environment (Mattalia et al., 2022; Plieninger et al., 2023). settlements increased exponentially from 2003 to 2021. Similar studies in the southwestern region found that open-access forests under community management are highly susceptible to human-induced 4.4. Erosion of local knowledge affects activities, causing irreparable environmental damage and forest management non-substitutable loss of critical natural capital (Dampha, 2021). From the findings, the primary drivers of change or degradation The fourth finding indicates that the erosion of traditional of forest cover in the LRR are bushfires, land use change by converting forestry knowledge results in changes in community forest forest or grasslands into farmlands and settlement, illegal timber management. Except for natural occurrences such as bushfires, some logging by exploiting hardwood forests, charcoal production, and cultural trees or animals in the forest are tabooed by traditional firewood collection for domestic use. The collected firewood and customary laws not to be felled or killed by anyone due to the spiritual charcoal are transported to urban cities to meet their energy needs for and cultural value attached to those species in the forest. This was a cooking. Similar studies have been done in the southwestern region form of conservative practice to maintain the forest by local of the Gambia (West Coast, Kanifing municipality) stating that the communities in the past, incumbent upon every community member drivers of deforestation in that region are climate change (drought to be respected and observed. Similar studies have shown that resulting in bushfire), illegal timber production, and large-scale cultural practices protect and maintain sacred forests for biodiversity firewood collection for domestic use (Heß et al., 2018; Dampha, 2021). protection but also allow mechanisms for local people to connect Consequently, these changes move local people’s socioeconomic spiritually with the land, ancestral spirits, and God (Constant and and cultural life away from the forest. For example, introducing formal Taylor, 2020). However, the results suggest that the present school education in English and lessening the value of the Mandinka community forest management system used a top-down approach language is one of the drivers for disconnecting local people from the where the guiding principle for maintaining the forest is formulated forest. Local languages better adhere to specific socio-ecological by the legislative councils held by forestry officials instead of contexts and could crucially contribute to biocultural diversity (Soldal traditional customary laws. With a decentralized management et al., 2023). For instance, informal education in Mandinka, which system, community forest committees are responsible for used to be conducted during initiation, was replaced by formal implementing the forest laws with an agenda of “benefit from what education in English. Religious studies are integrated into the formal belongs to you.” The system gives 85% benefit to communities, while education curriculum, teaching the younger generation Western before, the community was in total control and benefited 100% from cultures, beliefs, and social life, portraying spiritual beliefs and cultural what belonged to them. Nevertheless, local people are satisfied with activities that used to happen in the forest as redundant. Such recent participatory forest management because of the cooperation teachings are not in support of some spiritual beliefs and cultural between different stakeholders. This cooperation benefits them in rituals. As reported by our interviewees, many local people no longer multiple ways, such as training local people in new conservation rely on traditional cultural and spiritual beliefs. They practice the practices, forest product marketing strategies, and decentralized ethics of religions instead of traditional or “soninke” beliefs. The forest management systems. esthetic value serving cultural ethics has been gradually fading away, Community forestry is the first step in the ecological, economic, and it is losing its role as a place for cultural performances. In addition, and social transition needed to restore a historically unstable system with the introduction of hospitals in 1843 by British colonial masters and achieve sustainable forest management (Sonko and Camera, and the extension of clinics in the communities, the forest’s value as a 2000). Community or participatory forest management systems have source of traditional medicines is diminishing among locals. realistic objectives to involve local people in managing the forest that Similarly, because of modern health facilities, people prefer taking belongs to their community. However, the system creates some their male children to be circumcised in the hospital instead of taking problems by promoting widespread illegal timber logging by people them to the bush or forest for initiation ceremonies. Cultural disguising themselves as community members. Also, the system performances remained in the past. Nevertheless, another social and presents a conflict of interest between communities and the state as economic life transformation preventing people from spending more the Gambian National Forest Action Plan 2019–2028 advocates for a time in the forest or outdoor nature is people spending more time steady reduction in charcoal production to conserve the already playing games and watching movies or television programs. This degraded forests while the local people’s only source of energy for reduces outdoor activities, and community members spend less time cooking is firewood or charcoal. This creates a concern in their together in the forest collecting food. This change in socio-economic communities that they are responsible for protecting the forest life has reduced people’s connections with the forest and the social because, in turn, they are protecting the source of their bonds among community members. Miller (2005) suggests that direct primary benefits. nature experiences have become progressively unavailable to new Such conflicts are common in biodiversity conservation and call generations; this creates an ever-narrowing spectrum of nature for context-based strategies co-designed by local communities, experiences due to sedentary activities. Nevertheless, another driver stakeholders, and policymakers respectful of/ shaped by the local Frontiers in Forests and Global Change 10 frontiersin.org Darboe et al. 10.3389/ffgc.2023.1181013 knowledge, cultural values, beliefs, and practices related to the Data availability statement communities’ ethnicities and religious faith. In this research, we tackled the relationship between forests The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will and local Mandinka communities, mainly through the be made available by the authors, without undue reservation. contributions of forests to people. Nevertheless, we are aware of the crucial importance of human contributions to forests for their maintenance through community forest management systems, Author contributions especially considering the importance of this biome in the identity of the studied communities. The findings show that GM, BP, SD, and RS conceptualized and designed the study. SD involving various stakeholders in forest management systems by and LM conducted the study in the local community. SD drafted the integrating both traditional and state forest management systems manuscript. All authors contributed to the article and approved the will be instrumental in the maintenance of forests in the submitted version. long term. Through the ongoing collaboration with local communities, this study contributes to valorizing the role of the local knowledge held by Funding Mandinka peoples in maintaining their forests. Moreover, the results obtained from this study could serve as a yardstick for the government NS has received funding through a grant from Mistra [DIA in formulating culturally informed forest policies. 2019/28] and from Formas via the Swedish National Research Programme on Climate (2021-00416). 5. Conclusion Acknowledgments This research reveals the crucial importance of the contribution of forests to Mandinka communities, specifically to their psychological We are deeply grateful to the Mandinka communities of the Lower well-being. In addition, our interviewees show how ongoing social River Region and the rangers for sharing their time and wisdom changes affect the human-forest relationship and erode local with us. ethnoforestry knowledge in the LRR in the Gambia. The perception of the local communities about the various contributions of forests to local communities is based on their Conflict of interest individual needs, creating preferences as to which services are more beneficial to the person. Moreover, the results reveal that human The authors declare that the research was conducted in the influences on forests resulted in changes in forest cover due to land absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could use and land cover change for short-term benefits. be construed as a potential conflict of interest. In line with other scholars, the findings of this study underline the quintessential need to include the views of local communities in shaping forest management to better fine-tune conservation strategies Publisher’s note and also ultimately contribute to community well-being. This confirms, therefore, that other studies during the past decade clearly All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors showed how the paradigm of forest management has to shift from an and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, aseptic “organizing” to more of a “caring” attitude. Given the or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product tremendous ecological importance of forests in the current debate on that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its climate change, this change in perspective is more needed than ever. manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher. References AFREC. (2020). The African energy commission (AFREC), The Gambia. African Union. Díaz, S., Pascual, U., Stenseke, M., Martín-López, B., Watson, R. T., Molnár, Z., et al. (2018). Assessing nature's contributions to people. Science 359, 270–272. doi: 10.1126/ Bojang, L. (2020). 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